Respiration

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Cellular respiration is the process by which we derive energy

from the food that we consume The overallreaction is exothermic

The primarysubstrate for cellular respiration is glucose

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activationenergy
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substrate
H i.e
available
energy
ContH2O
product

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Glucose is burned inside cells toproduce ATP
ATPis thenused as molecularcurrency to release energy
Oxidation of glucose is an aerobic process and in the absence
of oxygen the cells choose a differentpathway to generate

energy That pathway shallbe discussed later

 Adenosine triphosphate
NHL
N o
N o o

N N
o cha O P O P O p o
11 11 11
O O 0

OH OH

Hydrolysis ofATP ATP 1 H2O ADP t HzP04 OH 30 Sutmol D

ATP is made of the nitrogenous base Adenine a ribosesugar
and 3 phosphate groups
Thethreephosphategroups of Adenosine diphosphate
ATP do not like being bonded to
one another and ATP can easily
hydrolyse one of the phosphate groups
to produce a more stable molecule of ATP
Thehydrolysis of ATP into ADPand AMP
adenosine diphosphate and monophosphate
respectively release as 30 5kJmol of
Adenosine
monophosphate energy each
But since AMP simply has single phosphate group its
a

hydrolysisonly releases 14.2UJmoi of energy

Due to ATP's stability as a molecule it is used as the biological
currency in all cells that respire The fact that ATPis soluble in
 tr I i e
ATPsynthesis ATP synthesis occurs in four stages
1 Glycolysis
Breaking down atthe glucose molecule
Theglucose molecule is brokendown into twomolecules of
pyruvicacid pyruvate each containing three carbonatoms
the processrequires theinvestment of two ATP molecules to work
At the end ofthe process four ATPmolecules are producedCnet
gain two moleculesofATP two hydrogen carrier molecules
NAD Nicotinamide adeninedinucleotide are reduced and two
pyruvate are produced

Theabovediagram describesthe whole pathway af glycolysis

we shall focus primarilyon phosphorylation and reduction

a Stage 1 Phosphorylation Elonvestmentphase

During phosphorylation glucose is phosphorylated usingATP

 Phosphorylation is the addition of phosphategroups toorganic
compounds Here the phosphate groups at two ATPmolecules
are used to yield two molecules of trios e phosphate
The glucose is first turned into glucose phosphate then to
fructosephosphate and then to fructose bisphosphate
Fructose bisphosphate being unstable breaksdown into
2 molecules of triose phosphate

Glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate
thosephosphate
b Stage 2 Reduction WNAD and pyruvate synthesis payoffphase
Now the two molecules of thosephosphate are oxidised by
removing a hydrogen from each thosephosphate moleculeusing
an enzyme called glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate dehydrogenase
Those hydrogens are then transferred onto a hydrogen
carrier molecule called NAD Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
reducing it to reduced NAD NADH
Since there are two NAPS the processproduces two reduced
NAD S one for each molecule of triose phosphate
the oxidation of thosephosphate also produces twomolecules of
ATP per molecule of those phosphate
The origin of these ATP molecules lie in the fact that two
ATPS were hydrolysed to ADPduring phosphorylation Castner
phosphate groups were required to phosphorylase glucose
 These ADPs
recombined with
two inorganic
phosphategroups
to form two ATPS
fnis I
happenstwice so 4ATB oxidation and reduction
OxidisedNicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
so in summary glycolysis Glucose 12NAP 2At Pst 9ADPs T2 P
Glycolysis
2pyruvateSt 2 NADH t 2Apps t 4 ATPs
Glycolysis is an anaerobic process and it occurs in he cytoplasm
at respiring cells
So Now we have two ATPS two pyruvateS and two NADHes
and with these molecules we enter the next phase of respiration
Here if oxygen is present the pyruvate molecules shall be
transported to the mitochondrial matrix for aerobicrespiration
If however oxygen is absent then the pyruvates will followthe
lactic pathway and perform lactic fermentation Cinanimals
we shall firstdiscuss the aerobic pathway
The two molecules of pyruvate are activelytransported from
the cytoplasm at the cell to the inner mitochondrial matrix
t
via protein pump called pyruvate H Symport
a

