Information & Management 56 (2019) 103136

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Information & Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/im

How social media usage affects employees’ job satisfaction and turnover T
intention: An empirical study in China
Xin Zhanga, Liang Maa, Bo Xub,⁎, Feng Xua
a
Shandong University of Finance and Economics, Jinan, China
b
School of Management, Fudan University, 670, Guoshun Road, Shanghai 200433, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Social media are frequently used in enterprises for both work-related and non-work-related (social) purposes.
Social media usage Drawing on the organizational commitment theory, we developed a research model to explore how different
Employee engagement purposes of social media usage affect employees’ job satisfaction and turnover intention in the Chinese context.
Organizational commitment Online and offline surveys were conducted in China, generating 298 valid responses for analysis. The results
Job satisfaction
suggest that the following: (1) work-related and social-related social media usage positively affects employees’
Turnover intention
organizational commitment through their organizational engagement; (2) social media usage improves job sa-
tisfaction and reduces employees’ turnover intention through improving their engagement and organizational
commitment; and (3) in the process of social media usage influencing employees’ job satisfaction and turnover
intention, employees of different genders show significant differences.

1. Introduction
The advent of social media such as WeChat, QQ, and Micro-blog has
changed the way individuals connect and communicate with each other
within organizations [1,2]. Social media usage in organizations can
contribute to internal knowledge management, social interaction, and
the promotion of firm performance [3,4]. Although some people think
social media in enterprises may also bring negative consequences and
question their cost-effectiveness, more than two-thirds of companies
plan to use social media in the next 12 months [5–7].
To date, social media research in enterprises predominantly focused
on the following two aspects. First, some scholars have devoted their
attention to exploring the influential factors of social media usage,
mainly including technology factors [1], organizational factors [8,9],
environment framework [1], as well as personal factors [10]. Second,
some scholars have examined the consequences of social media use in
enterprises, including job satisfaction and job performance [3], re-
lationship management [1], information searching, and sharing [11].
Although social media have been studied in enterprises, the following
limitations remain: (1) As Parveen et al. [3] stated, it is critical to in-
vestigate the various purposes of social media usage and its impact on
organizational performance. Most of the studies have not segmented
social media usage; they have just studied social media use intensity or
frequency for work [6,12]. Few scholars have studied social media
usage from the perspective of both work and social purposes and ex-
plored their effect in organizations. (2) Some existing research ex-
amined the direct effect of social media usage on job satisfaction and
job performance [10,13] but did not show the process or how different
purposes of social media usage may have the impact. (3) Although
multiple studies have attempted to identify the antecedents and con-
sequences of social media use in enterprises [3,9], most of them treated
employees as a homogeneous entity, ignoring potential group differ-
ences in social media usage and its organizational impact [14,15].
To narrow these research gaps, we drew on organizational com-
mitment theory to investigate how different purposes of social media
usage affect employees’ organizational commitment, job satisfaction,
and turnover intention in the Chinese context. Thereafter, the model
was empirically tested using survey data. Our research provides both
theoretical and practical contributions. First, this paper has studied
social media usage from the perspective of both work and social pur-
poses and explored its effect on employees in organization. Second, we
contribute to organizational commitment theory by clarifying the re-
lationship between different purposes of social media use and organi-
zational commitment and revealing its path process. Third, we also
found that gender differences exist in social media usage’s effects on
employees’ job satisfaction and turnover intention. Moreover, this
paper provides practical implications on how to distribute the work
between male and female employees; how to improve the engagement,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: zhangxin@sdufe.edu.cn (X. Zhang), maliang1010@126.com (L. Ma), bxu@fudan.edu.cn (B. Xu), xu_f@163.com (F. Xu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2018.12.004
Received 30 November 2017; Received in revised form 1 December 2018; Accepted 9 December 2018
Available online 11 December 2018
0378-7206/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
X. Zhang, et al.
organizational commitment and job satisfaction level; and how to re-
duce employees’ turnover through social media in enterprises.
This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides the literature
review. Section 3 describes the research model and develops hy-
potheses, followed by the method and analyses in Section 4. Section 5
discusses the research findings, implications, and limitations.
2. Literature review
2.1. Social media use in enterprises
The usage of social media in enterprises has attracted wide attention
of scholars [6,16]. With regard to the purpose and dimension of social
media usage in enterprises, most of the prior studies have been con-
ducted from a single perspective of social media use [3,9,17,18], or
social media use for work [6,10,19]. For example, some articles studied
social media use intensity [13] or social media use frequency for work
[8]. Tajudeen et al. [1] studied social media use for information search,
for marketing, for building customer relationship. And Tajvidi and
Karami [20] indicated social media use may enhance a company’s
marketing capabilities, thus improving firm performance. Social media
can be used for work-related and social-related purposes by employees.
However, few scholars have studied social media usage from the per-
spective of both work and social purposes and explored its organiza-
tional impact. As Parveen et al. [3] stated, different purposes of social
media usage might lead to different impact on organizational perfor-
mance. Therefore, it is necessary to study social media usage for both
work and social purposes, and examine the results of different purposes
of social media usage in organizations.
The review of previous literature on social media usage in en-
terprises showed that some scholars have explored the influential fac-
tors of social media usage in enterprises [8,10], and other scholars have
examined the effects of social media usage in enterprises [3,11]. In
particular, organizational factors such as organizational rules, norms
and policies, organizational type and size [8], the number of commu-
nication staff, communication professionals’ strategic vision [13], per-
sonal factors such as perceived utilitarian and hedonic values [10],
experience, employees’ perceptions of a workplace related to coworker
support, supervisor support, and job-related demands are main factors
that affect social media usage in enterprises [13]. The consequences of
social media use in enterprises mainly focused on the impact of social
media usage on relationship management [1], information searching
and sharing [11], job satisfaction, and job performance [3]. However,
the existing research mainly examined the direct effect of social media
usage on job satisfaction and job performance [10,13] and did not re-
veal how the different purposes of social media usage have effect on
employees. Employees’ satisfaction and turnover have great impact on
organizational performance and are mostly concerned by enterprises.
Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the path process between dif-
ferent purposes of social media use and employees’ job satisfaction and
turnover intention.
Finally, although multiple studies have attempted to identify the
antecedents and consequences of social media use in enterprises [3,9],
most of these studies treated employees as a homogeneous entity, ig-
noring potential group differences [14]. Past studies have identified
significant differences in the patterns of IT use by men and women
[21,22], suggesting that the outcomes of social media usage in en-
terprises may also differ between male and female employees. It is
important to study gender differences in employees’ engagement and
outcomes of social media usage.
2.2. Organizational commitment theory
The concept of organizational commitment was first proposed by
Becker [30] in 1960, and it was defined as a tendency to maintain
2
Information & Management 56 (2019) 103136
“activity consistency” resulting from unilateral investment. Organiza-
tional commitment is an important variable to reflect the important
attitude of employees to the organization, and also an important pre-
dictor of employee behaviors. Porter et al. [31] indicated that organi-
zational commitment is an emotional dependence of employees on or-
ganizations. Later, Meyer and Allen [32] conducted a comprehensive
study of the organizational commitment scale, showing that it had at
least three forms of commitment: emotional commitment, continuing
commitment, and normative commitment, which has been recognized
by most scholars. The theoretical model of organizational commitment
includes the antecedents and outcome modes of organizational com-
mitment [33] and the role perception of organizational commitment
[34]. Specifically, Steers [33] held that the antecedents of organiza-
tional commitment mainly include personal characteristics, job char-
acteristics, and work experience; the outcomes of organizational com-
mitment mainly include retention, attendance, and job performance.
The role perception model of organizational commitment believes that
the psychological view and exchange view of organizational commit-
ment does not fully consider the related factors of organizational
membership or turnover [34]. Thus, a new role perception model is
established to explain the retention intention and turnover intention of
the core employees.
The existing research on organizational commitment mainly focused
on two aspects: one is study of the concept, structure, and measure-
ment, that is, the study of organizational commitment itself [35,36],
and the other is research on the antecedents, related, and resulting
variables of organizational commitment [37,38], which include job
satisfaction, turnover intention, organizational culture, trust, etc.
[39–41]. Job satisfaction and turnover intention are closely related to
organizational commitment, which provides powerful explanation on
employees’ satisfaction and retention [42]. Commitment is also ex-
plored largely in the IS domain [43,44]. For example, based on com-
mitment theory, Chen et al. [45] indicated that affective and con-
tinuance commitment are the main drivers of users' content creation
behaviors in SNSs, while normative commitment has little influence on
content creation behaviors. Wasko and Faraj [46] found that users’
commitment significantly affects their contribution to an online com-
munity. Bateman et al. [47] held that each form of community com-
mitment has a unique impact on each behavior, with need-based
commitment predicting thread reading, affect-based commitment pre-
dicting reply posting and moderating behaviors, and obligation-based
commitment predicting only moderating behavior. Malhotra and Gal-
letta [48] indicated that users may generate commitment to a system,
which positively influences their attitude and intention to use the
system. Li et al. [49] found that users may have commitment to a
website, which drives their stickiness to the website. However, few
study explored the relationship between system usage and employees’
organizational commitment. Bala and Bhagwatwar [50] found that
dispositions to job (i.e., job satisfaction and job security) and organi-
zation (i.e., organizational commitment and organizational trust) act as
a dual role of antecedents and consequences of system use. Based on
research on organizational commitment, this study investigates effect of
employees’ social media usage of different purposes on the formation of
organizational commitment and their job satisfaction and turnover in-
tention.
3. Research model and hypotheses
Organizational commitment results from employees’ investment in
their role and in the organization [30]. Social media is an effective
means for employees to communicate, cooperate, build, and maintain
relationship with each other. With social media, employees would be
more engaged in work and organizational activities, which leads to
commitment to organization and, consequently, job satisfaction and
retention.
X. Zhang, et al.
3.1. Social media usage and employee engagement
Employee engagement is defined as a distinct and unique construct
that consists of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components as-
sociated with individual role performance [51]. The two most dominant
roles for most organizational members are their work role and their role
