ANCIENT HISTORY

Module 1 : Sources of Ancient India

Indus Valley civilisation

• Introduction
- The history of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as Harappan Civilisation.
- The Indus Valley civilisation, also called Saraswati or Harappan civilisation is one of the ‘pristine’ civilisation on our
planet
- The Indus Valley civilisation is one of the oldest civilisation in human history. It arose on the Indian subcontinent
nearly about 5,000 years ago roughly the same time as the emergence of Asian Egypt and nearly 1000 years after the
earliest summary in settings of Mesopotamia
- It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, in contemporary Pakistan and Western India.
- The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilisations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and
China.
- The Indus Valley civilisation derive states name from the Indus river, one of the longest ever in Asia. Many of the
Indus Valley civilisation is large well-planned city search as MohenjoDaro, Kot Diji ,Chalu Daro, where situated along
the course of the Indus river.
- Other Indus Valley civilization cities where located next to defend major rivers such as the Ghaggar-Hakra,
Sutlej,Jhelum, Chenab and the Ravi Rivers. Today much of this area is part of the Punjab region, which is translated as
the "land of the five rivers "in what is now Pakistan.
- The Indus Valley civilisation first came to the attention of the world through the work of British officer archaeologist
during the mid-1820s
- In 1920s, the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the ruins of the
two old cities, viz. MohenjoDaro and Harappa were unearthed.
- In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley
to the world.

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Important Sites of IVC

Sites Excavated by Location Important findings

Harappa Daya Ram Sahini in Situated on the bank of • Sandstone statues of

1921 river Ravi in human anatomy
Montegomery district of • Granaries
Punjab [Pakistan] • Bullock carts
Mohenjodaro RD Banerjee in 1922 Situated on the bank of • Grey bath
[ mound of dead ] river Indus Larkana • Granary
district of Punjab • Bronze dancing girl
[Pakistan] • Seal of Pashupati
Mahadeva
Dholavira J.P Joshi in 1968 Kutch District of Gujarat Water reserve, a circular
seal, a stadium, a
signboard inscription of
about 3 m length, etc
Rakhigarhi Amarendra Nath in 1969 Hisar district of Haryana Toy car, animal
sacrificial pit, houses
made of burnt bricks,
proper drainage system,
steatile pit ,particularly a
cylindrical seal having
five Harappan characters
on one side and an
alligator symbol on the
other side, etc
Lothal SR Rao in 1955 Bhogavo river in Gujarat Castrol like objects
similar to the chess board
and twin burial in which
a male and a female were
burried

• Phases of IVC
Three phases of IVC are:
- The Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE,
- The Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE,
- The Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE

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• Early Harappan Phase
- The Early Harappan Phase is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar- Hakra River Valley.
- The earliest examples of the Indus script date back to 3000 BC.
- This phase stands characterised by centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life.
- Trade networks had been established and there are also evidences of the cultivation of crops. Peas, sesame seeds, dates,
cotton, etc, were grown during that time.

• The Mature Harappan Phase

- Early Harappan civilisations had grown into huge urban centres by 2600 BCE.
- Harappa, Ganeriwala, and Mohenjodaro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and
Lothal in modern-day India, are examples of such urban centres.
- The urban design and architecture, art and crafts, and the social, religious, and economic conditions of the time are
among the most stunning features of the finds.
- The Harappan civilisation's urban layout and architecture have been studied extensively.
• The city had well-planned, broad and straight roadways, as well as residences with effective drainage and ventilation.

• Mature Harappan Phase - Features

- Harappa and Mohenjodaro each had its own citadel or acropolis, which was presumably occupied by members of the
governing elite.
- Each city features a lower town with brick houses where the common people lived beneath the citadel.
- The city's houses were organised using the grid pattern, which is unique.
- Granaries were a common sight in Harappan cities.
- The employment of burnt bricks in Harappan settlements is notable, given that dry bricks were commonly employed in
Egyptian construction at the period.
- The drainage system of Mohenjodaro was quite impressive.
- The Great Bath is Mohenjodaro's most important public facility, measuring 39 feet long, 23 feet wide, and 8 feet deep.
- The decimal system was utilised by the Mohenjo-Daro culture on the Indus River roughly 5000 years ago.
- Indus civilisation inscriptions have been found on stone and clay pots, although they are unreadable.
- This civilisation's language was obliterated. Harappan's appear to have never taught their language to anybody else.
- Wheat, barley, and milk products were the staples of the diet. In addition, fruits, vegetables, fish, and meat were
ingested.
- The major sources of amusement appear to be music and dancing.

• Mature Harappan Phase - Cities

- The Indus Valley Civilisation had a complex and technologically advanced urban civilisation, making it the region's
first urban centre.
- The quality of town planning denotes an understanding of urban planning and efficient municipal administrations that
prioritised sanitation or, conversely, access to religious ritual methods.

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- The ancient Indus sewage and drainage systems created and used in towns across the Indus region were significantly
more advanced than those found in modern Middle Eastern cities, and even more efficient than those present in many
parts of Pakistan and India today.
- Dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and defensive walls all demonstrate the Harappans' superior
building.
- The huge walls of Indus towns certainly protected the Harappans from floods and maybe deterred armed strife.
- The majority of city residents appear to have been dealers or artisans who lived in well-defined neighbourhoods
alongside others who shared their trade.
Seals, beads, and other things were made in the cities using materials from other places

• Mature Harappan Phase - Arts and Crafts

- The excavations yielded a diverse collection of stone, bronze, and terracotta artefacts.
- The 'dancing girl' (in bronze), naked except for a necklace and a series of bangles almost covering one arm, her hair
styled in a complicated coiffure, standing in a provocative posture with one arm on her hip and one lanky leg half bent,
is perhaps one of the most well-known figurines.
- This face has a vivid pertness that is unlike anything else in ancient civilisations' art.
- Two male figures in stone have received a lot of attention: one is a red sandstone torso, and the other is a bearded man's
bust.
- The limbs in the former were produced separately and then put into sockets.
- The Harappans also created crude terracotta statuettes of women, generally naked but with intricate headdresses.
- These are unquestionably mother goddess symbols, and they appear to have been maintained in practically every home.
- They are so crudely crafted, historians believe the Goddess was not favoured by the aristocratic classes, who could
afford the best artisans, but that her effigies were mass made by poor potters to suit public demand

Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE

- Around 1900 BCE, symptoms of a steady collapse appeared, and by 1700 BCE, the majority of the cities had been
abandonedHuman bones from the Harappa site have recently revealed that near the end of the Indus Civilisation,
interpersonal violence and infectious illnesses increased.
- Kudwala in Cholistan, Dwarka in Gujarat, and Daimabad in Maharashtra are the greatest Late Harappan sites, all of
which may be termed urban, but they are smaller and fewer in number than Mature Harappan towns.
- Dwarka was strengthened and maintained ties with the Persian Gulf region, although long-distance trade declined
overall.
- "Showing some continuity with mature Harappan ceramic traditions," but also notable changes, is how the pottery of
the Late Harappan period is defined.
- Many locations were populated for centuries, even as their urban characteristics deteriorated and vanished.
- Previously common items like stone weights and female figurines have become scarce.
- Some circular stamp seals with geometric motifs exist, but they lack the Indus script that characterised the civilisation's
mature period.
- Script is uncommon and only found on potsherds.

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- However, in sites in Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, primarily small rural communities, there is more
continuity and overlap between Late Harappan and later cultural periods.

Arts of the Indus Valley

- The arts of the Indus Valley Civilisation emerged during the second half of the third millennium BCE.
- The forms of art found from various sites of the civilisation include sculptures, seals, pottery, jewellery, terracotta
figures, etc.
- The artists of that time surely had fine artistic sensibilities and a vivid imagination. Their delineation of human and
animal figures was highly realistic in nature, since the anatomical details included in them were unique, and, in the case
of terracotta art, the modelling of animal figures was done in an extremely careful manner.
- Statues whether in stone, bronze or terracotta found in Harappan sites are not abundant, but refined.
- The stone statuaries found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro are excellent examples of handling three-dimensional
volumes. In stone are two male figures—one is a torso in red sandstone and the other is a bust of a bearded man in
soapstone—which are extensively discussed.
- The art of bronze-casting was practised on a wide scale by the Harappans. Their bronze statues were made using the
‘lost wax’ technique In bronze we find human as well as animal figures, the best example of the former being the statue
of a girl popularly titled ‘Dancing Girl’. Amongst animal figures in bronze the buffalo with its uplifted head, back and
sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic merit. Bronze casting was popular at all the major centres of the Indus
Valley Civilisation.
- The Indus Valley people made terracotta images also but compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta
representations of human form are crude in the Indus Valley
- Archaeologists have discovered thousands of seals, mostly made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper,
faience and terracotta, with beautiful figures of animals, such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat,
buffalo, etc.
- The Indus Valley pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheel- made wares, very few being hand-made.
- The Harappan men and women decorated themselves with a large variety of ornaments produced from every
conceivable material ranging from precious metals and gemstones to bone and baked clay

• Agriculture
- The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced sufficient food grains.
- Wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea and mustard were produced. Millets are also found from sites in
Gujarat. While rice uses were relatively rare.
- The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.
- While the prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grain, it is more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural
practices.
- Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate
shows oxen were also used for ploughing.
- Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture.
- Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sindh.
- Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were also reared on a large scale.

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- Evidence of the horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjodaro and from a doubtful terracotta figurine from
Lothal. In any case the Harappan culture was not horse centred.

• Religion
- In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. In one figurine a plant is shown growing out of
the embryo of a woman.
- The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her in the same manner as the
Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess Isis.
- The male deity is represented on a seal with three horned heads, represented in the sitting posture of a yogi.
- This god is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a buffalo below his throne. At his feet appear two
deer.The depicted god is identified as Pushupati Mahadeva.
- Numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone have been found.
- The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees and Animals.
- The most important of them is the one horned unicorn which may be identified with the rhinoceros and the next
important was the humped bull.
- Amulets have also been found in large numbers.

• Decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation

- The IVC declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its demise are still debated.
- One theory claims that Indo-European tribe i.e. Aryans invaded and conquered the IVC.
- In later cultures various elements of the IVC are found which suggest that
civilisation did not disappear suddenly due to an invasion.
- On the other hand, many scholars believe natural factors are behind the decline of the IVC.The natural factors could be
geological and climatic.
- It is believed that the Indus Valley region experienced several tectonic disturbances which causes earthquakes. Which
also changed courses of rivers or dried them up.
- Another natural reason might be changes in patterns of rainfall.
- There could be also dramatic shifts in the river courses, which might have brought floods to the food producing areas.
- Due to combination of these natural causes there was a slow but inevitable collapse of IVC.
- People might have migrated towards southern and eastern directions

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Module 2 : Vedic Age

• Theories of kingship
- Monarchy was the form of government in ancient India as is clearly evident from early and later Vedic literature, from
epics, Purāṇas etc.
- Monarchy in ancient India was a sovereignty over a territory by a king who functioned as it is protector, role which
involves both secular and religious power.
- Different theories have been propounded by ancient political thinkers of India to account for the origin of the King and
the State. The theories relating to the origin of Kingship may be accepted as the evidence for the origination of the
State also, as there is no such theory on the origin of the State.
- Kautilya declared that the king is the State and therefore, the king is maintained as the head of the polity as he
represents the State and thus it can be said that the theories related to the origin of the State ultimately ends up with the
origination of the king. The State may be in existence from the same time the king came into existence.
- The earliest reference to the theory of origin of king can be traced to the Brahamna literature.
- Vedic ideas about the establishment of the office of king ultimately draw upon legends about the coronation of one God
as king of all others.
- In the Rigveda, Indra, Agni, Soma, Yama and Varna are all addressed as “King.’ Indeed, Kingship in the Rig Veda
largely manifest only in the form of gods as kings
- Hymns directly addressed to earthly kings, In these hymns, the King Is said to have been established by Indra and
‘made victorious’ by Soma and Savitr. Although this implies a close dependence of the kings upon the gods, the rarity
of the figure of human king in the Rigveda agrees with the idea that Kings at this time were basically on a level with
tribal chiefs and were not viewed as divine
- The king was not considered divine in the early Vedic period by the time the Brahmanas were composed , however the
king was increasingly associated with the gods through his qualities and the ritual he performed.
- Also by this time , kingship had transitioned to a hereditary position and the ‘Samiti’ began to wane importantance
- Prior to the Vedas, the formation of a military fraternity governing the local population happened. As they became
absorbed into the local population, political power within the society began to change from an inter-clan system in
which various clans divided up responsibilities into a more Vedic-like system in which one ruler ruled over and
provided for his subjects.
- In this new system first emerged the ideas of brahman and kshatriya, or spiritual and territorial power, respectively. In
order for the communal dharma to be achieved, the Brahmin had to correctly “instruct the others in their duties” and
guide their spiritual practice; the Kshatriya, on the other hand, was invested with the “royal function” of maintaining
obedience in accordance with dharma and thus ensuring that the proper practices were being executed.
- Given that the former decided on correct spiritual action while the later enforced it, an essential cooperation arose
between the two in order to ensure the performance of dharma, and this cooperation formed “one of the fundamental
elements in Smiriti’s theory of kingship”

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• Polity during Vedic age
- The polity of the Early Vedic period was basically a tribal polity with the tribal chief in the centre which was
transformed towards Monarchy in later Vedic period. Rig Vedic society was semi-nomadic tribal society with pastoral
economy.
- Reiterating, the first change so observed in the political milieu was the transformation of the Rig Vedic Jana (meaning,
people or tribe) into the Janapada (meaning, the area where the tribe settled).
- Society was patriarchal and the eldest male of the Kutumba was the head of the family. In the Rig Vedic society
comprises of four varnas which was based on the occupation of individuals.But in the later Vedic period, the society
became differentiated on the basis of Varna (Varna came to be birth based rather than profession based). The
proliferance of profession gave rise to Jatis. The nature of kingship was transformed and rituals like Rajasuya (Royal
coronation) assumed significance in the later Vedic period.
- Early Vedic Period : The polity of the Early Vedic period was basically a tribal polity with the tribal chief in the centre.
The tribe was called Jana and the tribal chief was called Rajana. Rajana looked after the affairs of the tribe with the
help of other tribal members and two tribal assemblies i.e. Sabha and Samiti. Sabha is consisted of elder members of
the tribe, whereas the Samiti which mainly dealt with policy decisions and political business.Women are allowed to
participate in the proceedings of Sabha and Vidhata. In day to day administration the king was assisted by the two types
of Purohita i.e. Vasishtha and Vishwamitra. The King did not maintain any regular army as there was no Kingdom as
such. In fact Rig Vedic King did not rule over the kingdom, but over tribe
- Later Vedic Period : The Political system of the later Vedic period was shifted towards Monarchy. Now, the King ruled
over an area of land called Janapada. The King started maintaining an army and the Bureaucracy also got developed.
The Kingship was being given the status of the divine character and also this period witnesses the emergence of the
concept of King of Kings.The Rig Vedic popular assemblies lost their importance and royal power increased at their
cost. The Vidhata completely disappeared. The Sabha and Sarnia continued to hold the ground, but their character
changed.The Sabha became more important than the Sarnia. They came to be dominated by the chiefs and the rich
nobles. Women were not allowed to attend the Sabha which was now dominated by the nobles and the Brahmana’s.