Since it is described as a symport it means that it takes

two substances and transports them together In this case there
gradient Now we go to In e link reaction
2 The link
nvm Reaction this stage involves the conversion af
the pyruvate molecules to a two carbon acetyl group
this takes place in the mitochondrial matrix
The pyruvate molecule is decarboxylated
removal of OOH carboxyl group
to
pyruvateAfter decarboxylation the pyruvate has
one less carbon atom then itis dehydrogenated removalof H
Boththe processes are catalysed by pyruvate dehydrogenase
when decarboxylation occurs CO2 molecule is produced
a

when dehydrogenationoccurs the removed hydrogen atom is

transferred to molecule of WADt reducing it to reduced NAD
a

Since there are two molecules of pyruvate in the link reaction

two more molecules of reduced NAD is gained in this stage
overall the decarboxylation and dehydrogenation of pyruvate
produces a two carbon acetyl group
This acetyl group combines with coenzymeA to form In e
compound Acetyl coenzyme A Acetyl OA
Acetylgroup

I pyruvate t INADt t CoA 1acetylCoA 1 NADH t CO2 1 Ht yz

A CoA
 the link reaction is an aerobic process since dehydrogenation
is essentially oxidation So oxygen is needed for Ine process
So withglycolysis and the link reaction we have produced
twomolecules ofATP four NADH and two acetyl coenzymeA
Now with the two moleculesof acetyl coenzyme A we move on
to the next stage of respiration
DLrebdeyeledilraneh.hn idnyche In this stage a seriesof
enzyme catalysed reactions occur to oxidise the two acetyl
A molecules produced in the link reaction
this stage also takes place in the mitochondrial matrix
During the Krebs cycle ATPmolecules and reduced
enzymes such as reduced NAD and FAD are produced and
carbondioxide is released
The products of the link reaction are fed in to the krebscycle
to make it progress
For every molecule of glucose there are two turns of the
Krebscycle as the link reaction produced two Acetyl CoA molecules
and each acetyl CoA makes the krebscycle turn once
a Step 1
In the first step the acetyl group is released from acetylCoA
to form CoA and the two carbon acetylgroup
the 2 carbon acetylgroup then combines with oxaloacelic
acid oxaloacetate to form a 6 carbon compound called
citric acid citrate
dehydrogenation oxidation
In decarboxylation a carboxyl group is removed turning
the 6 carbon citric acid molecule into a 5 carbon compound
then th dehydrogenation hydrogen is removed oxidation
a

the hydrogen is transferred to a molecule of N Ab reducingit

So in this step we produce one molecule of CO2 one
molecule of reduced NAD NADH and a S carboncompound
result _I CO2 INADH I 5Ccompound
b Step 28
Now this S carbon compound is decarboxylated and
dehydrog nated
So we produce another moleculeof Oz another reduced
NAb and a four carbon compound

this is essentially a repeat of the last process

then the 4 carbon compound temporarily combines with coenzyme
A and at this stage an ATP is produced from an ADP and Pi
that is floating around result 102 INADH 1ATP I 4Ccompound
this production of ATP in tre krebs cycle is termed substrate
level phosphorylation Combinationof ADPwith inorganic phosphate
Step 3
Now the 4 carbon compound is dehydrogenated toproduce a
different 4 carbon compound
the hydrogens produced from dehydrogenation is now collected

another carrier molecule called FAD 1 flavin

by hydrogen
 e n

FAD and NAD are derivatives of B vitamins called niacin

and riboflavin
Now this 4 carbon compound is once again dehydrogenated
toform oxaloacetate Coxaloaceticacid and the reaction is
catalysed by isomerase
the hydrogen is now collected by another molecule d NAD
toformreduced NAD NADH
Observe that we have regenerated oxaloacetate once again
which was what we started Ine krebs cycle with this
regeneration makes the whole process a cycle
result IMAD IFADHL oxaloacetate
Now altogether in the krebs cycle for one molecule of