as a member of an organization [52]. Therefore, employee engagement
can be divided into job engagement and organizational engagement to
reflect the extent to which an individual is psychologically present in a
particular organizational role. A review of the prior research showed
that factors such as job crafting [53], job hindrances and job resources
[54], job demands [55], intra-organizational social connection [56],
social capital, and job satisfaction [57] are considered important in
affecting employee engagement. However, few scholars have examined
the relationship between social media usage in enterprises and em-
ployee engagement. If there is a positive association between social
media usage in enterprises and employee engagement, the role of social
media usage in enterprises has greater clarity.
The theory of uses and gratifications suggests that users choose their
own media to meet their specific needs. Social media can be used in
enterprises for both work-related and nonwork-related (social) pur-
poses. In enterprises in China, social media, such as WeChat, are widely
used for work-related purposes, for example setting up meetings with
colleagues about work projects and sharing information about organi-
zational objectives, policies, and procedures. Social media are also used
for social-related purposes, for example, setting up social events with
co-workers after working hours, making friends within the organiza-
tion, and finding people with similar interests. Thus, social media usage
in enterprises can be divided into work-related and social-related pur-
poses [58]. Using 421 employees’ survey data, Zoonen et al. [6] found
that social media usage for work is positively related to engagement
through enhanced accessibility and efficient communication. This re-
lationship was also proved by Drummond et al. [17] through a case
study, which pointed out that Facebook and Twitter influence en-
trepreneurial firms’ dyadic and network actor engagement. Generally,
social media used for work-related and social-related purposes in en-
terprises might contribute to information accessibility and efficient
communication [3], which will lead to employees’ higher job engage-
ment and organizational engagement [58]. Based on the above, this
paper puts forth the following hypotheses:
H1. Work-related social media usage positively affects employees’ job
engagement.
H2. Work-related social media usage positively affects employees’
organizational engagement.
H3. Social-related social media usage positively affects employees’ job
engagement.
H4. Social-related social media usage positively affects employees’
organizational engagement.
3.2. Employee engagement and organizational commitment
Organizational commitment differs from engagement in that it re-
fers to a person’s attitude toward and attachment to his or her orga-
nization. Engagement is not an attitude but the degree to which an
individual is attentive to and absorbed in the performance of his or her
role [51]; the former is attitudinal, while the latter is behavioral.
Commitment has been operationalized in different ways. Meyer and
Allen [32] proposed the three-component model, which states that
commitment has three different components that correspond with dif-
ferent psychological states, including affective commitment, con-
tinuance commitment, and normative commitment. Although the three
types of commitment have been demonstrated to be powerful in pre-
dicting turnover, some scholars believed that affective commitment has
3
Information & Management 56 (2019) 103136
stronger associations with a wider range of behaviors, compared to
normative and continuance commitment, and suggested approaching
organizational commitment as a single construct, which would help
predicting various behaviors in general [59]. In this study, commitment
is conceptualized as a single construct focusing on employee’s attitude
to an organization and intention to continue the relationship with the
organization.
The relationship between employee engagement and organizational
commitment has been studied by many scholars in different contexts.
For example, by analyzing 352 hospitality employees, Jung and Yoon
[60] found that employees’ job engagement positively affects their or-
ganizational commitment. This conclusion was also reached by Paek
et al. [61], who provided meta-analytic evidence supporting the posi-
tive relation between engagement and organizational commitment. In
this context, we also consider that employees’ organizational commit-
ment will increase with engagement. We suggest the following hy-
potheses:
H5. Job engagement positively affects employees’ organizational
commitment.
H6. Organizational engagement positively affects employees’ orga-
nizational commitment.
3.3. Organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover intention
Job satisfaction is defined as the pleasant or positive emotional state
resulting from employees’ work or work experience evaluation [62].
There are three main viewpoints about the relationship between orga-
nizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover intention: First,
some scholars have pointed out that job satisfaction affects organiza-
tional commitment and thus employees’ turnover intention [63];
second, organizational commitment has an impact on turnover inten-
tion through job satisfaction [64]; and third, job satisfaction and or-
ganizational commitment are interrelated and both affect turnover in-
tention [65]. Generally speaking, organizational commitment and job
satisfaction are interrelated and exert a mutually related positive in-
fluence. When employees are satisfied with their job, they are often
willing to continue to stay in the enterprise; at this time, their organi-
zational commitment is higher. When they decide to stay in the en-
terprise, they tend to be hardworking, which contributes to their sa-
tisfaction with their work. Empirical studies have confirmed that, when
employees’ organizational commitment increases, their job satisfaction
tends to increase [64,66], and employees’ turnover intention will de-
crease with an increase in their job satisfaction and organizational
commitment [65,67]. Based on the above, the current research pro-
poses the following hypotheses:
H7. Organizational commitment positively affects employees’ job
satisfaction.
H8. Organizational commitment negatively affects employees’ turnover
intention.
H9. Job satisfaction negatively affects employees’ turnover intention.
3.4. Employee gender differences
According to the gender role theory, men and women tend to place
differential importance on work and family roles because of the ste-
reotypes associated with the roles that they occupy [68]. Men tend to
place more emphasis on their work role than women, while women
may place more emphasis on their family roles [69]. Considerable re-
search has emphasized employee gender differences in attitude, risk
perception, emotion, and behavioral intention [69,70]. However, they
have generally been ignored in relation to social media usage in the
enterprise domain. To our knowledge, no empirical study has directly
addressed gender issues in the study of social media usage in the
workplace. According to Akman et al. [71], employees’ gender has a
X. Zhang, et al.
Fig. 1. Research Model.
positive impact on the average daily time spent on the use of the In-
ternet for communication/e-mailing /chat and information access/
downloading/entertainment. Selvarajan et al. [69] pointed out that
female temporary employees have more positive work-related attitudes
toward the client organization. Based on the gender role theory, we
hold that differences exist in employees’ engagement, commitment, and
behavioral intention, as men and women tend to place differential
importance on work and family roles. In light of the aforementioned
research, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H10. The effect of social media usage on employees’ engagement,
commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover intention will vary
according to their gender.
Based on the above discussion, this paper puts forward the research
model shown in Fig. 1.
4. Research method and data analyses
4.1. Data collection
A questionnaire was used to validate the conceptual model. The
items that measured each variable were developed from the prior lit-
erature. Those measures are shown in Appendix A. All the items were
measured with a seven-point Likert scale ranging from one (strongly
disagree/unlikely) to seven (strongly agree/likely). In the first part, we
gave a brief introduction to the purpose of this study, and then the
respondents answered questions about their social media usage, en-
gagement, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover
intention. In the second part, they were asked to provide their demo-
graphic characteristics, such as age, gender, and education, and their
enterprise-related characteristics, such as the length of time since they
entered the company, size of the company, position, department, fre-
quently used social media, etc.
A small-scale pilot test was conducted with three professors and five
master students to assess the questionnaire’s logical consistency, ease of
understanding, and contextual relevance. From September 4th to
September 12th, 2017, the distribution of questionnaires took place in
two ways: a paper questionnaire and an electronic questionnaire. First,
with the help of the Shandong Electronic Commerce Association, the
electronic questionnaire link was issued to the enterprise department
managers and human resource managers. They were then asked to
forward the questionnaire link to their employees. A total of 194
electronic questionnaires were returned. At the same time, paper
questionnaires were distributed in two research and development
companies in Shandong Province, China. A total of 187 copies of paper
questionnaires were returned (Table 1).
The total number of questionnaires obtained was 381, of which 83
incomplete and unqualified questionnaires were deleted. We retained
and used 298 valid questionnaires for this study, and the effective rate
was 78.22%. Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics of the
4
Information & Management 56 (2019) 103136
respondents, including their gender, age, education, and monthly per-
sonal income.
Meanwhile, we also analyzed the enterprise-related characteristics
of the respondents. As shown in Table 3, 31.21% of the respondents had
entered the company more than 4 years before, accounting for the
largest proportion of the sample, followed by the respondents who had
entered the company less than 1 year before (28.52%). With regard to
the size of company, 68.79% of the respondents stated that their
company had more than 400 employees, representing the largest pro-
portion of the sample. Meanwhile, the largest proportion of the sample
reported being general clerks (74.83%), followed by operational man-
agers (13.42%). Furthermore, 39.26% of the respondents worked in
technology department, and 21.81% of the respondents were in mar-
keting department. Finally, 92.28% of the respondents stated that they
frequently used WeChat, 81.54% frequently used QQ, while 43.29%
frequently used Micro-blog.
4.2. Measurement model
Partial least squares (PLS), rather than covariance-based structural
equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the data. As a second-
generation multivariate technique, PLS2.0 can simultaneously assess
the measurement model and the structural model. Compared with
covariance-based SEM, PLS requires a relatively small sample size, does
not rely on the assumption of a normal distribution, and is more ap-
propriate for exploratory analysis and for handling formative con-
structs. Thus, PLS was determined to be more suitable for this current
research. Following the two-step analytical procedure [72], this re-
search examines the measurement model and the structural model in
that order.
The measurement model can be assessed by examining the relia-
bility, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Specifically, re-
liability can be assessed by determining Cronbach’s alpha, the compo-
site reliability (CR), and the average variance extracted (AVE).
According to the suggestions of Hair et al. [72], Cronbach’s alpha is
acceptable when it exceeds 0.7, CR is acceptable when it exceeds 0.7,
and AVE is acceptable when it exceeds 0.5. As shown in Table 4,
Cronbach’s alphas for this study range from 0.707 to 0.913, all of which
exceed the recommended value of 0.7. The CR ranges from 0.819 to
0.945, exceeding the recommended level of 0.70. The AVE ranges from
0.531 to 0.852, exceeding the recommended level of 0.50. Thus, the
measurement constructs have high reliability. The convergent validity
can be assessed using the factor loadings. As shown in Table 5, all of the
factor loadings are higher than 0.6 at the significance level of p < 0.01,
suggesting good convergent validity. Meanwhile, this paper examined
the discriminant validity of the measurement items. As shown in
Table 4, the square root of each factor’s AVE is larger than its corre-
sponding correlation coefficients with other factors, indicating ade-
quate discriminant validity.
To make sure that the dataset is free from common method bias, an
 Table 1
Antecedents and consequences of social media use in enterprise.
Source Social media usage factor Antecedents Consequences Findings
X. Zhang, et al.