• Economy in Vedic age

Agriculture
- Agriculture was the mainstay of the Aryan economy. It was the people's primary occupation.
- The cornfield, known as 'Urbana', was ploughed by Bullock pulled ploughs. Irrigation and manure application systems
were not unknown.
- Several Vedic hymns were written in praise of Gods and Goddesses who prayed for a prosperous crop, timely rain, or
the welfare of domestic animals.
- The main products were barley and wheat. Oil seed and cotton plantation were also common terms at the time.
- Paddy was created on a small scale in life.
- Aryans, on the other hand, were true agriculturists who saw agriculture as their primary source of economic strength.
Animal Husbandry
- The economy of the early Vedic period was agro-pastoral in nature.
- Agriculture, along with animal husbandry, had an equally essential part in raising people's economic standards.
- Cattle-rearing was a significant vocation, and the cow was revered and respected by the Aryans as a source of wealth
and economic prosperity.
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- Gauda and Gopa were responsible for daily pasture-feeding of cows, buffaloes, sheep, and other domesticated animals
such as horses, dogs, donkeys, and goats, among others.
- The animals were particularly branded by their owners for their identification amid enormous herds of cattle.

Craft & Technology

- The other fields of economic progress, such as craft and technology, were not ignored by the Vedic Aryans.
- Indeed, they had demonstrated exceptional skill in woodworking, metallurgy, pottery, and tannery.
- Carpenters' main products were chariots, automobiles, and boats.
- Metalworkers used to make a variety of decorations and weapons. Spinning and weaving were handled by the waver
community.
- There was a special class of artists who prepared leather items, mat stitching, and horn works.
- The existence of physicians who knew how to make remedies from diverse herbal plants is documented in Vedic
literature.
- Only one metal is described as 'ayas' in the Rig Veda, which has been identified as copper.
- However, at this time, a new metal, iron, was invented. As a result, we have the terms' shyam ayas' (iron) and 'Lohit
ayas' (copper).
- In addition to gold, lead and tin are listed.
- Copper was used to make vessels while iron was used to make weapons and other devices such as nail-papers,
hammers, clamps, and ploughshares
- Ornaments, bowls, and other items were made out of silver (rajat) and gold.
Trade & Commerce
- Trade and commerce were major aspects of the early Vedic economy, which valued both internal and external trade
equally.
- As to traders we have in the Rigveda the words Vanij and Vanija denoting a merchant.
- When however we come to the Atharva Veda, we have some information about early merchants and the commodities
they carried for exchange mentions garments (Dursa) coverlets (Pavaita) and goatskin, (Ajina) as articles of trade.
- The major method of trade and business was bartering, which involved exchanging products for other goods.
- There are special prayers for attaining fortune through naval endeavours in the Rig Veda.
- In the Rig Veda, we find unique prayers for achieving fortune through maritime pursuits.
- Pani was a guild of merchants who monitored and managed economic activity.
- The medium of weight was Mana, and the car was an important unit of commerce.
- The Aryans' commercial vocation is evidenced by the Vedic descriptions of their sea trips and trading activity.
- Rivers were a crucial form of transportation. Rathas (Chariots) and waggons driven by horses and oxen were the main
modes of ground transportation.
Transport
- A well-functioning transportation system is a sign of a developed economy.
- The means of transportation and communication were developed with the growth of trade and commerce.
- The later Vedic Aryans were quite effective in building a proper transport system. Wagons drawn by oxen as well as
donkeys were used for common purposes like transportation of goods from one place to another while chariots drawn
by horses and elephants were used for wars.

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- Horse or bullock pulled chariots were the mode of travel on the land route, while boats and ships were the mode of
transport on the sea route.
- Ships, boats and yachts were also used for water transportation and overseas trade activities
- As a result, both local and international commerce contributed to the country's continued economic growth.

Socio- Religious life and education in Vedic age

Social Life :
- It has already been stated that the foundation of the political and social structure in the Rig- Vedic age was the family.
The members of a family lived in the same house. Houses in this age were presumably built of wood or reed. In every
house there was a fireplace (agnisala), besides a sitting-room and apartments for the ladies.
- The patriarchal family was the basis of the social and political organisation of the Rigvedic Aryans.
- The father or the Kulapati had absolute control over the family. He performed the family sacrifices and decided all
family disputes. As the Guardian of the family he was known as Grihapati.
- The relation between the members of the family was based on love and affection.
- Women enjoyed an honoured position during the Rigvedic period. As the mistress of the house the woman took part in
all religious ceremonies. The woman also played an important role in the management of the domestic affairs. The
education of the woman was also not neglected.
- The Rigvedic Aryans gave due importance to female education. The women were free to take part in various kinds of
intellectual discussions.
- There were learned women like Viswavara, Lopamudra, Apala and Ghosa.
- The practice of child marriage was not prevalent in the Rigvedic society. The girls used to spend their childhood in the
house of their parents.
- They enjoyed certain amount of freedom in choosing their husbands. Marriage was considered by the Rigvedic Ary ans
as sacred tie. The seclusion of woman was not prevalent in the Rigvedic society.
- The favourite amusements of the more virile classes were racing, hunting and the war-dance.
- Themesopotamia dancer chariot-race was extremely popular and formed an important element of the sacrifice
celebrated in later times as the Vajapeya. No less popular was hunting. The animals hunted were the lion, the elephant,
the wild boar, the buffalo, and deer. Birds also were hunted.
- Another favorite pastime was dicing, which frequently entailed considerable loss to the gamester. Among other
amusements, mention may be made of boxing, dancing and music. Women in particular loved to display their skill in
dancing and singing to the accompaniment of lutes and cymbals.
- Lute-players played an important part in the development of the epic in later ages.

Religious Life :
- Like several aspects of their daily life, the religion of the Rigvedic Aryans was very simple.
- They worshipped the various aspects and forces of nature. They realised the fact that human welfare depended on the
power of nature.
- The Aryans led a pastoral life and spend their time amid the boundries of nature.The towering mountain peaks vast
green field,boundless seas encircling the land, the splendour of seasons-all these produced a purifying effect on them.

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- The Aryans considered the different forces of nature as the manifestation of the Supreme Creator, who created the
universe. They worshipped Prithvi or the mother earth. Indra or the God of rain and thunder. Vayu or the God of wind.
Agni, the God of fire. Usha or the Goddess of Dawn Surya or the Sun God and Varuna or the Sky God Thus all the
Gods of the Rigvedic age represented various forces of nature.
- At the same time they believed in the existence of one supreme power as the creator of the universe. There is no sign of
image worship during the Rigvedic period.
- The Aryans worshipped their Gods with humble offerings of milk, grain and ghee. The main intention behind the
worship was to get earthly happiness and material prosperity. - The Rigveda refers to the beautiful hymns and prayers
in praise of these Gods. Thus the religious belief of the Aryans was quite simple.

• Education during the Vedic period

- The aim of Vedic education was to realise the supreme and achieve Supreme Consciousness (Brahman).
- Inculcation of a spirit of piety and righteousness was the aim of education.
Preservation and spread of ancient culture was one of the aims of ancient educational system.
- The chief aim was to unfold the spiritual and moral powers of the individual during Vedic period.
- The objectives of education were perfection of the physical, mental and intellectual personality of the student.
- Formation of good and moral character was also another aim of Vedic education.
- Inculcation of social and civic duties was one of the aims in Vedic period which was necessary for a better future life.
- For the development of vocational efficiency healthy, positive attitude and dignity of labour were fostered in pupils
during Vedic period.
- The curriculum during Vedic period, was dominated by the study of the Vedas and Vedic literature, spiritual and moral
lessons. The other subjects of teachings were philosophy, grammar, language, literature, astrology and logic.
- Physical education was also included in the curriculum. Students had to learn riding, archery, wrestling, hunting,
jumping, dancing etc. Some professional and technical subjects like Ayurveda or Ciktsavidya (medicine and surgery),
astronomy, mathematics, Arthashastra etc. were given due importance in the curriculum.
- There were mainly three steps of learning according to Vedic system. Sravana, the first step meant listening towards the
texts as uttered by the teacher. By this method of education, knowledge was conserved and transmitted to the oncoming
generation. The second step was Manana i.e. to internalize or to assimilate what was given to the pupil.It is a process of
deliberation and reflection on the topic. The third step was Nididhyasana (Meditation) by which truth is realised and
attained. It was considered indispensable for the realisation of the Supreme Reality.
- The ancient system of teaching was listening (Shruti). Perception was the direct method of learning. Lecture, dialogue,
debate, discussion, question-answer, sigh seeing etc. were adopted as the methods of teaching. On the whole both
intuitive and empirical methods, both Yogic and Scientific methods were adopted for acquisition of knowledge and
skills.
- Lastly we may conclude that the Vedic education being mostly spiritual, liberal and contemplative in nature, was meant
for all who were really interested, capable and dedicated and were in search of the highest truth and supreme
knowledge.
- Education was free of cost and the students led an exemplary life in Vedic system of education.
- The teacher-taught relationship was very cordial and just like the father-son relationship during Vedic period. Education
was not based on caste, creed, colour or religion.

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t­
• Varna system
- In Hinduism, the Varna system refers to the Brahmanic philosophy of classifying society into classes. Texts like
Manusmriti, which divide society into four varnas, exemplify the idea. 'Varna' signifies the colour, kind, order, or class
of individuals and specifies their ancestral roots.
- People were classified according to their Varna or castes in ancient India during the Vedic Period (c. 1500-1000 BCE).
- 'Varna' signifies the colour, kind, order, or class of individuals and specifies their ancestral roots.
- Brahmins (priests, gurus, etc.), Kshatriyas (warriors, kings, administrators, etc.), Vaishyas (agriculturalists, traders,
etc.,sometimes known as Vysyas), and Shudras (labourers) are the four main types.
- Each Varna has its own set of life principles to follow, and infants must adhere to the Varna's core customs, norms,
behaviour, and beliefs.
- These four Varnas make up a community, and their devotion to the Varna laws ensures that wealth and order are
maintained.
- Individual interests and personal preferences are treated with equal solemnity by a newborn in a certain Varna, in order
to resolve the contradiction between personal choice and conventional regulations.
- Given this freedom, a deviant decision is always evaluated for its impact on others.
- Each Varna citizen's rights are constantly paired with their own obligations.
- The Manu Smriti (an ancient legal treatise from the Vedic Period) and subsequent Dharma Shastras have an extended
Varna system with insights and logic.
- In theory, Varnas are not pure and undeniable lineages, but rather categories, implying that behaviour takes precedence
over birth in determining a Varna.
- During the Vedic period, which lasted from 1500 to 1000 BCE, the caste system was implemented and recognised in
ancient India.
- People were divided into castes depending on their Varna in order to decongest their lives, protect the purity of a caste,
and establish eternal order.
- This would resolve and prevent all types of problems arising from internal company disagreements and encroachment
on specific responsibilities.
- Each Varna citizen is assigned certain responsibilities under this system.
- The core notion is that such order in a society would lead to happiness, permanent peace, wilful obedience to the law,
wilful deterrent from any misbehaviour, responsible exercise of liberty and freedom, and maintaining the essential
societal feature of "shared prosperity" above all others.
- Due to the diverse Varnas living together and there was a risk of disharmony among them, ancient Indian civilisation
supported practical and moral instruction for all Varnas.
- The concept that doing Varna obligations would lead to moksha is the fundamental rationale for doing so.
- Conviction in Karma strengthens one's belief in the Varna life values.
- According to the Vedas, it is a human's ideal duty to seek freedom from successive birth and death and to relieve
oneself of soul transmigration, which is feasible if one fulfils the responsibilities and principles of one's appropriate
Varna.
- Consistent intrusion on others' life obligations, according to the Vedas, leads to an unstable society.
- Varna system - Four principal categories
I. Brahmins

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- Brahmins were respected as the embodiment of wisdom, gifted with the commandments and sermons that were to be
delivered to all Varnas of society
II. Kshatriyas
- The warrior clan, monarchs, territorial rulers, administrators, and so on were all Kshatriyas
III. Vaishyas
- Agriculturalists, traders, money lenders, and people concerned in business make up the Vaishya Varna.
IV. Shudras
- The last Varna forms the backbone of a flourishing economy, and they are valued for their obedient

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Module 3 : India in the 6th century B.C