Acetyl CoA from the link reaction we produce one molecule

at ATP 3molecules of NADH I moleculeof FADA and two
molecules of 102
So For two molecules at ATP the krebs cycle yields us with
6molecules of NADH 2 molecules of FADH 4moleculesof Ozand
2 molecules of ATP
So with glycolysis the link
reaction and the Krebs cycle
we have produced a total at
10 reduced NADmolecules
2 reduced FAD molecules
4 ATPmolecules
 Observe also that the reaction has already produced 6molecules
of carbondioxide If wego back to the original equation for respiration
it is supposed to produce 6 conmolecules for one glucose molecule
So we are exhaling me bi products of the Krebscycle
the reactions at the Krebscycledonot make use of molecular
oxygen but the final stage ofrespirationdoes
4 oxidabouephosptakon this is the stage where we shall
produce the most amount of ATPmolecules This stage involves
the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
oxidative
phosphor lation
occurs in the
inner mitochondrial
membrane
Thisstage is
aerobic and uses
molecular oxygen
the inner membrane of the mitochondria is covered with an
enzyme called ATP synthase and it is what synthesises ATP
this is why the inner membrane of the mitochondriais so
heavilyfolded It increases s A to volume and allows us to fit as
many ofthese ATPsynthases in the mitochondrion as possible
a Electron transportchain
Here all of the electron carriers WAD and FAD that were
reduced in the priorstages of respiration are going to be oxidised
 I
This will allow them give up her electrons to electroncarriers
in the electron transport chain these electrons will then get
passed down the chain of carriers each time losingenergy
the energy in those electrons will be used by Inosecarriers
to actively pump Pons also releasedfromNADH and FADHz
from the mitochondrial matrix againstthe H concentration gradient
into the inter membranespace
acting
pumped
a nun

once the electrons move downto cytochrome oxidase and the Ht

concentration gradient is essentiallyreversed we now need an
electron acceptor
this is because we need to getrid of those electrons to allow
the process to happen again this is where we use oxygen
Now this oxygen will pick up the extra electrons and combine
with hydrogen and it is going toform water as a waste product
The chain is now free for the next batch of NADH and FADHz
to repeat the process
Observe that we now have established a massive electrochemical

gradient of excess Ht eons in the intermembrane space and

 n I
b Chemiosmosis8
Now these Htions move down their electrochemical gradient
from the intermembrane space d the mitochondria to the
mitochondrial matrix

they move using an enzyme called ATPsynthase

these enzymes are embedded all over the
inner membrane of the mitochondrion
the energy in the flowing of H 1 ions
into the mitochondrial matrix is used by
the ATPsynthase to combine an ADP
with an inorganic phosphate group to
form a molecule of ATP
result All the hydrogen carriers Htions
yield about 24 34 ATPmolecules
the precise amount of
ATPproduced by aerobic
respiration is a little
ambigious in a
veryefficient
cell 30 ATPmoleculesis
a good approximate

Anaerobicpathways
Now this pathway is taken when the cell has no oxygen and
the products of glycolysis i.e pyruvate molecules cannotproceedto
 This pathwayproduces differentproducts in differentorganisms
Here we shall observe the production of lacticacid lactate in
muscles andethyl alcohol ethanol in yeast
lacEcpatnwayo.m
Muscles switch to the lactic
palmway once it has drained all
available oxygen in the tissue
Essentially the pyruvate
molecules produced by glycolysis
are reduced via hydrogens

fromthe reduced NAD 1 molecules also produced duringglycolysis

into lactic acid lactate as a bi product
Now the NA b molecules are ready to repeat
their roles as hydrogen carriers and in turn
allow Ine repeatition af glycolysis
Remember that glycolysis produces two ATP
molecules permolecule of glucose Scs while anaerobicrespiration is
not terriblyefficient
by any means iotts better than nothing
Summaryequation
2 ADP 12Pi 2ATPt 2H2O
GH1206 72CzH603
The lactic acid moves into the blood and lowers blood p't
It is thought that this can affect the CNS central Nervous

system and the fatigue due to lactic acid buildup is a protective

measure to allow muscles to recover after Streneous activity
 this happens because
we are essentially in
adebt of oxygen
and he heavy breathing
allows lots of oxygen to
enter Ine body and
helpIme oxidation of a

lactic acid into pyruvic acid and d NADH to NAD

the enzymecatalysing this reaction is lactic dehydrogenase
Professional sprinters spend about 95 af Ine whole sprint in
anaerobic respirationTraining allows our muscle tissue to tolerate
higher levels of lactic acid and Sprint for longer without fatigue
fermentation
b Alcoholicmm
the process is nearly identical
for alcoholic fermentation
except forthe hi products
produced by the pathway
The reaction is most commonly
observed in Yeast
In this case the Hydrogens are Alcoholicpathway

notdirectly used to oxidise pyruvate Ratner the pyruvateis

first de carboxylated to form elmand I Can aldehyde

Pyruvatedecarboxylase
Oz
 Then the NADH produced from glycolysisreduces the ethanol
to etna noic acid then he NAD can allow glycolysis to repeat