Bretschneider and Parker [8]
Jiang et al. [9]
Charoensukmongkol [13]
Leftheriotis and Giannakos
[10]
Tajudeen et al. [1]
Zoonen et al. [16]
Social media use frequency
Social media use in communication-
related work
Social media use intensity at work
Social media use for work
Social media use for information
search, for marketing, for building
customer relations
Work-related social media use
Organizational rule standardization and rule
clarity.
Years of experience, organizational type and
size, size of communication staff, professionals’
primary role as managers.
Coworker support, supervisor support, job-
related demands.
Utilitarian and hedonic values.
Technology, organization, and environment
framework.
Need for work-related information, social, and
professional information.
n/a
Participants’ leadership behaviors
Job satisfaction, job performance, cognitive
absorption
Work performance
Cost reduction, improved customer relations and
services, information accessibility
Information dissemination, relationship
management, and organizational
ambassadorship.
Organizations with greater rule standardization and rule clarity
have higher levels of social media use.
Social media use was closely related to participants’ leadership
behaviors. Years of experience, organizational type and size,
size of communication staff, and professionals’ primary role as
managers significantly impacted the social media use in
communication related work. Communication professionals’
strategic vision about social media predicted their social media
use.
Coworker support and job demands are positively associated
with social media use intensity, while supervisor support is
negatively associated with it. Social media use at work
positively affects job satisfaction and job performance.
Utilitarian and hedonic values influence employees to use more
social media for their work. There is an important relation
between the use of social media and the work performance.
Technology factors, such as relative advantage, compatibility,
interactivity, and environment factors, such as institutional
pressure positively, affect social media use. Social media usage
has a positive impact on organizations, such as cost reduction,
improved customer relations and services, information
accessibility
Social media serve multiple functions: as a vehicle for
information dissemination, relationship management, and
organizational ambassadorship.

5
Trainor et al. [18]
Brooks [23]
Parveen et al. [3]
Go and You [24]
Schmidt et al. [25]
Zubielqui et al. [11]
Zoonen et al. [6]
Tajvidi and Karami [20]
Drummond et al. [17]
Nduhura and Prielera [4]
Social media technology use
Personal social media usage
Social media usage
Social media usage patterns
Percentage of co-worker social media
connections
Social media for internal use
Social media use for work
Social media use for online and offline.
Social media use of Facebook and
Twitter
n/a Customer relationship performance.
n/a Task performance, levels of technostress and
happiness.
n/a Organizations performance, customer relations,
customer service activities, information
accessibility, cost reduction.
n/a Communication capabilities.
n/a Perceptions of organizational support and
organizational spontaneity.
External knowledge flows Innovation and firm performance.
n/a Engagement and exhaustion, interruptions and
work-life conflict, accessibility and
communication.
n/a Branding and innovation, firm performance.
n/a Engagement, information search and share,
collaboration, and operational processes co-
ordination and reconfiguration processes.
n/a
Social media technology use positively relate to customer
relationship performance
Higher amounts of personal social media usage led to lower
performance on the task, as well as higher levels of technostress
and lower happiness.
Social media has a greater impact on the performance of
organizations in terms of enhancement in customer relations
and customer service activities, improvement in information
accessibility and cost reduction in terms of marketing and
customer service
Organizations tend to use social media applications with two-
way communication capabilities.
Percentage of co-worker social media connections has a
significant positive relationship with both perceptions of
organizational support and organizational spontaneity
Social media serves as a mediator for the effect of external
knowledge flows on firm innovativeness.
Social media use for work positively affects engagement and
exhaustion through interruptions, work-life conflict,
accessibility, and efficient communication.
Branding and innovation, positively and significantly mediate
the association between social media use and firm
performance.
In-depth interviews demonstrate that Facebook and Twitter
impact the entrepreneurial firms' dyadic and network actor
engagement, information search and share, collaboration, and
operational processes co-ordination and reconfiguration
processes.
(continued on next page)
Information & Management 56 (2019) 103136
X. Zhang, et al. Information & Management 56 (2019) 103136

inspection of Harman’s single-factor with seven constructs (WL, SL, JE,

Social media in general helpful to maintain coherence in terms

influenced by the interplay of personal and organization use of

Social and cognitive uses of technology were empirically shown

to have a positive effect on employees’ routine and innovative
job performance. Hedonic use of the technology, while having a
whereas informational social media usage does not strengthen
Online social medias have positive impact on productivity of
OE, OC, JS, TI) and 26 scale items was conducted. The statistical results
public institutions function, and they are used to coordinate

between multicultural experiences and cultural intelligence,

direct negative impact on routine performance, leading to a

Social media are increasingly playing a central role in how

Socializing social media usage strengthens the relationship

various activities (e.g., meetings and sharing information).