• Age of janpadas
- .The Janapadas were the major kingdoms of Vedic India.
- Janapada literally means the place where the people put their feet. However, these were permanent settlements of the
agricultural communities of the later Vedic Age.
- Aryans were the most influential tribes and were called as ‘jana’. This gave rise to the term Janapada where Jana means
‘people’ and Pada means ‘foot’.
- The initial phases of these settlements were named after the dominant Kshatriya clans of the area. For example, the
areas around Delhi and Western Uttar Pradesh were known as the Kuru and Panchala Janapadas. The consolidation of
these Kshatriya clans led to the formation of larger territorial entities which in the Buddhist Age came to be regarded as
Mahajanapadas. Thus, an important feature of the political life was the emergence of several territorial states in
different parts of the country.
- By the 6th century B.C. there were approximately 22 different Janapadas.
- The Janapada was the highest political unit in Ancient India during this period. They were usually monarchical in
nature though some followed a republican form of government
- With the development of iron in parts of UP and Bihar, the Janapadas became more powerful and turned into
Mahajanapads.
- In the sixth century BCE, there was a rise in the development of the Mahajanapada or great country. There were
sixteen such Mahajanapadas during 600 B.C. to 325 B.C. in Indian Sub-continent. There were two types of states:
Monarchical and Republican.
- There were 16 Mahajanpadas during 600 B.C. to 325 B.C. which are mentioned in early Buddhist (Nikaya, Mahavastu)
and Jain literature (Bhagwati Sutta)
- At the beginning of the sixth century BCE there was no paramount power in India. India was divided into a large
number of independent states.
- According to the traditional literature, sixteen large states [mahajanapadas], each comprising several agricultural
settlements [janapadas] existed in India in the sixth century.
- The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen Mahajanapadas. They were Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala,
Vrijji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja, Another
Buddhist text, the Mahavastu, also provides a list of sixteen Mahajanapadas. However, it excludes Gandhara and
Kamboja and substitutes them by Sibi and Dasarna. The Jain text, Bhagavati sutra also mentions sixteen
Mahajanapadas. This led to the assumption that the lists were originally drawn up at different time
- Among them Magadha, Vatsa, Avanti and Kosala were the most prominent ones. Out of these four, Magadha emerged
as the most powerful kingdom. The causes of Magadha’s success were as following:
- 1. Availability of rich iron deposits which were used in making weapons
- 2. Its location at the rich and fertile Gangetic plain
- 3. Use of elephants in military warfare against its neighbors

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• THE HARYANKA DYNASTY
• Bimbisara
- Bimbisara (c. 545/544 BCE - c. 493/492 BCE) was a king of the Magadha kingdom who is credited with establishing
imperial dominance in the Indian subcontinent.
- Bimbisara ruled at a time when Gautama Buddha (c. 563 BCE - c. 483 BCE) and Mahavira Vardhamana (c. 599 BCE -
c. 527 BCE as per the Jaina tradition), the respective founders of Buddhism and Jainism, both started their teachings.
Bimbisara has been given much importance in the early Buddhist and Jaina sources because he probably endorsed both
these religions equally
- Bimbisara jain follower as per the jain texts- Uttara- dhyayana sutra.Jains test claim Bimbisara was a follower of
Mahavira.According to the Uttara-dhyayana Sutra,he visited Mahavira
- Buddhist texts, on the other hand claim that he was a follower of Gautama Buddha, Buddha probably visited Girivraja
during his rule, where he received much assistance from Bimbisara who hosted him and his disciples.
- He ruled from a place called Girivraja which was also known as Rajagriha and is identified with modern Rajgir in the
state of Bihar today. It is said that the city of Rajagriha was built by Bimbisara himself. The city was covered on all
sides by five hills creating a natural fortification, and later on Bimbisara's son, Ajatashatru covered the gaps with stone
walls.
- During the initial years of the Haryanka Dynasty, the Indian civilization was being refocused from the northwest to the
eastern and central zones of India with four great kingdoms on the rise there – Kosala, Avanti, Vatsa, and finally
Magadha.
- Bimbisara for all his astuteness had the follies of an early Indian king too. He always believed in his son blindly and
never checked on him. Ajatashatru was ambitious right from a very young age, and he was egged on to commit
patricide by other factors too.
- According to Buddhist sources, Ajatashatru was continuously ill-advised by Gautama Buddha's wicked cousin
Devadatta. Devadatta wanted a position for himself in the kingdom and he saw Buddha's growing influence on
Bimbisara as a detriment to that ambition. So he tricked and convinced Ajatashatru to usurp the throne by deposing and
executing his own father, which Ajatashatru did.
- However, there is also a legend which says Bimbisara took his own life after being imprisoned.
- Bimbisara's queen from the Kosala kingdom also died in a short while either in grief or by committing suicide.
Ajatashatru soon realised his mistake and upon that, he supposedly met Gautama Buddha.
- He was succeeded by Ajatashatru (r. c. 494/493 BCE - c. 462 BCE) who was then succeeded by his son Udaya again
after committing patricide.

• Koshla devi
- Kosala Devi was Empress consort of the Magadha Empire as the first wife of Emperor Bimbisara (558–491 BC).
- She was born a princess of Kashi and was the sister of King Prasenajit.
- Kosala Devi was born to the King of Kosala, Maha-Kosala. She was the sister of King Prasenajit who succeeded her
father as the ruler of Kosala. She was married to King Bimbisara, and brought Kashi as dowry in the marriage.She
became his principal queen.
- Buddhist tradition makes Ajatashatru a son of hers the Jain tradition make him a son of her husband's second wife,
Chellana.
- Her niece, Princess Vajira, the daughter of Pasenadi (Prasenjit) was given in marriage to Ajatashatru.

15
- When her husband Bimbisara died at the hands of his own son Ajatashatru, Empress Kosala Devi has said to have died
of grief out of her love for her husband.After losing both his sister and brother-in-law, an ally, Prasanajita was enraged
and took Kashi back. This gave Ajatashatru a reason to attack Kosala, which roughly corresponds to some part of the
modern-day Uttar Pradesh state of India.

• Ajatashatru
- Ajatashatru (c. 493/492 BCE - c. 462/460 BCE) was the second important king of the Haryanka Dynasty, who came to
the throne of Magadha by deposing and executing his own father Bimbisara
- The Magadha Kingdom started its expansion from the time of Bimbisara, but Ajatashatru annexed several important
and powerful kingdoms in its vicinity – Kosala and Kashi, and then Vrijji and his empire roughly covered the present-
day Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh (some minor parts), West Bengal (some major parts), Odisha
(some parts) and also some parts of the neighbour countries of Bangladesh and Nepal.
- Ajatashatru, also known as Kunika, grew up in Rajagriha under the able guidance of his father. He was trained in
ancient Indian warfare, archery, fencing, horse riding, knowledge of the scriptures and many other disciplines in
accordance with the Indian tradition of princely education
- When Ajatashatru grew up, he was taken to the war against Anga by Bimbisara. The Anga Kingdom (present-day West
Bengal, Bangladesh, and Odisha) was Magadha's immediate neighbour, with their capital at Champa. It had access to
trade routes and coastal areas for overseas commerce. Bimbisara understood its importance; he attacked and defeated
the Anga forces in battle.
- According to Buddhist sources, Ajatashatru was continuously ill-advised by a monk called Devadatta, a cousin of
Gautama Buddha. Bimbisara by then had probably turned a follower of Buddhism and Gautama Buddha's growing
influence on him made Devadatta jealous.
- He coveted a position for himself in the imperial court and convinced Ajatashatru to usurp the throne through a coup.
Ajatashatru was tricked by all these and he soon deposed and later executed his own father after imprisoning him.
Though, a legend also says that Bimbisara took his own life after he was being imprisoned.
- Whatever the case, Ajatashatru was responsible for his father's death which gave him a chance to ascend to the throne
of Magadha.
- When Bimbisara died at the hands of his own son Ajatashatru, Empress Kosala Devi has said to have died of grief out
of her love for her husband.After losing both his sister and brother-in-law, an ally, Prasanajita was enraged and took
Kashi back. This gave Ajatashatru a reason to attack Kosala, which roughly corresponds to some part of the modern-
day Uttar Pradesh state of India.
- The battle between Ajatashatru and Prasanajita witnessed a see-saw of fortunes for both. Once, when Ajatashatru was
defeated and caught without guard, his life was spared by the older Prasanajita who soon forgave him and also returned
the city of Kashi to him. However, Prasanajita was soon deposed by his own son and Ajatashatru returned to attack the
Kingdom of Kosala with his full might. Now that the kind Prasanajita was gone, he soon annexed Kosala with all its
resources.
- Emboldened by this conquest and also replenished by the continuous supply of armaments from the rich deposits of
iron ores in his kingdom and elephants and woods from the nearby jungles, Ajatashatru next turned his attention to the
powerful confederation of the Vrijjis and their capital at Vaishali. Ajatashatru's mother belonged to the Licchavi clan of
the Vrijji confederation, but this did not stop him from attacking this kingdom. His ambition was insatiable.The battle

16
 with the Vrijjis took a long time to settle, and it is said that Ajatashatru fought with them for 16 long years (from c. 484
BCE to c. 468 BCE).
- Ajatashatru then turned his attention to the most powerful kingdom of that time in the Indian subcontinent – Avanti
with its capital at Ujjain (modern-day Central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh and some other parts of the neighbour
states). The engagement reached a stalemate after some time and the Pradyota Dynasty of Avanti would only finally
succumb to the Magadhan Empire under the following Shishunaga Dynasty.
- Ajatashatru was succeeded by his son Udaya or Udayin who supposedly deposed and executed his own father, thus
following a tradition started by Ajatashatru himself. The following rulers of the Haryanka Dynasty after Udaya too
committed patricide one by one, and soon the last Haryanka ruler was deposed by the people and replaced by the
Shishunaga Dynasty.

• Udayin
- Udayin (c. 460-444 BCE) also known as Udayabhadra was a king of Magadha in ancient India. According to the
Buddhist and Jain accounts, he was the son and successor of the Haryanka king Ajatashatru. Udayin laid the foundation
of the city of Pataliputra at the confluence of two rivers, the Son and the Ganges. He shifted his capital from Rajgriha
to Patliputra due to the latter's central location in the empire.
- According to the Buddhist accounts, the successors of the Magadha ruler Bimbisara were Ajatashatru, Udayabhadda
(Udayin), Anuruddha, Munda and Nagadasaka.The Jain tradition mentions Udayin as the son and successor of
Ajatashatru.
- Kings Bimbisara (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE), and Udayin (c. 460–440 BCE) of the Haryanka
dynasty were patrons of Jainism.
- However, the Puranas name the successors of Bimbisara as Ajatashatru, Darshaka, Udayin, Nandivardhana and
Mahanandin.The Matsya Purana names Vamsaka as the successor of Ajatashatru.[Since the Puranas were composed at
a later date, the Buddhist tradition seems to be more reliable.The Nagadasaka of the Buddhist chronicles is identified
with the "Darshaka" of the Puranas.
- Professor H. C. Seth (1941) identified Udayin with the king Udayana mentioned in the Sanskrit play
Svapnavasavadatta.
- Seth theorized that this last descendant was Darshaka, and Udayin established a new dynasty, as signified by his
transfer of the empire's capital from Rajgriha to Pataliputra.Liladhar B. Keny (1943) criticized Seth's theory as
incorrect. According to him, the Udayana of Svapnavasavadatta was a different king, who ruled Vatsa kingdom with
his capital at Kaushambi.
- R. G. Bhandarkar notes that the name of Darshaka (Dasaka) is prefixed with the word "Naga" in the Buddhist
chronicles, which may signify his detachment to his successors and his attachment to the Nagas of Padmavati . This
implies that he may be from a different family and had become the king approximately three generations after
Ajatashatru, not immediately succeeding him.
- The Buddhist traditions state that Udayin was Ajatashatru's favourite son, and was alive during the reign of his
grandfather Bimbisara. When Ajatashatru met Gautama Buddha, Udayin was a young prince. Udayin ruled during c.
460-444 BC.he established his capital at Pataliputra at the confluence of the Son and the Ganges rivers. His father had
built a fort here to repulse a potential Pradyota invasion from Avanti. Udayin moved his capital to Pataliputra, probably
because it was at the centre of his growing kingdom.

17
- He defeated Palaka of Avanti multiple times but was ultimately killed by him in 444 BC.The Puranas mention
Nandivardhana as the successor of Udayin. However, the Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicles state that he was succeeded
by Anuruddha. These Buddhist chronicles also state that all the kings from Ajatashatru to Nagadasaka, including
Udayin, killed their fathers.]Jain texts mention that Uadyin was killed by an assassin of rival kingdom.[Being childless,
he was succeeded by Nanda who was selected by his ministers.

• Other Minor Rulers of the Haryanka Dynasty

- The successors of Udayin mainly comprised the minor rulers of the Haryanka dynasty. These rulers were not competent
enough in terms of administration, military and other such aspects which is why they are deemed “minor”. The gradual
decline of the Magadha rule under the Haryanka dynasty can be attributed to this period.
- In majority of the accounts, the Puranas, the Buddhist and the Jain texts differs from their records of the ruler who
succeeded the throne after Udayin. Whereas the Puranas claim Nandivardhana and Mahanandin to have acceded the
throne in succession after Udayin, the other two texts report Anurudhha, Munda and Nagadarshaka to be the rulers that
were enthroned.
- However, the Buddhist and Jain texts reign supreme over other sources as they were written earlier.

• SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY
• The Shishunaga Dynasty (also Sishunaga/Shaishunaga Dynasty) ruled the Magadha Kingdom in ancient India from (c.
413 BCE to c. 345 BCE.) It is said to be the third imperial dynasty of Magadha after the Brihadratha and the Haryanka,
though the Brihadratha Dynasty is considered as mythical now
- The first ruler of the dynasty was Shishunaga himself after whom it has been named, who came to power when the
people revolted against the earlier Haryanka Dynasty in the 5th century BCE. The Shishunaga Dynasty had a very short
reign before it was succeeded by the Nandas and then the Mauryas, but it too contributed to the solid foundation of the
Magadhan Empire which was to dominate the Indian subcontinent for the upcoming centuries.
- By the time Shishunaga ascended to the throne, Magadha, roughly corresponding to the present-day provinces of Bihar,
Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, and the countries of Bangladesh and Nepal, had a very effective
system of administration and government, a powerful army and a flourishing trade network.
- The Buddhist accounts only say that he was a very efficient official of Magadha who surely would have impressed the
citizens through hard work and honesty and hence rose to the pinnacle. The literature of those times gives a vivid
background story of his rise to power.
- Shishunaga inherited the vast territory and the resources of Magadha. The region of Magadha, which is Bihar today is
traditionally rich in mineral resources, iron ores to manufacture weapons, and jungles with its woods and elephants to
help the army. Its fields too yielded enough crops to feed huge armies, and the Haryanka kings starting from the rule of
Bimbisara, capitalized on this. Shishunaga further strengthened the Magadhan army during his time, and his greatest
military achievement, which even surpassed his predecessors, was to successfully fight the Avanti Kingdom and
vanquish them in the process. From Shishunaga's time, Avanti became a part of Magadha and the Pradyota Dynasty of
Avanti ceased to exist.The Magadha Empire continued their support for Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikaism, and other
faiths under the Shishunagas
- Shishunaga was succeeded by his son Kalashoka.Not much is known now about the rule of Kalashoka. He initially
served as the viceroy of the important city of Varanasi (Kashi) during his father Shishunaga's rule. However, other than

18
 the Second Buddhist Council which took place under his rule c. 383 BCE, his reign will also be remembered for the
important incident of the final transfer of the Magadhan capital to Pataliputra (modern Patna), a fortified town
developed once by Ajatashatru and his son Udaya.
- The last Shishunaga king as per the Puranas of Hinduism was Mahanandin. Mahanandin was probably a grandson of
Kalashoka; he may have been a son of Nandivardhan, who was one of the sons of Kalashoka, but whether he was one
of Kalashoka's sons or a grandson cannot be ascertained without further archaeological evidence.
- Tradition says that Kalashoka was brutally murdered by having a knife thrust in his throat by a Shudra, a low caste man
who usurped the throne and formed the Nanda Dynasty. If this had indeed been true, it would not have been possible
for his sons and his grandson Mahanandin to rule. Some of the Puranas also say that it was actually Mahanandin who
was brutally murdered by a Shudra lover of his wife (who was probably assisted by the woman too). That Shudra lover
formed the dynasty of the Nandas and became its first ruler by the name of Mahapadma Nanda. This is more likely to
be true with Mahanandin as the last Shishunaga ruler. The Buddhist text 'Mahabodhivamsa' also gives the names of the
ten sons of Kalashoka; Nandivardhan's name is also mentioned, who was probably Mahanandin's father.Tradition also
says that Mahapadma Nanda, also mentioned as Ugrasena Nanda, was an illegitimate son of the last Shishunaga ruler
Mahanandin.
- Though the Shishunaga Dynasty was a short one and not much is known about them beyond Shishunaga himself, who
rose through hard work and intelligence from the position of an officer in the empire, they helped in the process of
making Magadha the most powerful kingdom in the Indian subcontinent which saw its greatest extent under Ashoka
Maurya. Under the Shishunagas, as under other Magadhan dynasties, various philosophies and religions also
flourished, especially Buddhism and Jainism. The rulers were also culturally inclined and supported various vocations.
However, the dynasties also saw bloodshed, intrigues, politics, and treacheries. It was a time of change and upheavals,
and the various rulers also gave an impetus to their following rulers to expand.

• THE NANDAS
- Nanda dynasty, family that ruled Magadha, in northern India, between (c. 343 and 321BCE). The Nanda dynasty
immediately preceded the dynasty of the Mauryas and,as with all pre-Maurya dynasties, what is known about it is a
mixture of fact and legend.
- Indigenous traditions, both Brahmanical and Jaina, suggest that the founder of the dynasty, Mahapadma (who was also
known as Mahapadmapati, or Ugrasena), evidently had a low social origin—a fact confirmed by classical scholarship.
- Mahapadma took over from the Shaishunagas not only the reins of Magadhan power but also their policy of systematic
expansion. His probable frontier origin and early career as an adventurer helped him to consolidate the empire with
ruthless conquests.
- The authenticity of the Puranic statement that he was the “destroyer of all Kshatriyas” and that he overthrew such
disparately located powers as the Ikshvakus, Pancalas, Kashis, Haihayas, Kalingas, Ashmakas, Kurus, Maithilas,
Shurasenas, and Vitihotras is borne out by independent evidence, which also associated the Nandas with conquests in
the distant Godavari River valley, Kalinga, and part of Mysore.
- The post-Mahapadma genealogy of the Nanda dynasty is perfunctory in the Puranas, which mention only Sukalpa
(Sahalya, Sumalya).
- The Buddhist text Mahabodhivamsa enumerates eight names.
- Dhanananda, the last of this list, possibly figures as Agrammes, or Xandrames, in classical sources, a powerful
contemporary of Alexander the Great.

19
- The Nanda line ended with him in about 321 BCE when Chandragupta laid the foundation for Mauryan power.
- The brief spell of Nanda rule, along with the lengthy tenure of the Mauryas, represents the political aspect of a great
transitional epoch in early Indian history. The changes in material culture in the Ganges (Ganga) River valley beginning
in the 6th–5th centuries BCE, chiefly characterized by settled agricultural technology and growing use of iron, resulted
in agricultural production surpluses and a tendency toward the growth of commerce and urban centres.
- It is significant in this context that in many sources, indigenous and foreign, the Nandas are portrayed as extremely
rich and as ruthless collectors of various kinds of taxes.
- In Alexander’s period, Nanda military strength is estimated at 20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 quadriga
(chariots), and 3,000 elephants. In administration the initiatives of the Nanda state are reflected in references to
irrigation projects in Kalinga and the organization of a ministerial council.

• Dhana Nanda
- According to the Buddhist text Mahabodhivamsa, Dahana Nanda was the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty of ancient
India. He was the youngest son of Mahapadma Nanda.
- Chandragupta Maurya raised an army that eventually conquered the Nanda capital Pataliputra and defeated him. This
defeat marked the fall of the Nanda Empire and the birth of the Mauryan Empire.
- The Jain tradition presents a similar legend about the last Nanda emperor, although it simply calls the emperor
"Nanda", and states that the emperor was allowed to leave his capital alive after being defeated.
- The Puranas give a different account, describing the last Nanda emperor as one of eight sons of the dynasty's founder,
whom they call Mahapadma.
- The Greco-Roman accounts name Alexander's contemporary ruler in India as Agrammes or Xandrames, whom modern
historians identify as the last Nanda emperor. According to these accounts, Alexander's soldiers mutinied when faced
with the prospect of a war with this emperor's powerful army.
- In Buddhist tradition The Buddhist tradition states that Dhana Nanda insulted the Chanakya for his ugly appearance
during an alms-giving ceremony at Pupphapura (Pushpapura), ordering him to be thrown out of the assembly.
- Over next seven years, Chanakya trained and mentored Chandragupta. When Chandragupta became an adult, Chanakya
assembled an army using his wealth.The army invaded Dhana Nanda's capital, but was decisively defeated and
disbanded.Subsequently, Chandragupta and Chanakya raised a new army, and started capturing the border villages.
Gradually, they advanced to the Nanda capital Pataliputta (Pataliputra), and killed Dhana Nanda. Chanakya found the
treasure of Dhana Nanda through a fisherman, and appointed Chandragupta as the new king.
- The Jain tradition contains a legend that has several similarities with the Buddhist legend, but does not mention the
name "Dhana Nanda": the Jain texts simply call Chanakya's rival king "Nanda". According to the Jain tradition,
Chanakya visited the Nanda capital Pataliputra to seek donations from the king, but felt insulted by a servant of the
king. He then vowed to overthrow the Nanda dynasty.He discovered and mentored Chandragupta, and raised an army
that defeated the Nanda forces after an initial debacle. However, unlike the Buddhist tradition, the Jain tradition states
that the Nanda king was allowed to leave his capital alive after being defeated. The king's daughter fell in love with
Chandragupta and married him.
- Like the Buddhist tradition, the Puranas also state that there were 9 Nanda kings.However, they name the first of these
kings as Mahapadma, and state that the next 8 kings were his sons. The Puranas name only one of these sons:
Sukalpa.Greco-Roman accounts

20
- The Greek accounts name Alexander's contemporary ruler in India as Agrammes or Xandrames, whom modern
historians identify as the last Nanda king. "Agrammes" may be a Greek transcription of the Sanskrit word
"Augrasainya" (literally "son or descendant of Ugrasena", Ugrasena being the name of the dynasty's founder according
to the Buddhist tradition).
- The Greco-Roman tradition suggests that this dynasty had only two kings: according to Curtius, the dynasty's founder
was a barber-turned-king; his son was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya.

• Persian and greek invasion

- The Persian and Greek invasion of India was an important event in Indian history which had far reaching
consequences. The Persian and Greek invasion of India began in the Sixth Century B.C. when the North-west region of
India was fragmented and small principalities such as Gandhar, Kamboja were fighting over each other. Since it was
easy to enter India via the passes in Hindukush, many foreign invasions began to happen in the Northwest Frontier of
India.
- The Achaemenid king Kurush or Cyrus (558-529 BCE) led a military expedition which destroyed the city of Kapisha,
which lay to the south-east of the Hindu Kush mountains.
- The Greek historian Herodotus tells us that "India' (l.e., the Indus valley) was the twentieth and most prosperous
satrapy (province) of the Persian empire, and reports that the tribute from this province amounted to 360 talents of gold
dust, more than that from all other provinces put together.
- The Behistun inscription of Darayavaush or Darius I (522-486 BCE) mentions the people of Gadara (Gandhara),
Harauvati (Arachosia, including south-eastern and probably also parts of northeastern Afghanistan), and Maka
(possibly the Makran coast of Iran and Baluchistan) among the subjects of the Persian empire.
- The Hamadan inscription refers to the Hidus (Le., Hindus, inhabitants of the lower Indus valley). Darius' Inscriptions at
Persepolis and Naqsh-i-Rustom include the Hidus and Gandharians among his subjects. This king is also said to have
sent a fleet of ships under Scylax to sail down the Indus to explore the river upto the sea.
- Darius was succeeded by his son Khshayarsha or Xerxes (486-465 BCE), who maintained his hold on the provinces of
Gadara and Hidu. His army is supposed to have Included soldiers from Gandhara and 'India'
- The Persian empire declined after Xerxes' death, but the Gandharians and 'Indians' continue to be mentioned as subjects
of the Persian empire under Artakhsasa or Artaxerxes II (405-359 BCE). The army of Darius III (336-330 BCE)
included 'Indian' troops, perhaps mercenaries.
Persian Invansion of India
- Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire in ancient Iran invaded the North-Western front of India in 550 BCE.
- At that time, there were many small provinces like Gandhara, Kamboja, and Madra who were constantly fighting one
another.
- At that time, Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty was ruling over Magadha.
- Cyrus succeeded in bringing under Persian control all the Indian tribes west of the Indus like Gandhara.
- Punjab and Sindh were annexed by Darius I, Cyrus’s grandson.
- Son of Darius, Xerxes, could not move ahead with the further conquest of India because of war with the Greeks. He
had employed Indian cavalry and infantry.
Effects of the Persian Invasion
- This contact lasted for about 200 years and thus resulted in the Indo – Iranian trade and commerce. It is evident from
the Iranian coins found in the northwest Frontier of India.

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- The Kharoshthi script which was written from right to left was an Iranian form of writing and was introduced in India
by the Iranian scribes.
- Mauryan sculptures and monuments, particularly those of Ashoka’s time were heavily influenced by the Iranian
models.
- The idea of issuing edicts and the terms used on them traced to have the Persian influence.
- The Greeks came to know about India and its wealth from the Persians which paved the way for the Greek invasion of
India.
Greek invansion of India
- Alexander succeeded his father Philip to the throne in 334BC
- In the fourth Century BC the Persians got into war with the Greeks
- The Greeks under the leadership of Alexander defeated the Persian Empire and conquered Asia, Iran and Iraq
- In the battle of Arbela, he defeated Darius III and conquered entire Persia.
- He was attracted by the wealth of India.
- It was also believed that there was a continuation of sea to the east of India which made him believe that by conquering
India,the eastern boundary of the world would be conquered
- Thus from Iran he moved towards Kabul and from there via Khyber he marched into India.
- The entire north India was divided into so many independent monarchies and tribal republic which favoured the
intention of Alexander
Effects of Greek Invasion
- In several fields Direct contact was established between India and Greece.
- Four distinct routes by land and sea were opened up as a result of Alexander’s expedition.
- Greek invasion resulted in establishment of Greek settlement in the North western region who continued to live under
Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka.
- Valuable account was left by the historians of Alexander which gives important information regarding the social and
economic conditions of India back then.
- The influence of Greek art and architecture in India can be seen in Gandhar school of art which is associated with the
Greco – Roman style of art.
- The Greek invasion resulted in political unification of North India under the Mauryas.

• Alexander invansion of India

- Alexander was attracted by the wealth of India.
- Just before the invasion of Alexander, there were many small rulers in northwest India, such as Ambhi of Taxila and
Porus of the Jhelum region (Hydaspes).
- Ambhi accepted the sovereignty of Alexander, but Porus waged a courageous but unsuccessful fight.
- Alexander was so fascinated by Porus's combat that he gave him back his territory. Porus may have adopted lordship.
The Battle of Hydaspes is the battle between him and Porus.
- After that, the army of Alexander crossed the Chenab river, annexing the tribes between Ravi and Chenab.
- His army, however, refused to cross the Beas river and revolted. After years of battles, they were exhausted.
- In 326 BC, was forced to retreat. He died in Babylon in 323 BC, aged 32, on his way back.
- Alexander left four of his generals in northwest India in charge of four areas, one of them being Seleucus I Nicator,
who would later trade with Chandragupta Maurya for his territories in the Indus Valley.

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- Eudamas was Alexander's last general in India.
The Persian and Greek invasions of India had a huge impact particularly in terms of culture and politics. According to
the traditions Chandragupta Maurya is said to have acquired some knowledge from the working of the military machine
of Alexander which helped him to destroy the Nanda empire

• MAURYA PERIOD
- The Mauryan Empire, which formed around 321 B.C.E. and ended in 185 B.C.E., was the first pan-Indian empire, an
empire that covered most of the Indian region. It spanned across central and northern India as well as over parts of
modern-day Iran.
- The Mauryan Empire’s first leader, Chandragupta Maurya, started consolidating land as Alexander the Great’s power
began to wane. Alexander’s death in 323 B.C.E. left a large power vacuum, and Chandragupta took advantage,
gathering an army and overthrowing the Nanda power in Magadha, in present-day eastern India, marking the start of
the Mauryan Empire.
- After crowning himself king, Chandragupta took additional lands through force and by forming alliances.
- Chandragupta’s chief minister Kautilya, sometimes called Chanakya, advised Chandragupta and contributed to the
empire’s legacy. In addition to being a political strategist, Kautilya is also known for writing the Arthashastra, a treatise
about leadership and government.
- The Arthashastra describes how a state should organise its economy and maintain power. Chandragupta’s government
closely resembled the government described in the Arthashastra.
- One notable aspect of the Arthashastra was its focus on spies. Kautilya recommended the king have large networks of
informants to work as a surveillance force for the ruler. The focus on deception reveals a pragmatic, and borderline
cynical, view of human nature
- Bindusara, Chandragupta’s son, assumed the throne around 300 B.C.E.
- He kept the empire running smoothly while maintaining its lands. Bindusara’s son, Ashoka, was the third leader of the
Mauryam Empire. Ashoka left his mark on history by erecting large stone pillars inscribed with edicts that he issued.
- After leading a bloody campaign against Kalinga (a region on the central-eastern coast of India), Ashoka reevaluated
his commitment to expanding the empire and instead turned to Buddhism and its tenet of nonviolence.
- Many of his edicts encouraged people to give up violence and live in peace with each other—two important Buddhist
principals.
- After Ashoka’s death, his family continued to reign, but the empire began to break apart. The last of the Mauryas,
Brihadratha, was assassinated by his commander in chief—a man named Pushyamrita who went on to found the
Shunga Dynasty—in 185 B.C.E.