reduction
Ht

the bi products d yeast fermentation are used in ballingand

brewing the Co2produced frompyruvate decarboxylation makes
bread nose and the ethanol from ethanol reduction is used in
the production of wines and other alcoholic beravages
These reactions buy time. They allow the continued production of at least some ATP even though oxygen is
not available as the hydrogen acceptor. However, as the products of anaerobic reaction, ethanol or lactate, are
toxic, the reactions cannot continue inde nitely. The pathway leading to ethanol cannot be reversed, and the
remaining chemical potential energy of ethanol is wasted. The lactate pathway can be reversed in mammals.
Lactate is carried by the blood plasma to the liver and converted back to pyruvate. The liver oxidises some (20%)
of the incoming lactate to carbon dioxide and water via aerobic respiration when oxygen is available again. The
remainder of the lactate is converted by the liver to glycogen.

Mitochondrial structure
the mitochondria is the site
of the citric acid cycle1Krebs
cycle and oxidative
phosph
ET Ct rylation
Chemieosmosis

So essentiallythese are
ATPfactories that are present in very high numbers in
the cells and tissues that are very metabolically active
Diameter of mitochondrion os l Dum

the mitochondrion has two membranes phospholipid bi layers

An outer membrane with pains that allow passage of small

 The inner membrane of the mitochondria is highlyfolded to form
Cristal plural crista e and this allows it to have a very large
surface area to volume ratio
Mitochondrial cristae in metabolically active cells have more

foldings and have more densely packed crista e

the area inbetween Ine outer membrane and innermembrane
is called the intermembrane space

the area formed uponfolding d the inner mitochondrialmembrane

is called the mitochondrial matrix It is called the mitochondrial
matrix because it has a much higher protein concentration than
the cytosol outside Ine mitochondria
The krebscycle occurs in me mitochondrial matrix and the
electrontransport chain occurs aim me help of proteins that
straddle the entire inner membrane of the mitochondria
Respiratory substrates and Respiratory Quotients
Whileglucose is the primary substrate for aerobicrespiration in
all cells neurons exclusivelydepend on glucose however we can use
other biological molecules such as lipidsand proteins to respire
as well in limes when the body is low on carbohydrate
A Triglycerides Glycerol t 3Fatty Acids
V
P oxidation
pyruvate so acetyl CoA
Triglycerides have a very
high energy contentCcaloric value Too ATP molecules
 y
saturated with lots and lots of C H bonds
Most of the ATP in aerobicrespirationcomesfrom oxidation of
hydrogen to water when NADH and FAbHz are passed to the
electron transport chain So thegreaterthe number of hydrogens
in the substrate molecule the greater the caloric value
so the glycerol in triglycerides are converted to pyruvate for the

link reaction and the actetyl CoAs produced from the large
hydrocarbon chains to synthesise ATP
this makes lipids havethe greatestenergydensity of any
respiratorysubstrate
B Protein s Amino acids
deamination
pyruvate
Proteins can also be used as respiratory substrates if the body
calls for it
Here proteins are broken down into amino acids Then the
amine groups in those amino acids are removed by a process
called deamination a process that occurs in the liver
However the body shall try its absolute best to avoid the use
of proteins as respiratory substrates Thisis because proteins
are structural molecules used in synthesising enzymes and
transport channels and muscles so it too much protein is used in
respiration we start to lose muscle mass Also the process of
deamination uses ATP some whole process is not terribly efficient
 chartshowingenergy
density
RespiratoryQuotient
Volumeof 0L Given out or CO2 produced or n CO2
Ra
volumeof Oz taken in 0h absorbed n oh

n Numberof moles

Respiratory quotient is the ratio of Co2produced by 02absorbed

low RQ more oxygen required forcomplete oxidation
High RQ less oxygen required for complete oxidation
N RQ Anaerobicrespiration On mammalian muscles
Glucose GH206 GH1206 t 602 3 6coz 161720 1 ATP

66
RQ glucose to

Olive oil C g H34028 18113402 25504 18021121720 1ATP

18 o 2
RQ lipid oliveoil 25 s

C Ra protein o 9
This ispretty much all there is toknowabout RQvalues
Adaptations of Riceplants for wetenvironmentsor

theygrow taller and alwayskeeps Meir leaves above water level

The stem and roots contain aerenchyma through which oxygen
and carbondioxide can easily diffuse
Its root cells are to larent of much more alcohol compared to
Conditions under water

They produce very large amounts ofalcoholdehydrogenase

which breaks down ethanol

Q Usingexamples outline the needfor energy in livingorganismsEx 93

AnSoo