social media, an organizational culture of innovation, and

mitigating positive influence on innovative performance.

in this respect indicated that no single factor was able to emerge; the

of sharing work-related information, improving ambient

Perceptions of social media tools in the workplace are

highest covariance explained by one factor is 34.819%, which is less
than the cut-off value of 50%. Besides, common method bias can be
assessed by examining the statistical significance of factor loadings of
the method factor and comparing the variances of each observed in-
dicator explained by its substantive construct and the method factor.

formal guidance on social media use.

awareness, as well as for socializing.
The method factor loadings are insignificant and the indicators’ sub-
stantive variances are substantially greater than their method variances
in this study, thus, common method bias is not a serious concern.
This study synthesized the two datasets from paper questionnaire
and electronic questionnaire. A comparison of means on all the mea-
such relationship

sured factors was performed to test for collection methodology bias

academic staff.

using a t-test. The results of the t-test (Table 6) show no statistically

significant difference between the means for these two groups.
Findings

4.3. Structural model

Coordinate various activities (e.g., meetings and

The PLS results of the structural model are shown in Fig. 2. It can be
seen in Fig. 2 that work-related social media usage had positive effects
Routine and innovative job performance

on the employees’ job engagement (β = 0.163, t = 2.798, p < 0.05)

and the employees’ organizational engagement (β = 0.132, t = 2.274,
p < 0.05). Thus, hypotheses H1 and H2 were supported. Meanwhile,
Coherence in work activities

social-related social media usage had positive effects on the employees’

job engagement (β = 0.177, t = 2.697, p < 0.05) and the employees’
Employee productivity.
sharing information).

organizational engagement (β = 0.166, t = 2.099, p < 0.05). Thus,

Cultural intelligence

hypotheses H3 and H4 were supported. The effect of job engagement on

Consequences

employees’ organizational commitment was not significant (β = 0.074,

t = 1.139, p > 0.05). Thus, hypothesis H5 was not supported. How-
ever, organizational engagement had a positive effect on the employees’
n/a

organizational commitment (β = 0.646, t = 12.997, p < 0.05). Thus,

hypothesis H6 was supported. Finally, employees’ organizational
commitment had positive effect on job satisfaction (β = 0.768,
t = 24.485, p < 0.05). Thus, hypothesis H7 was supported. In addition,
Personal and organizational use of social

employees’ organizational commitment (β = -0.501, t = 6.754,

p < 0.05) and job satisfaction (β = -0.169, t = 2.184, p < 0.05) had a
negative effect on their turnover intention. Thus, hypotheses H8 and H9
were supported.

4.4. Moderating effect of gender

Antecedents

The moderating role can be tested by assessing the differences in the

path coefficients for each subgroup [73]. To examine the differences in
media

gender, path comparison testing was conducted between two groups.

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

Specifically, we divided the sample into two groups: group 1 (male)

contained 152 employees and group 2 (female) contained 146 em-
Public managers’ perceptions of social
Job-related and private uses of social

Social, hedonic, and cognitive social

Informational and socializing social
External social media use, internal

ployees. We first tested hypotheses H1–H9 separately for the two

groups. We then compared the path coefficients based on the method
developed by Keil and Wassenaar [74], which is widely used in the IS
Social media usage factor

media in the workplace.

context to test the moderating effects when the moderating variable is

Online social medias

categorical [75,76]. The results are shown in Table 7. Based on the

social media use.

results of multigroup comparisons, gender differences exist; thus, hy-

pothesis H10 was supported.
media usage

media use

media use

4.5. Mediating effect

We used the widely accepted bootstrap method to test the mediating

Forsgren and Byström [26]

effect of employee engagement and organizational commitment [77].

The PROCESS SPSS macro developed by Hayes was used to test med-
Ali-Hassan et al. [29]
Fusi and Feeney [28]
Table 1 (continued)

iation [78]. We used both the bias-corrected method and the percentile
method to test the mediating effect, and the confidence level for the
Hu et al. [27]

confidence intervals was 95%. Prebensen and Xie [78] suggested that
Tulu [15]

when the confidence interval of the statistic (indirect effect), as mea-

Source

sured by the bias-corrected method or the percentile method, does not

include zero, then the statistic has an intermediary effect. Specifically, a

6
X. Zhang, et al. Information & Management 56 (2019) 103136

Table 2 Table 5
Sample demographic information. Cross loadings.
Demographic variable Size Percentage % Items WL SL JE OE OC JS TI

Gender Male 152 51.01 WL1 0.776 0.245 0.207 0.109 0.121 0.156 −0.068
Female 146 48.99 WL2 0.832 0.141 0.103 0.129 0.082 0.070 0.025
Age 21–30 years old 219 73.49 WL3 0.830 0.177 0.187 0.197 0.152 0.162 −0.068
31–40 years old 67 22.48 WL4 0.678 0.288 0.131 0.093 0.130 0.142 −0.083
41–50 years old 12 4.03 SL1 0.282 0.728 0.180 0.146 0.116 0.150 −0.013
Education Junior college or below 41 13.76 SL2 0.280 0.752 0.142 0.115 0.056 0.109 0.008
Bachelor’s degree 229 76.85 SL3 0.080 0.713 0.177 0.131 0.052 0.146 0.015
Master’s degree or above 28 9.40 SL4 0.148 0.722 0.138 0.186 0.170 0.236 −0.092
Monthly personal income < = 3,000 13 4.36 JE1 0.170 0.182 0.815 0.431 0.361 0.404 −0.227
(RMB) 3,001–5,000 134 44.97 JE2 0.182 0.197 0.844 0.408 0.295 0.198 −0.091
5,001–8,000 101 33.89 JE3 0.149 0.144 0.730 0.318 0.267 0.156 −0.069
8,001–12,000 32 10.74 OE1 0.142 0.139 0.401 0.873 0.658 0.656 −0.455
> 12,000 18 6.04 OE2 0.115 0.179 0.373 0.902 0.638 0.650 −0.431
OE3 0.162 0.150 0.389 0.843 0.562 0.477 −0.361
OE4 0.195 0.231 0.528 0.768 0.425 0.366 −0.211
OC1 0.198 0.131 0.312 0.534 0.856 0.646 −0.603
Table 3 OC2 0.123 0.121 0.334 0.620 0.902 0.664 −0.565
Enterprise-related characteristics of respondents. OC3 0.084 0.145 0.382 0.647 0.885 0.608 −0.497
OC4 0.036 0.059 0.320 0.496 0.752 0.546 −0.361
Demographic variable Size Percentage % OC5 0.200 0.103 0.251 0.493 0.692 0.556 −0.534
JS1 0.168 0.246 0.305 0.620 0.565 0.892 −0.520
Time to enter the company < = 1 year 85 28.52 JS2 0.181 0.221 0.306 0.584 0.629 0.952 −0.529
1–2 year 47 15.77 JS3 0.139 0.155 0.300 0.590 0.630 0.924 −0.483
2–3 year 43 14.43 QI1 −0.084 −0.029 −0.169 −0.461 −0.645 −0.593 0.942
3–4 year 30 10.07 QI2 −0.032 −0.027 −0.139 −0.333 −0.492 −0.396 0.892
> = 4 year 93 31.21
Size of the company < = 200 employees 35 11.74
201–400 employees 58 19.46
> = 400 employees 205 68.79
and the confidence interval of the direct effect includes zero. The results
Position General clerk 223 74.83
operational managers 40 13.42 are shown in Table 8.
middle managers 29 9.73 It was interesting to find that the confidence interval of the indirect
Top managers 6 2.01 effect does not include zero, while the confidence interval of the direct
Department Product department 31 10.40 effect does include zero. Thus, employees’ engagement, which includes
Sales Department 11 3.69
Technology Department 117 39.26
job engagement and organizational engagement, acts as a full mediator
Finance Department 33 11.07 between social media usage (including work-related and social-related)
Marketing Department 65 21.81 and organizational commitment. Organizational commitment acts as a
Customer service 12 4.03 full mediator between job engagement and job satisfaction. However,
department
organizational commitment acts as a partial mediator between orga-
Human resource 29 9.73
department nizational engagement and job satisfaction. Finally, organizational
Frequently used social WeChat 275 92.28 commitment acts as a full mediator between employees’ engagement
media Micro-blog 129 43.29 (job engagement and organizational engagement) and their turnover
QQ 243 81.54 intention.
Baidu Post Bar 33 11.07
Know almost 60 20.13
Watercress 17 5.70
Others 18 6.04 5. Discussion