• Chandragupta Maurya
- Chandragupta Maurya is the founder of Mauryan Dynesty and the first emperor to unify most of India under one
administration
- Chandragupta was born into a family left destitute by the death of his father, chief of the migrant Mauryas, in a border
fray. His maternal uncles left him with a cowherd who brought him up as his own son.

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- Later he was sold to a hunter to tend cattle. Purchased by a Brahman politician, Kautilya (also called Chanakya), he
was taken to Taxila (now in Pakistan), where he received an education in military tactics and the aesthetic arts.
- Ascending the throne of the Magadha kingdom, in present-day Bihar state, about 325 BCE, Chandragupta destroyed
the sources of Nanda power and eliminated opponents through well-planned administrative schemes that included an
effective secret service. When Alexander died in 323 BC, his last two representatives in India returned home, leaving
Chandragupta to win the Punjab region.
- The following year, as emperor of Magadha and ruler of the Punjab, he began the Mauryan dynasty. Expanding his
empire to the borders of Persia, he defeated an invasion by Seleucus I Nicator, a Greek contender for control of
Alexander’s Asian empire.
- Chandragupta’s Indian empire was one of history’s most extensive. Its continuation for at least two generations is
attributable in part to his establishment of an excellent administration patterned on that of the Persian Achaemenid
dynasty (559–330 BCE) and after Kautilya’s text on politics, Artha-shastra (“The Science of Material Gain”).
Chandragupta’s son, Bindusara, continued to expand the empire to the south.

• Chanakya (Kautilya)
- Chanakya also known as( Kautilya and Vishnugupta) was prime minister under the reign of Chandragupta Maurya
founder of the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE).
- He is best known as the author of the political treatise Arthashastra which he wrote as an instruction manual for the
young Chandragupta on how to rule effectively.The events of his life are known only through legends from various
traditions; no historical documents have survived concerning him or his role in the establishment of the Mauryan
Empire.
- According to one tradition, he served as advisor to the last king of the Nanda Dynasty Dhanananda who ruled the
Kingdom of Magadha.
- According to another, he was a Vedic scholar from the university of Taxila who visited the court of Dhanananda where
he was insulted at an alms-giving ceremony and, after this event, devoted himself to deposing the king.He first
attempted to enlist the king's son, Pabbata, in his cause and is also said to have approached others before narrowing his
most likely candidates down to Pabbata and a young man who was either a lesser member of the noble house or a
commoner, Chandragupta.
- After testing the two youths, Chandragupta proved the most resourceful and Chanakya focused his efforts on training
the future king for the next seven-to-nine years. When his training was completed, Chandragupta overthrew
Dhanananda and assumed control of Magadha.
- Upon Kautilya’s advice, he collected mercenary soldiers, secured public support, and ended the autocracy of the
Nanda dynasty in a bloody battle against forces led by their commander in chief, Bhaddasala.

• Arthashastra
- The Arthashastra is an Indian treatise on politics, economics, military strategy, the function of the state, and social
organization attributed to the philosopher and Prime Minister Kautilya who was instrumental in establishing the reign
of the great king Chandragupta Maurya (founder of the Mauryan Empire

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- The Arthashastra is thought to have been written by Kautilya as a kind of handbook for Chandragupta instructing him
in how to reign over a kingdom and encouraging direct action in addressing political concerns without regard for
ethical considerations.
- The name of the work comes from the Sanskrit words Artha (“aim” or “goal”) and Shastra (“treatise” or “book”) and
the goal of the work is a comprehensive understanding of statecraft which will enable a monarch to rule effectively.
- The title has therefore been translated as The Science of Politics, The Science of Political Economy, and The Science of
Material Gain; this last because Artha is understood in Hinduism as one of the fundamental aims of human beings in
pursuing wealth and social status.
- The Arthashastra, composed some 1500 years before The Prince, is still studied in the present day for its rational
presentation of statecraft and its effectiveness in arguing for the State as an organic entity served best by a strong leader
whose most important duty and focus should be the good of the people.
- The Arthashastra is informed both by Hinduism and the practicality of the philosophical school of Charvaka which
rejected the supernatural elements of the faith in favor of a completely materialistic view of the universe and human
existence.
- Charvaka claimed that only direct perception of any given phenomena could establish truth and so encouraged a
practical approach to life which included logical, reason-based, action in response to circumstance.
- The Arthashastra follows this same course in dealing with subjects such as when and how a ruler should assassinate
family members or rivals and how one should view foreign states as enemies who are contending for the same
resources and power as one's self and how to neutralize them most effectively.
- The work was known through later references to it in other pieces but was considered lost until a later copy was
discovered in 1905 CE by the Sanskrit scholar Rudrapatna Shamasastry which he published in 1909 CE and then
translated into English in 1915 CE.
- The Arthashastra has since enjoyed international fame as one of the greatest political treatises ever written and is
frequently compared to The Prince (published 1532 CE) by the Italian political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli of
Renaissance fame.

• Administration of the Mauryas (How a state shall be ) - Arthashastra text

- The Mauryan administration was known for their triumph of monarchy in India. Kautilya’s Arthashastra has a detailed
description of the Mauryan administration. This was considered to be the authentic source to draw an account about the
Mauryan administration. Along with Arthashastra, Megasthenes Indica throws light at the administration, economy,
trade, and society of the Mauryan times.
• Mauryan Administration - State Control
- The Mauryan administration was a highly centralised administration.
- Though it was a monarchy form of government which Kautilya insisted on, he stood against royal absolutism. He
advocated on idea that, king should run the administration with assistance from council of ministers
- A council of ministers called Mantriparishad were thus appointed for assisting the king.
- The council consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapthi and Yuvaraja.
- The important functionaries were known as the Tirthas.
- Amatyas were the civil servants who were appointed to maintain day-to-day administration.
Rajukas were a class of officers appointed by Ashoka, who were responsible for rewarding and punishing the people.
- In order to supervise the spread of dhamma, Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed.
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- The Capital city of the Mauryan empire, Pataliputra was administered by six committees each consisting of five
members.
- Two dozen departments of the state were maintained to control the social and economic activities near the capital city.
- In the Mauryan administration, spies were maintained to track the foreign enemies and officers.
• Provincial and Local administration of the Mauryas
- The empire was mainly divided into 4 provinces and their capitals were Ujjain, Taxila, Kalinga and Suvarnagiri.
- Each of these provinces were kept under the prince who was scion of the Mauryan dynasty.
- These provinces were again divided into smaller units and administered.
- The districts were maintained by Rajukas who were assisted by Yuktas.
- Grahmini was responsible for village administration and Gopa had control over ten to fifteen villages.
- Nagarika was the city superintendent. He maintained the law and order.
• Army of Mauryan Administration
- The Mauryan administration was known for the maintenance of a huge army.
- It is mentioned by Pliny in his account that Chandragupta Maurya maintained about 9000 elephants, 30000 cavalry and
600000 foot soldiers.
- It is even mentioned that there were about 800 chariots during the Mauryan administration.
- Mauryans’ military was three times the strength of Nandas.
- According to Megasthenes, a board consisting of 30 officers who were divided into 6 committees were responsible for
the administration of the armed force.
- The six wings of the armed forces are: The Army; The Navy; The chariots; The cavalry; The elephants; The transport.
• Economic Regulation of Mauryan Administration
- Adhyakshas (superintendents) were appointed to regulate the economic activities of the state.
- Agriculture, trade, commerce, crafts, weights, measures etc., were under the supervision of Adhyakshas.
- Slaves were employed in the agricultural activities. It is said that nearly 1,50,000 war captives were brought from
Kalinga and were engaged in agriculture.
- Shudras served as slaves for all the three higher varnas.
- New lands were brought under cultivation. Shudras and cultivators were involved in it.
- Irrigation and regulated water supply facilities were provided by the state.
- Under the Mauryan Administration, taxes were collected from the farmers at the rate of one sixth of the production.
- The monopoly in arms manufacturing, mining were enjoyed by the state.
- The officer incharge of assessment was Samaharta.
- The chief custodian of the state’s treasury was Sannidhata.
• Judiciary of Mauryan Administration
- Dharmathikarin was the chief justice at the capital Pataliputra.
- Amatyas were responsible for delivering punishment to the people.
- Ashoka’s inscription mentions the remission of sentences.
- Kautilya’s Arthashastra as well as Ashokan edicts mention the prison.

• Saptanga theory of State

- The word “Saptang” indicates seven limbs, constituents or elements. Together, they constitute the State as an organism,
“like a chariot composed of seven parts fitted and subservient to one another”. Seven Angas, Prakritis, or elements were

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 enumerated and elucidated by Kautilya for describing “the nature of the State” in its totality. As laid down in the first
chapter of Arthashastra’s Sixth Book, entitled Mandala Yonih, these are
1. Swami (The Sovereign King)
- Subscribing to monarchy as the ideal form of state, Kautilya has accorded to the king “the highest place in the body-
politic”. The Swami is the chief executive head of the state and, is, thus “the consummation of all other
elements”.Accordingly, the duties and functions that he is called upon to perform are of two types: i)Protective
Functions- The king being the natural guardian and savior of his people, Kautilya expects him to perform the following
protective functions that he should put down violence and maintain law and order, he should avert dangers and
command the army, to redress people’s grievances, to punish the wrong- doers and to administer justice impartially and
in accordance with the sacred law, evidence, history and enacted law. (ii) Promotive Functions- On the other hand, his
promotive functions include the following that he should promote the moral and material happiness and welfare of his
people, as in their happiness lies his happiness and in their welfare his welfare, to enable them to pursue freely their
independent efforts in life, to maintain unity and solidarity, to reward virtue, to promote agriculture, industry and arts,
to regulate the means of livelihood, especially of the laborers and artisans and to encourage education and help students
2. Amatya (The Minister)
- In its narrow sense, the term Amatya or Mantrin is used for the minister of the high grade. Kautilya describes an
elaborate system of recruitment of the Amatyas and other officials who were to be morally and ethically pure, honest in
financial matters and of good character. The Amatyas were expected to be natural born citizens, persons of noble origin,
free from all vices, men of infallible memory, friendly nature, wisdom, patience and endurance
3. Janapada (The People and The Territory)
- This unique element of Saptanga is the symbol of State, which stands for a “territorial society”. Here,‘Jana’ denotes
people and ‘Pada’ is a symbol of territory where these inhabitants permanently.Kautilya’s Janapada includes not only
territory but also population. Kautilya prescribes the following requisites of a prosperous Janapada in terms of territory:
(i) accommodate and support people; (ii) defend the state against enemies; (iii) find occupation of people; (iv) have
manageable neighbours; (v) provide pastures; (vi) have arable land, mines, forest and (vii) provide good internal
communication, i.e. rivers, roads, and outlet to sea.
4. Durga (Fortification)
- Kautilya regarded fortification as essential for the defense and protection of the state. He wanted the state to fortify the
territories from all sides. He has described four types of fortification which include Audak, Paarvat, Dhannvana and
Vana. Of these categories, the first two are used for the protection of the territory and the remaining two are used for
the protection of the farmers. These fortifications, thus, would not only protect the people and the capital, but would
also be suitable for fighting purposes, i.e. for both defensive and offensive purposes.
5 .Kosha (The Treasury)
- The flourishing economy is essential for the existence of the State in all times and circumstances. That is probably why
the philosophers of Ancient India looked at treasury as an essential element of the State. Though Kautilya wanted a
prosperous treasury, he specifically directed the king to earn the wealth of nation only by legitimate and righteous means
and in no way by unfair and immoral means. For the collection of revenues, Kautilya suggested the following legitimate
sources: (i) various forms of land tax; (ii) duty levied on the sale of commodities in the market; (iii) tax on imports and
exports and (iv) miscellaneous taxes.
6. Danda (The Army or The Force)

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- Kautilya accepted a strong and hereditary Kshatriya army, as the most important requisite of the state. He insisted on the
hereditary army, as it would not only be skilled, well-contended and obedient to the king’s will, but also be free from
duplicity. Such an army would serve both the defensive and offensive purposes of the king. Hence, it was obvious for
Kautilya to pay great attention to the maintenance and organization of the army. For instance, in Arthashastra, we find him
mentioning as many as half a dozen heads of departments namely the incharge of the armory, naval forces, cavalry,
elephants, chariots and infantry.
7) Mitra (The Allies)
- Having realized that “political isolation means death”, Kautilya proceeded to consider the Mitra or the ally as a vital
factor. Kautilya recognizes two kinds of allies, namely Sahaja and Kritrima. The Sahaja or natural ally is the one whose
friendship is derived from the times of King’s father and grandfather and who is situated close to the territory of the
immediately neighboring enemy. On the other hand, the Kritrima or the acquired ally is the one whose friendship is
specially resorted to for the protection of wealth and life. Kautilya, however, preferred an ally who is traditional,
permanent, disciplined, and enthusiastic and from whom the possibility of opposition or rebellion is minimum.