This study aimed to investigate how different purposes of social

partially mediated effect is present when the confidence interval of the
indirect effect does not include zero and the confidence interval of the
direct effect does not include zero. A fully mediated effect is present
when the confidence interval of the indirect effect does not include zero
media usage affect employees’ organizational commitment, job sa-
tisfaction, and turnover intention in the Chinese context. In particular,
social media usage was divided into work-related social media usage
and social-related social media usage, and we examined their effect on
employees’ engagement and organizational commitment as well as job
satisfaction and turnover intention. It was interesting to find that social

Table 4
Descriptive statistics and inter-construct correlations.
Items CR Cronbach’s AVE WL SL JE OE OC JS TI
Alpha

WL 0.862 0.788 0.611 0.782

SL 0.819 0.707 0.531 0.268 0.729
JE 0.840 0.715 0.636 0.210 0.220 0.798
OE 0.911 0.870 0.719 0.176 0.201 0.488 0.848
OC 0.911 0.877 0.675 0.159 0.139 0.390 0.668 0.821
JS 0.945 0.913 0.852 0.176 0.224 0.329 0.647 0.683 0.923
TI 0.914 0.815 0.841 −0.067 −0.031 −0.170 −0.441 −0.630 −0.553 0.917

Note: Work-related social media usage (WL); Social-related social media usage (SL); Job engagement (JE); Organizational engagement (OE); Organizational com-
mitment (OC); Job satisfaction (JS); Turnover intention (TI).

7
X. Zhang, et al. Information & Management 56 (2019) 103136

Table 6 between employees and organization; thus, it often has a more obvious
t-test between paper and electronic questionnaires. influence on organizational commitment [51].
Factors paper questionnaire electronic questionnaire Significance (p- Third, the results of this study suggest that employees’ engagement,
(n = 146) (n = 152) value) organizational commitment, and job satisfaction act as mediators be-
tween social media usage and turnover intention. In particular, em-
WL 5.34 5.14 0.635
ployees’ engagement acts as a full mediator between social media usage
SL 5.64 5.36 0.787
JE 6.28 6.09 0.452
and organizational commitment. Organizational commitment acts as a
OE 5.54 5.67 0.680 full mediator between job engagement and job satisfaction, while or-
OC 5.24 5.01 0.354 ganizational commitment acts as a partial mediator between organi-
JS 5.23 5.09 0.856 zational engagement and job satisfaction. Furthermore, organizational
QI 3.16 3.20 0.179
commitment acts as a full mediator between employees’ engagement
and turnover intention. Job satisfaction acts as a partial mediator be-
tween employees’ organizational commitment and turnover intention.
Finally, the results of this study suggest that male employees are
media usage, which includes work-related social media usage and so- more likely to generate job and organizational engagement than female
cial-related social media usage, positively affects employees’ engage- employees under the same level of work-related and social-related so-
ment, which includes job engagement and organizational engagement. cial media usage. Male employees are more likely to generate organi-
Moreover, employees’ organizational engagement positively affects zational commitment through job engagement, while female employees
their organizational commitment, while the effect of employees’ job are more likely to generate organizational commitment through orga-
engagement on their organizational commitment is not significant. nizational engagement. Furthermore, our results show that the influ-
Finally, employees’ organizational commitment positively affects their ence paths of male and female employees’ turnover intention are dif-
job satisfaction and negatively affects their turnover intention. Job sa- ferent. Specifically, male employees are more likely to reduce turnover
tisfaction also negatively affects employees’ turnover intention. intention through job satisfaction, while female employees are more
likely to reduce turnover intention through organizational commit-
5.1. Key findings ment.

The first interesting finding was that social media usage for different
purposes (work and social) positively affects employees’ engagement.
Based on in-depth interviews, Drummond et al. [17] found that social
media usage is positively related to engagement. This relationship was
also proved by Zoonen et al. [6], who found that social media usage for
work is positively related to engagement through enhanced accessi-
bility and efficient communication. This paper took a further step and
found that both social-related and work-related social media usage in
enterprises have a positive impact on employees’ job engagement and
organizational engagement.
Second, this study found that employees’ organizational engage-
ment positively affects their organizational commitment, while the ef-
fect of employees’ job engagement on organizational commitment is not
significant. Employee engagement can be divided into job engagement
and organizational engagement to reflect the extent to which an in-
dividual is psychologically present in a particular organizational role.
The results of this paper confirmed the conclusion by Saks [51], who
found that organizational engagement is a much stronger predictor of
the outcomes, such as organizational commitment, than job engage-
ment. However, the result showed that the effect of employees’ job
engagement on their organizational commitment is not significant in
our context. One of the possible reasons may be that job engagement
reflects employee's input to the work, and organizational engagement
reflects employee's input to the organization. Compared with job en-
gagement, organizational engagement more directly increases bonding
5.2. Theoretical implications
This research offers several theoretical contributions. First, it con-
tributes to the existing literature by clarifying the relationship between
different purposes of social media use and its outcomes. The existing
research has studied social media usage in enterprises mainly from a
single perspective [3,9,17,18] or social media use for work [6,10,19].
However, different purposes of social media usage might lead to dif-
ferent impact on organizational performance [3]. This research pro-
vides insights into the framework of social media usage in enterprises,
finding that both work and social purposes are important motivations
for employees to use social media in enterprises. Our research also
advances the knowledge on how the engagement, commitment, and job
satisfaction of employees can be improved by examining the role of
social media usage for different purposes.
Second, this paper contributes to organizational commitment theory
by clarifying the relationship between different purposes of social
media use and organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turn-
over intention. The existing research investigated the direct effect of
social media usage on job satisfaction and performance [10,13]. How-
ever, the influence path of social media usage on organizational com-
mitment, job satisfaction, and turnover intention is not clear. We found
that different purposes of social media usage might contribute to em-
ployees’ engagement, which might improve organizational commit-
ment, job satisfaction, and reduces employees’ turnover intention. This

Fig. 2. Results of structural model analysis.

8
X. Zhang, et al. Information & Management 56 (2019) 103136

Table 7
Results of tests on user gender differences.
Items Path PC1 PC2 N1 N2 SE1 SE2 T Remarks Effects

**
1 WL -> JE 0.239 0.083 152 146 0.086 0.109 13.725 O (Male > Female)
2 WL -> OE 0.247** 0.064 152 146 0.069 0.197 10.776 O (Male > Female)
3 SL -> JE 0.201* 0.169 152 146 0.098 0.091 2.965 O (Male > Female)
4 SL -> OE 0.298** 0.006 152 146 0.105 0.113 23.058 O (Male > Female)
5 JE -> OC 0.189 0.001 152 146 0.103 0.068 18.464 O (Male > Female)
6 OE -> OC 0.580** 0.689** 152 146 0.090 0.052 −12.695 O (Female > Male)
7 OC -> JS 0.781** 0.755** 152 146 0.048 0.043 4.956 O (Male > Female)
8 JS -> TI −0.270* −0.070 152 146 0.111 0.105 −16.052 O (Male > Female)
9 OC -> TI −0.396** −0.604** 152 146 0.115 0.097 16.761 O (Female > Male)

Note: Spooled = {[(N1 1)/(N1 + N2 2)] × SE12 + [(N2 1)/(N1 + N2 2)] × SE22} .
t = (PC1 PC2)/[SPooled × (1/ N1 + 1/ N2)] , Ni= sample size of dataset for group i; SEi= standard error of path in structural model of group i; PCi= path coefficient in
structural model of group i;
Note: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01. O: support; X: not support.

conclusion makes important contribution that advances research on
organizational commitment by confirming employees’ different pur-
poses of social media usage are antecedent to organizational commit-
ment, which consequently impacts job satisfaction and turnover in-
tention.
Finally, this study contributes to the gender research by finding that
gender differences exist in the effect of social media usage and its
outcomes. According to the gender role theory, men and women tend to
place differential importance on work and family roles due to the ste-
reotypes associated with the roles that they occupy [68]. Selvarajan
et al. [69] pointed out that there is a relationship between gender and
work-related attitudes as men tend to place more emphasis on their
work roles while women may place more emphasis on their family
roles. This research advances our knowledge of gender differences in
enterprises. Specifically, we found that employees’ engagement, com-
mitment, job satisfaction, and turnover intention will vary according to
their gender. The research results deepen the understanding of em-
ployees’ gender differences and extend the theory of gender role.
5.3. Practical implications
The results of this research provide some practical insights for en-
terprise managers and could help them weigh the usage of social media
in enterprises. On the one hand, according to our research, social media
can be used for different purposes in enterprises, and these different
purposes lead to different effects. Thus, when considering whether to
ban social media usage in enterprises, managers should take into ac-
count the purpose of social media use. Furthermore, the role of social
media should not be ignored as it will contribute to the dimensions of
employees’ psychological conditions, such as engagement, commit-
ment, and satisfaction. The results of this research also showed that
social media usage in workplace might reduce employees’ turnover
intention through employees’ engagement, organizational commitment,
as well as job satisfaction. Thus, banning social media usage in the
workplace blindly is not a wise move. Actually, social media funda-
mentally change the way in which people communicate, establish re-
lationships, and share information. Thus, it is wise for enterprises to
issue social media usage regulations to strengthen the management of
social media usage, for example, issuing regulations to define the ac-
ceptable purposes of social media usage in the workplace.
On the other hand, enterprises should take into account the gender
differences in the effect of social media usage. According to the results
of this paper, male employees are more likely to generate job and or-
ganizational engagement than female employees under the same level
of work-related and social-related social media usage. Thus, when
considering employee’s engagement with their job and organizations,

Table 8
Results of mediating effects.
M/(IV)/(DV) Items Effect Coefficient Bias-Corrected Percentile Mediation
existence
SE T 95%CI 95%CI

JE/(WL) /(OC) Direct effect 0.073 0.055 1.331 −0.035 0.180 −0.035 0.180 Full
Indirect effect 0.074 0.029 2.552 0.026 0.142 0.020 0.136
JE/(SL) /(OC) Direct effect 0.050 0.055 0.911 −0.058 0.158 −0.058 0.158 Full
Indirect effect 0.082 0.027 3.037 0.039 0.150 0.031 0.135
OE/(WL) /(OC) Direct effect 0.031 0.044 0.713 −0.055 0.117 −0.055 0.117 Full
Indirect effect 0.116 0.043 2.698 0.033 0.202 0.030 0.196
OE/(SL) /(OC) Direct effect −0.004 0.044 −0.086 −0.090 0.082 −0.090 0.082 Full
Indirect effect 0.135 0.052 2.596 0.039 0.242 0.034 0.237
OC/(JE) /(JS) Direct effect 0.023 0.041 0.572 −0.057 0.104 −0.057 0.104 Full
Indirect effect 0.292 0.050 5.840 0.197 0.402 0.193 0.398
OC/(OE) /(JS) Direct effect 0.225 0.049 4.565 0.128 0.323 0.128 0.323 Partial
Indirect effect 0.413 0.065 6.354 0.285 0.538 0.294 0.547
OC/(JE) /(TI) Direct effect 0.092 0.050 1.854 −0.056 0.190 −0.056 0.190 Full
Indirect effect −0.250 0.045 −5.556 −0.347 −0.167 −0.345 −0.165
OC/(OE) /(TI) Direct effect −0.021 0.063 −0.339 −0.144 0.101 −0.144 0.101 Full
Indirect effect −0.404 0.058 −6.966 −0.522 −0.293 −0.529 −0.295

Note: Bootstrap 5000 times, IV: independent variable; M: mediator; DV: dependent variable; Work-related social media usage (WL); Social-related social media usage
(SL); Job engagement (JE); Organizational engagement (OE); Organizational commitment (OC); Job satisfaction (JS); Turnover intention (TI).

9
X. Zhang, et al. Information & Management 56 (2019) 103136

enterprises should encourage male employees to use social media more
for work and social purpose, and assign different jobs to them to
achieve greater success. In addition, the results show that male em-
ployees are more likely to generate organizational commitment through
job engagement, while female employees are more likely to generate
organizational commitment through organizational engagement. Thus,
enterprises should assign female employees more emotional job at or-
ganizational level and allocate more routine work to male employees.
Furthermore, our results show that the influence paths of male and
female employees’ turnover intention are different. Specifically, male
employees are more likely to reduce turnover intention through job
satisfaction, while female employees are more likely to reduce turnover
intention through organizational commitment. Thus, to retain em-
ployees, the human resources department of an enterprise should
consider giving more emotional care to women employees and paying
more attention to male employees’ satisfaction. Thus, this study may
increase corporate awareness of social media and enable companies to
make better use of social media for firm performance.
results should be approached with caution for several reasons. First and
most importantly, the sample may not represent the whole population
of social media users in enterprises. The sample was mainly collected
from e-commerce companies and software companies in China. Because
of cultural differences conclusion of this, study may not be generalized
to employees from other countries. Second, this study used a survey
method, in which data were collected from a single source, employees,
by survey. Although we examined common method bias and the results
showed that bias was not a major issue, future studies should use
quantitative data to actually measure employees’ social media usage.
Third, social media are widely used in daily life for both work and
social purposes; future study can further subdivide social media usage.
Finally, it would also be useful to examine the effect of social media
usage on other aspects, such as employees’ in-role and extra-role per-
formance in enterprises.
Acknowledgement

5.4. Limitations and future research This research was supported by National Social Science Foundation
of China (No. 18BGL263) and National Natural Science Foundation of
Although the findings of this study are valid and valuable, the China (No. 71672041).

Appendix A. Measurement items

Constructs Measure Items

Work-related Social media usage (WL) [58] Use social media for work-related purpose:
(1) share information about organizational objectives with colleagues,
(2) share information about organizational policies and procedures,
(3) organize their working files,
(4) share their expertise in a particular area,
Social-related Social media usage (SL) [58] Use social media for social-related purpose:
(1) set up social events with co-workers after working hours,
(2) make friends within the organization,
(3) take a break from work,
(4) find people with similar interests.
Job Engagement I really “throw” myself into my job.
(JE) [51] Sometimes I am so into my job that I lose track of time.
This job is all consuming; I am totally into it.
Organizational Engagement Being a member of this organization is very captivating.
(OE) [51] One of the most exciting things for me is getting involved with things happening in this organization.
Being a member of this organization make me come “alive.”
Being a member of this organization is exhilarating for me.
Organizational Commitment I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization
(OC) [79] I feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization
I feel “emotionally attached” to this organization
Even if it were to my advantage, I do not feel it would be right to leave my organization
I would feel guilty if I left my organization now
Job Satisfaction I am very satisfied with my current job
(JS) [79] My present job gives me internal satisfaction
My job gives me a sense of fulfillment
Turnover intention I often think about quitting my job
(TI) [80] I will probably look for a new job in the next year
I don’t think about quitting my job(O)

References choice in internet abuses at work, Inf. Manag. 55 (2017) 358–367.