• Megasthenes
- According to legends, Seleucus Nicator, a Seleucid king, offered Helena, his daughter, in marriage to Chandragupta
Maurya.However, there is no historical evidence to prove the marriage alliance
- Moreover, it was also decided to send a Greek envoy to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. So, Megasthenes, the then
ambassador of Seleucus I Nicator, was sent to the Maurya court
- The Greek ambassador, Megasthenes, visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya between 302 to 298 BC
- He witnessed the reign of Chandragupta and wrote about it in his book ‘Indica’ Accounts of the king’s administration
can be found in the book of Megasthenes in great detail.According to his accounts, the army that built that empire was
heavily reliant on the supply of troops, oxen, horses, and elephants. There was also a sector known as military livestock
- Megasthenes also praised the wooden architecture of the Mauryan empire. According to him, the Mauryan palace at
Pataliputra was as magnificent as the one in Iran’s capitalHe also mentions the wooden constructions at Pataliputra,
known as Palibothra, to Greek and Latin writers
- Apart from Chandragupta Maurya’s reign, Megasthenes’ book ‘Indica’ also describes India in detail
- However, the book is now lost. It is reconstructed from the preserved literary fragments by several authors
- Megasthenes was the first scholar from the West to describe India in writing.
- He described India as:
- India is home to numerous different ethnicities, which are all indigenous, due to its vast size. India does not have any
overseas colonies, and Indians do not have any colonies outside of India
- Because of the plentiful food, clean water, and clear air, the Indians are taller than the average person
- They have a strong artistic background. Slavery is prohibited under a law enacted by ancient Indian philosophers
- The law considers everyone equal but allows the property to be dispersed differently
- Additionally, the Greek philosopher’s account also mentions the administration, food, clothing, flora, fauna, geography,
economy, and history of ancient India

• Pataliputra
- Patliputra is surrounded by two rivers ( Ganga and Son) This provides a natural defence to the capital and greatly
benefited its rulers to concerntrate on thier expeditions.

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- Chandragupta Maurya founded Mauryan dynasty at Magadha ( the present day Bihar).The geographical location of
Pataliputra had socio-cultural,Political and economic advantages too.
- Pataliputra was located close to Rajmahal hills which caters to the needs of minerals important for weapon making.
- The fertile deltas of alluvial plain provides for greater agricultural benefits , thereby more monetary resources to the
kingdoms in the form of taxes.
- The geographical isolation of Patliputra from the Aryan dominated Aryavratha helped it to keep aloof from the
negative influences of Brahminical religion.The Mauryan society was cosmopolitan and rulers could recruit people
from every caste and religion into army.
- Patliputra was located on important trade routes of the age Uttarapratha, through which much of ancient commerce use
to happen.This gave a boost to secondary and tertiary activities essential for material benefits.
- With the benefits of geographical location,Mauryan rulers were able to carve out an extensive empire .
- Patliputra remained the capital for the later dynasties of Sunga, Guptas etc . With the decline of Guptas in the 5th
century A.D,Patliputra lost its relevance and then Ujjain emerged as the most important capital of ancient age.

• Bindusara
- Bindusara also known as Simhasena was the second Mauryan emperor who ascended the throne about 297 BCE.
- Greek sources refer to him as Amitrochates, Greek for the Sanskrit amitraghata (“destroyer of foes”). The name
perhaps reflects his successful campaign in the Deccan.
- Chandragupta—Bindusara’s father and founder of the Mauryan empire—had already conquered northern India.
Bindusara’s campaign stopped close to what is today Karnataka, probably because the territories of the extreme south,
such as those of the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, had good relations with the Mauryas.
- After Bindusara’s death, his sons engaged in a war of succession, from which Ashoka emerged victorious after several
years of conflict.

• Ashoka
- The Great Mauryan Emperor Ashoka was born in about 304 BC and was the son the Mauryan Emperor Bindusara.
- In 272 BCE, Emperor Bindusara’s death led to conflicts and wars on succession among the siblings of Ashoka.
- According to Ashokavadana, ( Ashokvandana is an Indian Sanskrit-language text that describes the birth and reign of
the Maurya Emperor Ashoka) Ashoka was favored by most of the ministers but his father Bindusara wanted his son
Sushim to take the throne. But thanks to minister Radhagupta, Ashoka took over the throne.
- At its height, under Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire stretched from modern-day Iran through almost the entirety of the
Indian subcontinent. Ashoka was able to rule this vast empire initially through the precepts of the political treatise
known as the Arthashastra, attributed to the Prime Minister Chanakya. He was also known for his sadistic rules for the
criminal
- Emperor Ashoka is also known for one of the major and bloodiest battles in the history of the world. The Kalinga war
was fought between Mauryan Empire and the ruler of the state of Kalinga. It is said that Kalinga was no match for the
brutality of Ashoka the Great. Around 150,000 Kalinga warrior and citizen lost their life while Maurya Empire lost
100,000 warriors and according to legend, the Daya River next to the battlefield turned into red.
- After the most brutal war in the history of the world, he followed the path of Lord Buddha and embraced the
propagation of Dharma. And he started to spread Buddhism far and wide and all over the Asia.

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- After Ashoka’s death, his family continued to reign, but the empire began to break apart. The last of the Mauryas,
Brihadratha, was assassinated by his commander in chief—a man named Pushyamrita who went on to found the
Shunga Dynasty.[p

• Literary sources
- The Vayu and the Vishnu Puranas gave us some useful information regarding the origin and early history of the
Mauryas. The Puranas contained old traditions and provided chronology of the Mauryas which lacked clarity.
- A poem in the Akananuru composed by the Sangam poet Mamulanar seems to bereferring to conquest of Chandragupta
in south.
- The Jain work Parisishtaparvan (a biography of Chanakya) of Hemachandra provided very interesting information on
Chandragupta such as his early life, conquest of Magadha and conversion to Jainism in the later part of his life.
- The Arthasastra of Kautilya is the most important literary source for the history of the Mauryas. It provided us valuable
information regarding polity and general life of the Mauryan age. The Arthasastra also provided information regarding
taxation system, social structure, espionage system, and army organization.
- Mudrarakshasa of Vishakadatta, a Sanskrit Drama written in 5th century CE, described how Chandragupta with the
assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas.the violent rule of the Nanda, the usurpation of Chandragupta, the
formation of the Maurya Empire, and the various battles with the Northwest kingdoms resulting from Alexander the
Great's conquests.
- The Mauryan period saw a steady expansion of trade with the Western world and the exchange of emissaries between
Maurya and Hellenistic kings. It is hence not surprising that Greeco-Roman accounts mention kings Sandrocottus
(Chandragupta) and Amitrochates (Bindusara) and their capital Palimbothra (Pataliputra). T
- he Greek account called Indica, written by Megasthenes, is another authentic source for the Mauryan period.
Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupya Maurya. Though the work available in
fragments gives interesting details on Mauryan polity, particularly the capital city of Pataliputra and the military
organization. Its description on contemporary social and economic life of the age is notable.
- The Buddhist literature Ashokavadana and Divyavadana provided information regarding the early life of Ashoka
- The Ceylonese chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa threw light on Ashoka‟s succession to the throne and his role in
spreading Buddhism. They further mentioned that Ashoka came to the throne 218 years after the Buddha‟s Parinirvana.

• Sangam Period
- The period roughly between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D. in South India (the area lying to the south of
river Krishna and Tungabhadra) is known as Sangam Period.
- It has been named after the Sangam academies held during that period that flourished under the royal patronage of the
Pandya kings of Madurai.
- At the sangams eminent scholars assembled and functioned as the board of censors and the choicest literature was
rendered in the nature of anthologies.
- These literary works were the earliest specimens of Dravidian literature.
- According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the ancient South India
popularly called Muchchangam.

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- The First Sangam, is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary sages. No literary work of this
Sangam is available.
- The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
- The Third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are a useful
sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.

• Sangam text for Chandragupta Maurya :

- A poem in the Akananuru composed by the Sangam poet Mamulanar seems to bereferring to conquest of Chandragupta
in south.
- References in sangam text suggests that the Mauryas interfered in the politics of the south, that they had an alliance
with a southern power called the Koshar, and that Deccani troops formed part of the Maurya army.

• Early Architecture
- Mauryan rule marks an important phase in our cultural history. Mainly in the period of Ashoka, the art and architecture
was at its zenith and fall within the category of court art. Ashoka embraced Buddhism and the immense Buddhist
missionary activities that followed encouraged the development of distinct sculptural and architectural styles This can
be classified into Stupas, Pillars, Caves, Palaces and Potter.
- The architectural remains have been found between the period of the Harappans and the Mauryas because in this period
buildings are not made up of stone. After the decline of Harappan civilization, long gap was generated and in the
Mauryan period only monumental stone sculpture, production of masterpieces and architecture appeared. Therefore,
Mauryan rule marks an important phase in our cultural history.
- In the Vedic period burial mound of earth and bricks which were erected by the Vedic Aryans were known at that time.
In the Mauryan period, mainly in the period of Ashoka numerous stupas were constructed and scattered all over the
country.
- The stupas of solid domes were constructed of brick or stone with different sizes. The Ashoka stupas were constructed
to celebrate the achievements of Gautama Buddha. Like stupa at Bairat Rajasthan in the third century B.C., The Great
Stupa at Sanchi was built with bricks and several changes were done. The inner wall of the stupa was built either by
terracotta bricks or by sun-burnt bricks. The top of the dome was decorated by a wooden or stone umbrella which
denotes the universal supremacy of Dharma. Parikrama was also there by encircling the stupa.

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• Jainism and Buddhism Teaching and impact
- Buddhism and Jainism are ancient religions that developed during the days of Ancient India.
- Buddhism is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, while Jainism is based on the teachings of Mahavira.
- Apart from this, there are many similarities between Buddhism and Jainism on grounds of terminology and ethical
principles, but the way they are applied is different

Factors Explanation

Rejection of Vedas Buddhism and Jainism rejected the notion of grand rituals along with the
authority of the Vedas and the priestly class

Founders Just like his contemporary, Gautama Buddha, Mahavir Jain was born into a
royal family. Both of them renounced their comfortable lifestyle to attain
enlightenment

Animal Rights Both Buddhism and Jainism also stressed the principle of non-violence against
animals and they must also be given equal respect as one gives to a fellow
human being

Karma Both Buddhism and Jainism believe in the concept of karma, which is an
attachment of positive and negative forces to the soul based on a person’s
actions, beliefs, and spiritual attachments. Reincarnation carries this force
forward and requires effort to purify the soul.

God and Scripture Neither religion believes in God as the creator of the universe. They
acknowledge all creation as being part of the universe’s divinity. As such, their
holy texts are not considered the word of a god or sacred stories.

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Module 4 : The Age Of Gupta and (320 A.D- 600 A.D)

• THE GUPTA DYNASTY

- In 4 Century AD, a new dynasty emerged over Magadha and ruled a large part of North India. Their rule lasted for over
200 years. The rule of the Guptas over North India is often described as an imperial government.
- The centralised control which was a characteristic of an imperial empire was absent in the Guptan age and the empire
was decentralised as compared to the Mauryan empire.
- The Gupta empire was also marked as the period of Classical age of India as Hinduism established its rule firmly over
the country during this period. But in parts of deccan empire it was the post gupta age that saw evolution of a high level
of civilization.
- India had multitude of weak kingdoms as well as new kingdoms during the 4th century AD. The kushanas and shakas
continued to rule but their territories were truncated and kingdoms weakened.
- Many new kingdoms were emerging in areas of Punjab and Sind. The Vakatakas were ruling in Vidharbha after the
satavahanas had disappeared around 3rd century AD. In the south in tamil region the Pallavas were emerging. Also in
Bengal, Odisa and the forest areas of Madhya Pradesh many new kingdoms were ruling that had not existed before.
- The Gupta kings were powerful and conquered North India but they had to face considerable opposition from Central
Asia especially the Huns.
- The last powerful king of gupta Skandagupta was able to keep the huns under check but latter rulers failed and the
empire could not extend in Punjab and Sindh.
- Gupta policy was to restore the kingdom which was won under conquest to the local chief after he excepted their
suzerainty. This meant that there was limited central control and the empire had weak foundations. The empire began to
disintegrate as local chieftains became powerful and asserted their independence under weak central rulers.

• Chandragupta I
- Chandragupta I is the first known ruler of Gupta Dynesty. He may have dynasty’s first emperor, as suggested by his
title Maharajaadiraja (great king of kings)
- Chandragupta assumed the title Maharajadhiraja and issued gold coins, implying that he was the dynasty's first imperial
ruler.
- According to an 8th-century inscription of Nepal's Lichchhavi dynasty, their legendary ancestor Supushpa was born in
the royal family of Pushpapura, that is, Pataliputra in Magadha.
- According to some historians, the Lichchhavis ruled Pataliputra during the reign of Samudragupta. Chandragupta
married Kumaradevi, a Lichchhavi princess. The name Licchavi refers to an ancient clan that was headquartered in
Vaishali, present-day Bihar, during the time of Gautama Buddha.
- The gold coins attributed to Chandragupta have portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi on them, as well as the
legend Lichchhavayah ("the Lichchhavis").
- In the Gupta inscriptions, their son Samudragupta is referred to as Lichchhavi-dauhitra ("Lichchhavi daughter's son”).
- Gold coins with portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi have been discovered in Uttar Pradesh at Mathura,
Ayodhya, Lucknow, Sitapur, Tanda, Ghazipur, and Varanasi; Bayana, Rajasthan; and Hajipur, Bihar.
- The obverse of these coins features portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi, along with their names in Gupta script.
The reverse depicts a goddess seated on a lion.

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- Chandragupta ruled in the first quarter of the fourth century CE, but the precise period of his reign is unknown.
- Based on information from the Puranas and the Allahabad Pillar inscription issued by his son Samudragupta, modern
historians have attempted to determine the extent of his kingdom.
- His empire consisted of Uttar Pradesh, Bengal and parts of modern Bihar, with Pataliputra as its capital. He extended
his dynasty from Magdha to Prayaga and finally to Saketa
- Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son Samudragupta

• Samudragupta
- Samudragupta succeeded his father Chandragupta I. Some historians, however, state that he was preceded by
Kachagupta or Kacha who was Chandragupta I's eldest son. Kacha's identity is yet to be established, as only some
coins bearing the name have been found and no other evidence of his rule has been discovered so far. The fact that
Chandragupta I actually nominated Samudragupta to the throne shows that he was not his eldest son.
- The title of Samudragupta means that he was protected by the sea to which his domain was extended. During his reign,
he was recognised as a kind imperial conqueror and a patron of the arts and letters, which ushered in India’s Golden
Age. He was dubbed “Napoleon of India” for his superb leadership and heroic wins.
- In the Prayag Prashashti, Samudragupta is mentioned as a renowned man. In this Prayag Prashashti, Samudragupta is
regarded as the god of humanity; he is compared to Lord Kuber in terms of wealth, Lord Indra in terms of power, and
Lord Brihaspati in terms of intellect. Because Samudragupta was a superb poet, he was known as Kaviraj. He was a
superb musician, and his musical abilities have been compared to those of Lord Brihaspati and Narada. The fact that he
could play the Veena is evident from the Vinavadan coinage of Samudragupta, which also demonstrates his love of
music.
- Harisena was a court poet in the reign of Gupta king Samudragupta. His prashasti was the well-known Allahabad
prashasti. He authored a renowned poem on Samudragupta's valour, which is engraved on the Allahabad Pillar.
- He built a massive empire that he ruled over directly. That was a truly magnificent victory for Samudragupta, as he was
completely successful. His kingdom stretched from the Jamuna and Chambal in the west to the Brahmaputra in Assam
in the east and the Himalayan foothills on the north side of the River Narmada in the south.
- The amount and variety of coinage used during a particular reign provided insight into the empire’s economic situation.
The monetary system was established by Samudragupta, who introduced seven types of coins: standard, archer, battle
axe, Ashwamedha, tiger slayer, king and queen, and lute musician.
- He appreciated other religions despite being a fervent Brahman. With his approval, Ceylon’s Buddhist king,
Megavarna, was able to construct a Buddhist monastery.
- The monetary system was established by Samudragupta, who introduced seven varieties of coins: the Standard Type,
Archer Type, Battle Axe Type, Ashvamedha Type, Tiger Slayer Type, King and Queen Type, and Lyre Player Type.

• Chandragupta II
- Chandragupta II, also named Vikramaditya or Chandragupta Vikramaditya, was the son of Samudragupta and Datta
Devi. According to the historical records, Chandragupta II was a strong, vigorous ruler and well qualified to govern and
extend the Gupta Empire. He ruled the Gupta Empire from 375 to 415 C.E. when the kingdom achieved its zenith,
often known as the Golden Age of India. It is believed that Chandragupta II adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’ based on
some coins and a supia pillar inscription

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- Chandragupta II continued the expansion policy framed by his father, and by defeating the Western Kshatrapas, he
extended the Gupta Empire from the Indus River in the west to Bengal in the east. In addition to this, the Gupta Empire
was extended from the Himalayan foothills in the north to the Narmada River in the south. It was through conquests
and marriage alliances that the Gupta dynasty reached its peak by expanding territories during the reign of
Vikramaditya. He was married to Kubera Manga, a Naga princess, and they both had a daughter named Prabhavati. His
daughter was married to Rudrasena II, a Vakataka prince.
- According to the Udayagiri inscription of Virasena, the foreign minister of Vikramaditya, the king had a unique
military career. It states that Chandragupta II ‘bought the earth’ and paid for the same with his prowess, and also
reduced the kings of other Empires to the status of enslaved people. The Gupta Empire extended from the mouth of
Indus and northern Pakistan in the west to the Bengal in the east and from the Himalayan terai area in the north to the
Narmada River in the south during the reign of Chandragupta According to the historical evidence, Chandragupta II
achieved military success against the western Kshatraps who used to rule west-central India. In addition to this, he
defeated the alliance of enemies in the Vanga country and also defeated the Vahikas across the Sindhu river.
- A feudatory known from the Udayagiri inscription, Maharaja Sanakanika, records his construction of a Vaishnava
temple.A feudatory known from a Gaya inscription, Maharaja Trikamala engraved on Bodhisattva image. Here
mentioned are ministers and officers of Chandragupta II: Vira-sena was the foreign minister. Amrakardava was the
military officer. Shikhara-swami was the minister who authored the political treatise Kamandakiya Niti.
- Apart from military power, he also elevated art, philosophy, culture, religion, mathematics, and astronomy during his
rule. Chandragupta II supported and practiced Buddhism.

• 9 Gems (Navratnas) of Chandragupta II

- It is believed that Chandragupta II was deeply interested in the art and culture and Navratnas that adorned his court.
Here is a brief description of 9 gems:
- Amarasimha: He was a Sanskrit lexicographer and a poet
- Dhanvantri: He was believed to be a great Physician who worked in the court of Chandragupta II
- Harisena: He is known to have composed the Allahabad pillar Inscription. In his old age, Harisena was in the court of
Chandragupta II and described him as a Nobel king
- Kalidasa: Kalidasa is known to be an immortal poet and playwright of India
- Kahapanka: He was known to be an astrologer working in the court of Chandragupta II
- Sanku: He was in the field of architecture and contributed a lot to the beautiful structures during the Chandragupta II
reign
- Varahamihira: he wrote several books, and three of the most important were: Brihat Samhita, Panchasiddhantika, and
Brihat Jataka.

• Kumargupta
- Kumargupta was an emperor of the Gupta Empire of Ancient India. He was the son of Chandragupta II and queen
Dhruvadevi.
- Kumargupta was also known as Shankraditya and Mahindraditya. He established Nalanda University.
- He appears to have maintained control of his inherited territory, which extended from Gujarat in the west to the Bengal
region in the east, as the son of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II and queen Dhruvadevi.

35
- Although no concrete information about Kumaragupta's military achievements is available, he performed an
Ashvamedha sacrifice, which was typically performed to demonstrate imperial sovereignty.
- Some modern historians believe he subdued the Aulikaras of central India and the Traikutakas of western India based
on epigraphic and numismatic evidence.
- The Bhitari pillar inscription states that his successor Skandagupta restored the Gupta family's fallen fortunes, which
has led to speculation that during his final years, Kumaragupta suffered reverses, possibly against the Pushyamitras or
the Hunas.

• Skandagupta
- Following Kumaragupta's death, it is said that several people in the Gupta empire assumed sovereign status.
Kumaragupta's brother, Govindagupta, is among them.
- Skandagupta was a Gupta Emperor from northern India. Skandagupta was the son of Gupta emperor Kumaragupta I.
- He ascended to the throne in 455 AD and reigned until 467 AD.
- Skandagupta demonstrated his ability to rule by defeating Pushyamitras during his early years in power, earning the
title of Vikramaditya.
- During his 12 year reign, he not only defended India's great culture, but also defeated the Huns, who had invaded India
from the north west.
- According to the Bhitari pillar inscription, he restored "his family's fallen fortunes."
- He prepared for this, according to the inscription, by sleeping on the ground for a night and then defeating his enemies,
who had grown wealthy and powerful.
- After defeating his opponents, he went to see his widowed mother, who was crying "tears of joy."
- His mother was most likely Kumaragupta's junior wife, not the chief queen, and thus his claim to the throne was
illegitimate.
- According to the Junagadh inscription, the goddess of fortune, Lakshmi, chose Skandagupta as her husband after
rejecting all other "sons of kings."
- Skandagupta's coins depict a woman presenting him with an unidentified object, most likely a garland or ring.
- He is widely regarded as the final of the great Gupta Emperors.

• Adminstrative setup of the Guptas

Gupta Administration - Features

- Monarchy was the dominant form of government during the Gupta period. The Gupta dynasty's rulers had their own
councils.
- Mantri Parishad was the name given to the ministerial council. It was made up of high-ranking officials such as the
kumaramatya and the sandhivigrahika.
- The empire was divided into provinces called 'bhuktis.' The bhuktis were further classified as 'Vishyas.' Each bhukti
was administered by a 'uparika,' who was appointed by the king. Vishayapatis were appointed by the provincial
governor or, in some cases, the king himself to control the vishayas.
- The bhuktis were further subdivided into 'vishayas,' each of which was overseen by a Vishayapati.
- The village administration was overseen by the village headman. Unlike the Mauryan period, the administration in the
Gupta period appears to have been managed from the ground up.

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Gupta Administration - The King
- Political hierarchies during the Gupta era can be identified by the titles used. Kings were given titles like
maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka, and parameshvara.
- They were also associated with gods through epithets such as parama-daivata (the foremost worshipper of the gods)
and parama bhagavata (the foremost worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna).
- Some historians believe the Gupta Kings claimed divine status. In the Allahabad inscription, for example,
Samudragupta is compared to Purusha (Supreme Being).
- These assertions can be interpreted as the king's attempt to claim divine status.

Gupta Administration - Ministers and Other Officials

- Official ranks and designations are mentioned on seals and inscriptions, but their precise meaning is often unknown.
- The term "kumaramatya" appears on six Vaishali seals, indicating that this title represented a high-ranking officer with
his own office (adikarana).
- The designation "amatya" appears on several Bita seals, and the "kumaramatya" appears to have been preeminent
among amatyas and equivalent in status to princes of royal Kumaramatyas were attached to the king, crown prince,
revenue department, or a province.
- One of the Vaishali seals refers to a kumaramatya who appears to have been in charge of maintaining the Lichchavis'
sacred coronation tank.
- Individuals with the rank of kumaramatya sometimes had additional designations, which were hereditary.
Harisena, the composer of the Allahabad prashasti (praise inscriptions), was a kumaramatya, sandhivigrahika, and
mahadandanayaka, as well as the son of Dhruvabhuti, a mahadandanayaka.

Gupta Administration - Council of Ministers

- A council of mantrins(ministers) aided the Gupta king. The Allahabad prashasti refers to the Sabha, a ministerial
assembly or council.
- The various high-ranking functionaries included the sandhivigrahika or mahasandhivigrahika (minister for peace and
war), who appears to have been a high-ranking officer in charge of contact and correspondence with other states,
including initiating wars and concluding alliances and treaties.
- High-ranking officials were referred to as dandanayakas, while mahadandanayakas were high-ranking judicial or
military officers.
- One of the seals mentions a mahadandanayaka named Agnigupta. The Allahabad prashasti refers to three
mahadandanayakas. All of this suggests that these positions were hereditary in nature.
- Another person was given the title mahashvapati (commander of the cavalry), indicating military duties.

Gupta Administration - Division of Empire

- The provinces of the Gupta Empire were known as deshas or bhuktis. Governors, known as uparikas, were in charge of
running them.
- The king directly appointed the uparika, who in turn frequently appointed the district administration and the district
board.

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- Uparika continued to rule "with the enjoyment of the rule consisting of elephants, horses, and soldiers," implying
control over military machinery as well.
- The uparika's use of the title maharaja on three Damodarpur plates indicates his high status and position in the
administrative hierarchy.
- The Budhagupta Eran pillar inscription, dated Gupta year 165 CE, refers to Maharaja Surashmichandra as a lokpala,
ruling over the land between the Kalinndi and Narmada rivers.
- Lokpala appears to be a provincial governor in this context. The Gupta Empire's provinces were divided into districts
known as visayas, which were ruled by officers known as vishyapatis.
- The vishyapatis appear to have been appointed by the provincial governor in general.
- The vishyapatis were sometimes directly appointed by the kings. The vishyapati was assisted in administrative duties
by prominent members of the town.

Gupta Administration - Administrative Unit Below district level

- Clusters of settlements known as vithi, bhumi, pathaka, and peta were the administrative units below the district level.
- There are references to officials known as ayuktakas and vithi-mahattaras. Villagers elected functionaries such as
gramika and gramadhyaksha.
- The Damodarpur copper plate from the reign of Budhagupta mentions an ashtakula-adhikarana (a board of eight
members) headed by the mahattara.
- Mahattara has several meanings, including village elder, village headman, and head of a family community. The
panchmandali, which may have been a corporate body, is mentioned in a Sanchi inscription from the time of
Chandragupta II.

Army of Gupta Empire

- Military designations like baladhikrita and mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry and cavalry) are mentioned on
seals and inscriptions.
- The term "senapati" does not appear in Gupta inscriptions, but it may appear in some Vakataka epigraphs.
- The ranabhandagar-adhikarana, or military storehouse office, is mentioned on a Vaishali seal.
- Another Vaishali seal mentions the dandapashika's adhikarana (office), which could have been a district-level police
station.
- The mahapratiara (chief of the palace guards) and the khadyatapakita(superintendent of the royal kitchen) were two
officials specifically connected with the royal establishment.
- A Vaishali seal refers to a person as a mahapratihara as well as a taravara. The administrative structure's top layer also
included amatyas and sachivas, who were executive officers in charge of various departments.
- Spies known as dutakas were part of the espionage system. Another group of high-ranking officers were the ayuktakas.

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Module 5: The Delhi Sulatanate
The period from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. came to be known as the Delhi Sultanate period. This period witnessed many
dynasties and various rulers. Some of the major dynasties and rulers this period witnessed are listed below.
1. Slave ( Gulam ) or Mamluk Dynasty
2. Khilji Dynasty
3. Tughlaq Dynasty
4. Sayyid Dynasty
5. Lodhi Dynasty

• Slave ( Gulam ) or Mamluk Dynasty

- Three dynasties were established during this period. They were –
1.Qutbi dynasty (c. 1206 – 1211 CE) – Its founder was Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
2. First Ilbari dynasty (c. 1211- 1266 CE) – Its founder was Iltumish.
3. Second Ilbari dynasty (c. 1266 – 1290 CE) – Its founder was Balban.

• Qutub-ud-din Aibak (c. 1206 – 1210 CE)

- Qutub-ud-din Aibak founded the Slave dynasty. He was a Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori who played an important
part in the expansion of the Turkish Sultanate in India after the Battle of Tarain. Muhammad Ghori made him the
governor of his Indian possessions. He raised a standing army and established his hold over north India even during the
lifetime of Ghori.
- After the death of Muhammad Ghori (c. 1206 CE), Tajuddin Yaldauz, the ruler of Ghazni claimed his rule over Delhi
and the governor of Multan and Uchch, Nasiruddin Qabacha wanted independence. He also had to face many revolts
from Rajputs and other Indian rulers. However, Aibak, by displaying his mighty power as well as other conciliatory
measures, was able to win over his enemies. He defeated Yaldauz and severed all connections with Ghazni and thus
founded the Slave dynasty as well as the Delhi Sultanate.