[1] F.P. Tajudeen, N.I. Jaafar, S. Ainin, Understanding the impact of social media usage
among organizations, Inf. Manag. 55 (2018) 308–321.
[2] M. Moqbel, N. Kock, Unveiling the dark side of social networking sites: personal and
work-related consequences of social networking site addiction, Inf. Manag. 55
(2017) 109–119.
[3] F. Parveen, N.I. Jaafar, S. Ainin, Social media usage and organizational perfor-
mance: reflections of Malaysian social media managers, Telemat. Inf. 32 (2015)
67–78.
[4] D. Nduhura, M. Prielera, When I chat online, I feel relaxed and work better: ex-
ploring the use of social media in the public sector workplace in Rwand,
Telecommun. Policy 41 (2017) 708–716.
[5] H. Li, X. Luo, J. Zhang, R. Sarathy, Self-control, organizational context, and rational
[6] W.V. Zoonen, J.W.M. Verhoeven, R. Vliegenthart, Understanding the consequences
of public social media use for work, Eur. Manag. J. 35 (2017) 595–605.
[7] J. Kühnel, T. Vahle-Hinz, J. de Bloom, C.J. Syrek, Staying in touch while at work:
relationships between personal social media use at work and work-nonwork bal-
ance and creativity, Int. J. Hum. Resource Manag. (2017) 1–27.
[8] S. Bretschneider, M. Parker, Organization formalization, sector and social media:
does increased standardization of policy broaden and deepen social media use in
organizations? Govern. Inf. Q. 33 (2016) 614–628.
[9] H. Jiang, Y. Luo, O. Kulemeka, Leading in the digital age: a study of how social
media are transforming the work of communication professionals, Telemat. Inf. 33
(2016) 493–499.
[10] I. Leftheriotis, M.N. Giannakos, Using social media for work: losing your time or
improving your work? Comput. Human Behav. 31 (2014) 134–142.
[11] G.C.D. Zubielqui, H. Fryges, J. Jones, Social media, open innovation & HRM:

10
X. Zhang, et al.
implications for performance, Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change (2017) 1–14.
[12] P. Holland, B.K. Cooper, R. Hecker, Use of social media at work: a new form of
employee voice? Int. J. Hum. Resource Manag. 27 (2016) 1–14.
[13] P. Charoensukmongkol, Effects of support and job demands on social media use and
work outcomes, Comput. Human Behav. 36 (2014) 340–349.
[14] H. Krasnova, N.F. Veltri, N. Eling, P. Buxmann, Why men and women continue to
use social networking sites: the role of gender differences, J. Strat. Inf. Syst. (2017)
1–24.
[15] D.T. Tulu, Should online social medias (OSMs) be banned at work? The impact of
social medias on employee productivity in Ambo University, a case study, Res. Int.
Bus. Finance 42 (2017) 1096–1102.
[16] W.V. Zoonen, T.G.L.Avd. Meer, J.W.M. Verhoeven, Employees work-related social-
media use: his master’s voice, Public Relat. Rev. 40 (2014) 850–852.
[17] C. Drummond, H. Mcgrath, T. O’Toole, The impact of social media on resource
mobilisation in entrepreneurial firms, Ind. Market. Manag. 70 (2017) 68–89.
[18] K.J. Trainor, J. Andzulis, A. Rapp, R. Agnihotri, Social media technology usage and
customer relationship performance: a capabilities-based examination of social CRM,
J. Bus. Res. 67 (2014) 1201–1208.
[19] J. Villanueva, S. Yoo, D.M. Hanssens, The impact of marketing-induced versus
word-of-mouth customer acquisition on customer equity growth, J. Market. Res. 45
(2008) 48–59.
[20] R. Tajvidi, A. Karami, The effect of social media on firm performance, Comput.
Hum. Behav. (2017) 1–10.
[21] L.A. Jackson, A.V. Eye, H.E. Fitzgerald, Y. Zhao, E.A. Witt, Self-concept, self-esteem,
gender, race and information technology use, Comput. Hum. Behav. 26 (2010)
323–328.
[22] N.L. Muscanell, R.E. Guadagno, Make new friends or keep the old: gender and
personality differences in social networking use, Comput. Human Behav. 28 (2012)
107–112.
[23] S. Brooks, Does personal social media usage affect efficiency and well-being?
Comput. Human Behav. 46 (2015) 26–37.
[24] E. Go, K.H. You, But not all social media are the same: analyzing organizations’
social media usage patterns, Telemat. Inf. 33 (2016) 176–186.
[25] G.B. Schmidt, A.M. Lelchook, J.E. Martin, The relationship between social media
co-worker connections and work-related attitudes, Comput. Human Behav. 55
(2016) 439–445.
[26] E. Forsgren, K. Byström, Multiple social media in the workplace: contradictions and
congruencies, Inf. Syst. J. (2017) 1–23.
[27] S. Hu, J. Gu, H. Liu, V. Huang, The moderating role of social media usage in the
relationship among multicultural experiences, cultural intelligence, and individual
creativity, Inf. Technol. People 30 (2017) 1–21.
[28] F. Fusi, M.K. Feeney, Social media in the workplace: information exchange, pro-
ductivity, or waste? Am. Rev. Public Admin. (2016) 1–23.
[29] H. Ali-Hassan, D. Nevo, M. Wade, Linking dimensions of social media use to job
performance: the role of social capital, J. Strat. Inf. Syst. 24 (2015) 65–89.
[30] H.S. Becker, Notes on the concept of commitment, Am. J. Sociol. 66 (1960) 32–40.
[31] L.W. Porter, R.M. Steers, R.T. Mowday, P.V. Boulian, Organizational commitment,
job satisfaction, and turnover among psychiatric technicians, J. Appl. Psychol. 59
(1974) 603–609.
[32] J. Meyer, N. Allen, Commitment to organizations and occupations: extension and
test of a three-component conceptualization, J. Appl. Psychol. 78 (1993) 538–551.
[33] R.M. Steers, Antecedents and outcomes of organizational commitment, Adm. Sci. Q.
22 (1977) 46–56.
[34] J.M. Stevens, J.M. Beyer, H.M. Trice, Assessing personal, role, and organizational
predictors of managerial commitment, Acad. Manage. J. 21 (1978) 380–396.
[35] N.J. Allen, J.P. Meyer, The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance
and normative commitment to the organization, J. Occup. Psychol. 63 (1990) 1–18.
[36] H.J. Klein, C.T. Brinsfield, Reconceptualizing workplace commitment to redress a
stretched construct: revisiting assumptions and removing confounds, Acad. Manage.
Rev. 37 (2012) 130–151.
[37] R. Eisenberger, G. Karagonlar, F. Stinglhamber, P. Neves, T.E. Becker,
M.G. Gonzalezmorales, M. Steigermueller, Leader-member exchange and affective
organizational commitment: the contribution of supervisor’s organizational embo-
diment, J. Appl. Psychol. 95 (2010) 1085–1103.
[38] X.P. Liu, Z.M. Wang, Perceived risk and organizational commitment: the moder-
ating role of organizational trust, Soc. Behav. Personal. Int. J. 41 (2013) 229–240.
[39] B.K. Joo, S. Park, Career satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover
intention: the effects of goal orientation, organizational learning culture and de-
velopmental feedback, Leader. Org. Dev. J. 31 (2010) 482–500.
[40] Y.J. Cho, H. Park, Exploring the relationships among trust, employee satisfaction,
and organizational commitment, Public Manag. Rev. 13 (2011) 551–573.
[41] B.K. Joo, Organizational commitment for knowledge workers: the roles of perceived
organizational learning culture, leader–member exchange quality, and turnover
intention, Hum. Resource Dev. Q. 21 (2010) 69–85.
[42] S. Aydogdu, B. Asikgil, An empirical study of the relationship among job satisfac-
tion, organizational commitment and turnover intention, Int. Rev. Manag. Market.
1 (2011) 56–63.
[43] A. Chen, Y. Lu, P.Y.K. Chau, S. Gupta, Classifying, measuring, and predicting users’
overall active behavior on social networking sites, J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 31 (2014)
213–253.
[44] N. Luo, X. Guo, B. Lu, G. Chen, Can non-work-related social media use benefit the
company? A study on corporate blogging and affective organizational commitment,
Comput. Human Behav. 81 (2018) 84–92.
[45] A. Chen, Y. Lu, B. Wang, L. Zhao, M. Li, What drives content creation behavior on
SNSs? A commitment perspective, J. Bus. Res. 66 (2013) 2529–2535.
[46] M.L. Wasko, S. Faraj, Why should I share? Examining social capital and knowledge
11
Information & Management 56 (2019) 103136
contribution in electronic networks of practice, Mis Q. 29 (2005) 35–57.
[47] P.J. Bateman, P.H. Gray, B.S. Butler, Research note —the impact of community
commitment on participation in online communities, Inf. Syst. Res. 22 (2011)
841–854.
[48] Y. Malhotra, D. Galletta, A multidimensional commitment model of volitional
systems adoption and usage behavior, J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 22 (2005) 117–151.
[49] D. Li, G.J. Browne, P.Y.K. Chau, An empirical investigation of web site use using a
commitment-based model, Dec. Sci. 37 (2006) 427–444.
[50] H. Bala, A. Bhagwatwar, Employee dispositions to job and organization as ante-
cedents and consequences of information systems use, Inf. Syst. J. (2017) 1–34.
[51] A.M. Saks, Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement, J. Manag.
Psychol. 21 (2006) 600–619.
[52] L. Bizzi, Should HR managers allow employees to use social media at work?
Behavioral and motivational outcomes of employee blogging, Int. J. Hum. Resource
Manag. 12 (2017) 1–28.
[53] A.B. Bakker, M. Tims, D. Derks, Proactive personality and job performance: the role
of job crafting and work engagement, Hum. Relat. 65 (2012) 1359–1378.
[54] Z. Yuan, Y. Li, L.E. Tetrick, Job hindrances, job resources, and safety performance:
the mediating role of job engagement, Appl. Ergon. 51 (2015) 163–171.
[55] F. Li, G. Wang, Y. Li, R. Zhou, Job demands and driving anger: the roles of emo-
tional exhaustion and work engagement, Accid. Anal. Prev. 98 (2017) 198–205.
[56] C.D.O. Maciel, C. Camargo, Social connection in organizations: the effects of local
ties on job engagement and performance, Revista De Administração 51 (2016)
377–385.
[57] M. Strömgren, A. Eriksson, D. Bergman, L. Dellve, Social capital among healthcare
professionals: a prospective study of its importance for job satisfaction, work en-
gagement and engagement in clinical improvements, Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 53 (2016)
116–125.
[58] E.S. Gonzalez, D.E. Leidner, C. Riemenschneider, H. Koch, The impact of internal
social media usage on organizational socialization and commitment, Thirty Fourth
International Conference on Information Systems, (2013), pp. 1–18.
[59] O.N. Solinger, W.V. Olffen, R.A. Roe, Beyond the three-component model of orga-
nizational commitment, J. Appl. Psychol. 93 (2008) 70–83.
[60] H.S. Jung, H.H. Yoon, What does work meaning to hospitality employees? the ef-
fects of meaningful work on employees’ organizational commitment: the mediating
role of job engagement, Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 53 (2016) 59–68.
[61] S. Paek, M. Schuckert, T.T. Kim, G. Lee, Why is hospitality employees’ psychological
capital important? The effects of psychological capital on work engagement and
employee morale, Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 50 (2015) 9–26.
[62] W. Fu, S.P. Deshpande, The impact of caring climate, job satisfaction, and organi-
zational commitment on job performance of employees in a China’s insurance
company, J. Bus. Ethics 124 (2014) 339–349.
[63] J.T. Yang, Antecedents and consequences of job satisfaction in the hotel industry,
Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 29 (2010) 609–619.
[64] A. Zopiatis, P. Constanti, A.L. Theocharous, Job involvement, commitment, sa-
tisfaction and turnover: evidence from hotel employees in Cyprus, Tour. Manag. 41
(2014) 129–140.
[65] J.R. Carlson, D.S. Carlson, S. Zivnuska, R.B. Harris, K.J. Harris, Applying the job
demands resources model to understand technology as a predictor of turnover in-
tentions, Comput. Human Behav. 77 (2017) 317–325.
[66] S.O.C. Theresa, C O, job crafting-satisfaction relationship in electrical/electronic
technology education programme: Do work engagement and commitment matter?
J. Work Org. Psychol. 33 (2017) 165–173.
[67] M.L. Chen, Z.Y. Su, C.L. Lo, C.H. Chiu, Y.H. Hu, T.Y. Shieh, An empirical study on
the factors influencing the turnover intention of dentists in hospitals in Taiwan, J.
Dental Sci. 9 (2014) 332–344.
[68] A.H. Eagly, S.J. Karau, Gender and the emergence of leaders: a meta-analysis, J.
Personal. Soc. Psychol. 60 (1991) 685–710.
[69] T.T. Selvarajan, J. Slattery, D.Y. Stringer, Relationship between gender and work
related attitudes: a study of temporary agency employees, J. Bus. Res. 68 (2015)
1919–1927.
[70] M. Anwar, W. He, I. Ash, X. Yuan, L. Li, L. Xu, Gender difference and employees’
cybersecurity behaviors, Comput. Hum. Behav. 69 (2017) 437–443.
[71] Ibrahim Akman, Alok Mishra, Gender, age and income differences in internet usage
among employees in organizations, Comput. Human Behav. 26 (2010) 482–490.
[72] J.F. Hair, W.C. Black, B.J. Babin, R.E. Anderson, Multivariate Data Analysis, 7th
edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2009.
[73] P.A. Hsieh, A. Rai, M. Keil, Understanding digital inequality: comparing continued
use behavioral models of the socio-economically advantaged and disadvantaged,
Mis Q. 32 (2008) 97–126.
[74] M. Keil, A. Wassenaar, A cross-cultural study on escalation of commitment behavior
in software projects, Mis Q. 24 (2000) 299–325.
[75] I.C. Chang, C.C. Liu, K.C. Chen, The effects of hedonic/utilitarian expectations and
social influence on continuance intention to play online games, Internet Res. 24
(2014) 21–45.
[76] X. Guo, X. Zhang, Y. Sun, The privacy–personalization paradox in mHealth services
acceptance of different age groups, Electr. Comm. Res. Appl. 16 (2015) 55–65.
[77] X. Zhang, L. Ma, G.-S. Wang, Investigating consumer word-of-mouth behaviour in a
Chinese context, Total Qual. Manag. Bus. Excellence (2017) 1–15.
[78] N.K. Prebensen, J. Xie, Efficacy of co-creation and mastering on perceived value and
satisfaction in tourists’ consumption, Tour. Manag. 60 (2017) 166–176.
[79] M. Moqbel, S. Nevo, N. Kock, Organizational members’ use of social networking
sites and job performance, Inf. Technol. People 26 (2013) 240–264.
[80] W.R. Boswell, M.B. Watkins, Md.C. Triana, A. Zardkoohi, R. Ren, E.E. Umphress,
Second-class citizen? Contract workers’ perceived status, dual commitment and
intent to quit, J. Vocat. Behav. 80 (2012) 454–463.
X. Zhang, et al.
Xin Zhang is professor for Information Systems at Shandong University of Finance and
Economics, Jinan, China. His research focuses on information systems, electronic com-
merce, and electronic markets. He has published in Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy
Systems, Applied Mathematics & Computation, Total Quality Management & Business
Excellence, and others.
Liang Ma is a pH.D. student for Information Systems at Shandong University of Finance
and Economics, Jinan, China. His research focuses on international marketing, informa-
tion systems, and electronic commerce. He has published in Total Quality Management &
Business Excellence, International Journal of Market Research, Information Discovery
and Delivery, Proceedings of Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems, and others.
12
Information & Management 56 (2019) 103136
Bo Xu is associate professor at the School of Management, Fudan University, Shanghai,
China. He received pH.D. degree in Management Information Systems from Texas Tech
University, USA. His research interests include electronic commerce, open source soft-
ware, and online community. He has published research papers in Decision Support
Systems, Information & Management, Information Systems Journal, European Journal of
Information Systems, Journal of Business Research, Database for Advances in Information
Systems, International Journal of Electronic Commerce, and so on.
Feng Xu is associate professor for Information Systems at Shandong University of Finance
and Economics, Jinan, China. His research focuses on information systems and electronic
commerce.