• Aram Shah (c. 1210 CE)

Qutub-ud-din was succeeded by his son Aram Shah who was incapable as a ruler. He was opposed by the Turkish armies
and his rule lasted for only eight months

• Iltutmish (c. 1210 – 1236 CE)

Iltutmish belonged to the Ilbari tribe and therefore, his dynasty was named the Ilbari dynasty. His half brothers sold him
as a slave to Aibak who made him his son-in-law by giving his daughter to him. Later Aibak appointed him as Iqtadar of
Gwalior. In c.1211 CE, Iltutmish dethroned Aram Shah and became the Sultan with the name of Shamsuddin. He is
regarded as the real consolidator of Turkish rule in India.

• Ruknuddin Feruz Shah (c. 1236 CE)

• He was the eldest son of Iltutmish who ascended the throne with the help of nobles. When the governor of Multan
revolted, Ruknuddin Feroz Shah marched to suppress the revolt. Using this opportunity, Iltutmish’s daughter Raziya
with the help of the Amirs of Delhi seized the throne of the Delhi Sultanate
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• Raziya Sultan (c. 1236 – 1239 CE)
- Raziya Sultan was the first and only female ruler of medieval India’s Sultanate period.
- Raziya appointed an Abyssinian slave, Malik Jamal-ud-din Yaqut as master of the Royal horses (Amir-i-akhur). The
recruitment of a few other non-Turks to important positions aroused resentment among the Turkish nobles. Raziya
Sultan discarded the female apparel and held the court with her face uncovered which further created resentment. She
even went hunting and led the army.
- In c. 1240 CE, Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda (Sirhaind) revolted against her. Raziya alongside Yaqut marched
against Altunia, but on the way, Turkish followers of Altunia murdered Yaqut and took Raziya prisoner. In the
meantime, the Turkish nobles put Bahram, another son of Iltutmish on the throne. However, Raziya won over her
captor, Altunia and after marrying him, proceeded to Delhi. But she was defeated and killed on the way by Bahram
Shah.

• Bahram Shah (c. 1240 – 1242 CE)

The fall of Raziya Sultan paved the way for the ascendancy of ‘the Forty’. During the reign of Bahram Shah, there
continued the struggle for supremacy between Sultan and the nobles. The Turkish nobles supported Bahram Shah in the
beginning but later became disordered and during this unrest, Bahram Shah was killed by his own army.

• Alauddin Masud Shah (c. 1242 – 1246 CE)

He was the son of Ruknuddin Feroz Shah and nephew of Raziya Sultan. After the death of Bahram Shah, he was chosen
as the next ruler. However, he was incompetent and incapable of handling the affairs in the government and was replaced
by Nasiruddin Mahmud

• Nasiruddin Mahmud (c. 1246 – 1265 CE)

- He was the grandson of Iltutmish who was young and inexperienced. He had ascended the throne with the help of
Balban/Ulugh Khan, a member of Chahalgani (the Forty) who himself assumed the position of regent.
- He married his daughter to Nasirruddin and therefore, the real power lay in the hands of Balban. Balban was powerful
in the administration but he had to face the intrigues of his rivals in the royal court. He overcame all the difficulties. In
c. 1265 CE,
- Nasirruddin Mahmud died and according to some historians like Ibn Batuta and Isami, Balban poisoned him and
ascended the throne

• Balban (c. 1266 – 1286 CE)

- Balban’s experience as a regent made him understand the problems of the Delhi Sultanate. He knew that the real threat
to the monarchy was from the nobles called “The Forty”. He, therefore, was sure that by enhancing the power and
authority of the monarchy, he could solve the problem.
- According to Balban, the Sultan was God’s shadow on earth, Zil-e-Ilahi and the recipient of divine grace, Nibyabat-e-
Khudai.
- Balban enhanced the power of the monarchy. He introduced rigorous court discipline and new customs like prostration
(sajida) and kissing the Sultan’s feet (paibos) to prove his superiority over the nobles. He introduced the Persian festival
of Nauroz to impress the nobles and people with his wealth and power.

40
- He stood forth as the champion of Turkish nobility. He excluded non-Turks from administration and Indian Muslims
were not given important positions in the government. To monitor the activities of the nobles he appointed spies and
developed an efficient spy system.
- Balban was determined to break the power of ‘The Forty’. He spared only the loyal nobles and eliminated all others by
fair or foul means. Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Bedaun, was publicly flogged for his cruelty towards his servants.
Haybat Khan, the governor of Oudh was punished for killing a man who was drunk. The governor of Bhatinda, Sher
Khan was poisoned.
- Balban had to deal with internal as well as external problems. The Mongols were looking for an opportunity to attack
the Sultanate, the Indian rulers were ready to revolt at the smallest opportunity, distant provincial governors wanted to
gain independence and the outskirts of Delhi were often plundered by the Mewatis. To handle all these problems, he
adopted a stern policy and organised a strong central army to deal with internal issues and also to repel the Mongols.
- He established a separate military department, Diwan-e-arz and reorganised the army. He deployed the army in
different parts of his country to suppress the rebellious elements. Balban paid more attention to restore law and order
instead of expanding his kingdom. Balban took stern action against the Mewatis and prevented such robberies. Robbers
were mercilessly pursued and sentenced to death, as a result of which the roads became safe for travel.
- In c. 1279 CE, Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal revolted against Balban. Balban sent his forces to Bengal and
Tughril Khan was beheaded. Balban appointed his son Bughra Khan as the governor of Bengal.
- In the northwest, the Mongols reappeared and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud against them. But the prince was
killed in the battle and it was a moral blow to Balban. Balban died in c. 1287 CE. He was one of the main architects of
the Delhi Sultanate. However, he could not fully safeguard India from the Mongol invasion

• Kaiqubad (c. 1287 – 1290 CE)

Kaiqubad was the grandson of Balban and was made the Sultan of Delhi by the nobles. He was soon replaced by his son,
Kaimur. In c. 1290 CE, Feroz, the Ariz-e-Mumalik (the minister of war) murdered Kaimur and captured the throne. He
took the title of Jalal-ud-din Khalji and established the Khalji dynasty.

• Khiliji Dynasty

• Jalal-ud-din Khalji (c. 1290 – 1296 CE)

Jalal-ud-din Khalji was the founder of the Khalji dynasty. He was 70 years old when he assumed power. He had
been the warden of the marches in the northwest and had fought many successful battles against the Mongols
during Balban’s reign. The Khaljis were of mixed Turkish-Afghan descent, they did not exclude the Turks from
high offices but the rise of the Khaljis to power ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices.

• Alauddin Khalji (c. 1296 – 1316 CE)

Alauddin Khalji was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din Khalji. He was appointed as the Amir-i-Tuzuk
(Master of ceremonies) and also Arizi-i-Mumalik (minister of war) during the reign of Jalaluddin Khalji.

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• Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (c. 1316 – 1320 CE)
After the death of Alauddin Khalji, Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (one of the sons of Alauddin) ascended the
throne. He abolished all the harsh regulations of his father. He was not able to run the administration efficiently
and was murdered.

• Nasiruddin Khusrau Shah (c. 1320 CE)

He killed Mubarak Shah. His reign did not last long. The governor of Dipalpur, Ghazi Malik killed Khusrau
Shah and ascended the throne of Delhi under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in c. 1320 CE. He was the only
Hindu convert to sit on the throne of Delhi.

• Tughlaq Dynasty

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq/Ghazi Malik (c. 1320 – 1325 CE)

- Founder of the Tughlaq dynasty.
- Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad (a strong fort) near Delhi.
- Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son Jauna Khan/Muhammad bin Tughlaq against Warangal (Kakatiyas) and
Madurai (Pandyas).
- His relationship with the Sufi saint Sheikh Nizam ud din Aulia was not cordial.
- It is believed that Jauna Khan treacherously killed his father and ascended the throne with the title
Muhammad bin Tughlaq in c. 1325 CE.
•
• Muhammad Bin Tughlaq/Jauna Khan (c. 1325 – 1351 CE)
• He was a very attractive character in the history of medieval times because of his ambitious schemes and
novel experiments. However, his novel experiments and enterprises failed miserably a s they were far ahead
of their time.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq (c. 1351 – 1388 CE)
- After the death of Muhammad bin Tughlaq in c.1351 CE, Firoz Shah Tughlaq was chosen as the Sultan by
the nobles.
- He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert as wazir (Prime Minister). He helped the
Sultan in his administration and maintained the prestige of the Sultanate during this period.

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• Sayyid Dynasty

• Khizr Khan (c. 1414 – 1421 CE)

Before Timur left India, he appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan. He captured Delhi and founded the Sayyid
dynasty in c. 1414 CE. He did not adopt the title of Sultan and was content with Rayat-i-Ala.
He is considered to be an important ruler of the Sayyid dynasty. He tried to consolidate the Delhi Sultanate but in vain. He
died in c. 1421 CE.

• Mubarak Shah (c. 1421 – 1433 CE)

Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah.

• Muhammad Shah (c. 1434 – 1443 CE)

Muhammad Shah who succeeded Mubarak Shah was always busy acting against conspirators and gradually lost control
over his nobles.
Muhammad Shah died in c. 1445 CE and was succeeded by his son Alam Shah.

• Alam Shah (c. 1445 – 1451 CE)

He was the weakest amongst all Sayyid princes and proved to be incompetent.
His wazir, Hamid Khan invited Bahlul Lodhi to take charge of the army. Alam Shah realised that it would be difficult to
continue as a ruler, so he retired to Badaun.

• Lodi Dynasty

• Bahlol Lodhi (c. 1451 – 1489 CE)

- He founded the Lodhi dynasty.
- In c. 1476 CE, he defeated the sultan of Jaunpur and annexed it to Delhi Sultanate. He also brought the ruler
of Kalpi and Dholpur under the suzerainty of Delhi. He annexed the Sharqui dynasty and introduced Bahlol
copper coins.
- He died in c. 1489 CE and was succeeded by his son, Sikander Lodhi.

• Sikander Lodhi (c. 1489 – 1517 CE)

- He was the greatest of the three Lodhi sovereigns. He brought the whole of Bihar under his control and many
Rajput chiefs were defeated. He attacked Bengal and forced its ruler to conclude a treaty with him and
extended his kingdom from Punjab to Bihar.
- He was a good administrator, he built roads and many irrigation facilities were provided for the benefit of the
peasantry.
- He introduced the Gazz-i-Sikandari, a new measurement yardstick and a system of auditing of accounts.
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- Despite having applaudable qualities, he was a bigot and was intolerant towards non-Muslims. Many temples
were destroyed and he re-imposed Jiziya on non-Muslims.

Ibrahim Lodhi ( c. 1517 – 1526 CE)

- Sikander Lodhi was succeeded by his eldest son, Ibrahim Lodhi who was an arrogant and repressive ruler.
- He insulted his nobles in the court and the ones who revolted were put to death. Daulat Khan Lodhi, the
governor of Punjab was humiliated and disaffection between king and courtier became very common during
his reign. Greatly displeased by the attitude of Ibrahim Lodhi, Daulat Khan Lodhi invited Babur to invade
India. Babur marched against Delhi, defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat in c.
1526 CE. The Afghan kingdom thus lasted for only seventy-five years.

• Adminstration of Delhi Sultanate

- The effective administrative system under the Delhi Sultanate made a great impact on the Indian provincial
kingdoms and later on the Mughal administrative system. At its peak, the Delhi Sultanate controlled regions
as far south as Madurai.
- The Turkish ruler Mahmud of Ghazni was the first to adopt the title of Sultan. The Delhi Sultanate was an
Islamic State with its religion as Islam. The sultans were considered to be the representatives of the Caliph.
The name of the Caliph was included in the khutba (prayer) and also inscribed on their coins. This practice
was even followed by Balban, who called himself “the shadow of God”. Iltutmish, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
and Feroz Tughlaq obtained a ‘mansur’ (letter of investiture) from the Caliph.
- The ultimate authority for the legal, military & political activities was with the Sultan. All the Sultan’s sons
had an equal claim to the throne since there was no unambiguous succession law at the time. Iltutmish had
even nominated his daughter Raziya over his sons. However, such nominations had to be accepted by the
nobles. At times, the Ulemas also played a pivotal role in getting a favourable public opinion. Nevertheless,
military might was the chief factor when it came to succession.

• Central Administration
- There were many departments and officials who helped the Sultan in administration. The Naib was the most
influential post and virtually enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan. He had control over all the other
departments. The post of Wazir was next to the Naib and he headed the finance department known as the
Diwan-i-Wizarat. An Auditor-General for examining expenditure and an Accountant General for checking
income worked under the Wazir. The period of wazir-ship of Feroz Shah Tughlaq Khan-i-Jahan is generally
considered as the high watermark period of the Wazir’s influences.

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- Diwan-i- Ariz was the military department that was commanded by the Ariz-i-Mumalik. He would recruit the
soldiers and administer the military department. However, Sultan himself acted as the Commander-in-chief
of the army. During the reign of Alauddin Khalji, the number of soldiers in the department was about three
lakh. The efficient army helped in containing the Mongol invasions along with the Decan expansion. The
Turks also had a large number of properly trained elephants for war purposes. The cavalry was given prime
importance and was considered more prestigious.
- The department of religious affairs, Diwan-i-Risalat dealt with pious foundations and granted stipends to
deserving scholars and men of piety. This department granted funds for the construction of madrasas, tombs
and mosques. It was headed by Chief Sadr who also functioned as Chief Qazi, the head of the judicial
system. Other judges and Qazis were appointed in different parts of the Sultanate. Sharia or Muslim personal
law was followed in civil matters. The Hindus were governed by their own personal law and their cases were
dispensed by the village panchayat. The criminal law was dictated by the rules and regulations established by
the Sultans. Diwan-i-Insha was the department of correspondence. All the correspondence between the ruler
and the sovereigns of other states as well as with his junior officials was managed by this department.

• Provincial Government
- Iqtas, the provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were initially under the dominion of the nobles. Muqtis or
Walis was the name given to the governors of the provinces and were responsible for maintaining law and
order and collecting the land revenue. The provinces were further divided into Shiqs, which was under the
control of the Shiqdar. The Shiqs were further divided into Pargana, comprising a number of villages and was
headed by the Amil. The village remained the basic unit of administration and its headman was called
Chaudhri or Muqaddam. Patwari was the village accountant.

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