Compiler assignments

1. What is grouping of compiler phases?

Grouping of compiler phases refers to the organization and categorization of the various
stages or phases that a compiler goes through during the process of translating source code
written in a high-level programming language into machine code or executable code that can
be executed by a computer.
There are typically several phases or stages involved in the compilation process, and these
phases are often grouped together based on their functionalities and dependencies. The exact
grouping and organization of compiler phases may vary depending on the specific compiler
and the compilation model used, but a common grouping typically includes the following
phases:
I. Lexical Analysis: Also known as scanning, this phase involves breaking the source
code into tokens or lexemes, which are the smallest meaningful units of code, such as
keywords, identifiers, operators, and literals. Lexical analysis helps to identify and
tokenize the different components of the source code, which are then passed on to the
subsequent phases for further processing.
II. Syntax Analysis: Also known as parsing, this phase involves analyzing the sequence
of tokens generated by the lexical analysis phase and checking them against the
grammar rules of the programming language to determine their syntactic correctness.
The output of this phase is an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) or a parse tree, which
represents the syntactic structure of the source code.
III. Semantic Analysis: This phase involves checking the semantics or meaning of the
source code by analyzing the AST generated during the syntax analysis phase. It
involves checking for type compatibility, variable declarations, scoping rules, and
other semantic rules of the programming language. It also includes symbol table
management, which keeps track of identifiers and their associated properties, such as
types and scope.
IV. Intermediate Code Generation: In this phase, the compiler generates an intermediate
representation (IR) code, which is an abstract representation of the source code that is
closer to machine code but still independent of the target machine architecture. This
intermediate code serves as an intermediate step towards generating the final machine
code.
V. Code Optimization: This phase involves optimizing the intermediate code generated
in the previous phase to improve the efficiency and performance of the generated
machine code. Code optimization techniques may include dead code elimination,
constant propagation, loop optimization, and others.
VI. Code Generation: In this phase, the compiler generates the target machine code or
executable code from the optimized intermediate code. The target machine code is
specific to the target machine architecture, such as x86, ARM, or MIPS, and is
typically represented in binary form that can be executed by the computer's processor.
VII. Linking and Loading: This final phase involves combining the generated machine
code with library routines and other necessary components, resolving any unresolved
references or dependencies, and loading the executable code into memory for
execution.
These are the general phases of a compiler, and they may be further subdivided or combined
in different ways depending on the specific compiler implementation and compilation model
used. The grouping of compiler phases helps in managing the complexity of the compilation
process and ensures that each phase performs its specific tasks effectively and in a
coordinated manner to generate correct and efficient machine code.
2. Explain Recursive descent parsing?
Recursive descent parsing is a top-down parsing technique used in compiler design and
syntax analysis, which is a phase of the compiler that involves analyzing the syntactic
structure of the source code written in a programming language. Recursive descent parsing
starts with the highest-level grammar rule and recursively applies lower-level grammar rules
to parse the source code and generate a parse tree or an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST).
The recursive descent parsing algorithm uses a set of recursive procedures, one for each
grammar rule, to parse the input source code. Each procedure corresponds to a non-terminal
symbol in the grammar, and it is responsible for recognizing and parsing the occurrences of
that non-terminal symbol in the source code.
The general steps of the recursive descent parsing algorithm are as follows:
I. Start with the highest-level grammar rule, which is typically the starting symbol of
the grammar, and call the corresponding recursive procedure.
II. The recursive procedure scans the input source code and matches it against the
expected syntax defined by the corresponding grammar rule. It may call other
recursive procedures for lower-level non-terminal symbols in the grammar.
III. If the input source code matches the expected syntax, the recursive procedure
generates a parse tree or an AST node corresponding to the matched syntax and
returns control to the calling procedure.
IV. If the input source code does not match the expected syntax, the parsing fails, and an
error is reported.
V. The parsing continues recursively until the entire source code is parsed, and a
complete parse tree or AST is generated.
Recursive descent parsing has some key features:
 I. Top-down parsing: It starts with the highest-level grammar rule and recursively
applies lower-level grammar rules, making it a top-down parsing approach.
II. Predictive parsing: It is also known as predictive parsing because the choice of which
grammar rule to apply is determined by looking ahead at the next input token or
lexeme, based on a fixed set of lookahead tokens or a lookahead table. This allows for
efficient and deterministic parsing.
III. Easy implementation: Recursive descent parsing is relatively easy to implement
because it directly maps the grammar rules to recursive procedures in the code,
making it easy to understand and debug.
IV. Limited expressiveness: Recursive descent parsing is limited by the grammar rules
and may not be suitable for all types of grammars, especially those with left recursion
or ambiguity. Left recursion can lead to infinite loops, and ambiguity can result in
parsing conflicts.
V. Backtracking: Recursive descent parsing may require backtracking in case of parsing
conflicts or errors, which can impact its efficiency.
In conclusion, recursive descent parsing is a simple, top-down, and predictive parsing
technique used in compiler design to analyze the syntax of the source code and generate a
parse tree or an AST. It is widely used in many compilers due to its simplicity and ease of
implementation, although it has some limitations in terms of expressiveness and potential
backtracking.
3. Explain stack implementation of shift reduce parsing in details?
Shift-reduce parsing is a bottom-up parsing technique used in compiler design and syntax
analysis, which involves building a parse tree or an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) by shifting
input tokens onto a stack and reducing them according to grammar rules. Stack is a key data
structure used in shift-reduce parsing to keep track of the current state of parsing and to store
intermediate results.
Here is a detailed explanation of the stack implementation of shift-reduce parsing
I. Initialization: The parsing process starts with an empty stack and the input source
code to be parsed.
 II. Shift operation: The next input token (or lexeme) is shifted onto the stack. This means
that the token is pushed onto the stack as a new element. The stack now contains the
shifted token as the top element, and the input source code advances to the next
token.
III. Reduce operation: When the top elements of the stack match the right-hand side of a
grammar rule, a reduce operation is performed. The right-hand side of the grammar
rule is popped from the stack, and a new non-terminal symbol corresponding to the
left-hand side of the grammar rule is pushed onto the stack. This represents the
reduction of the matched grammar rule to its non-terminal symbol.
IV. Repeat shift and reduce: The shift and reduce operations are repeated iteratively until
the entire input source code is parsed and the stack contains only the start symbol of
the grammar. At this point, the parsing is successful, and the parse tree or AST can be
constructed from the elements on the stack.
V. Handle conflicts: Shift-reduce parsing can encounter conflicts, such as shift-reduce
conflicts and reduce-reduce conflicts, when multiple grammar rules can be applied to
the current state of the stack. These conflicts need to be resolved using parsing
techniques, such as precedence rules or associativity rules, to ensure correct parsing.
VI. Error detection and recovery: If a shift-reduce conflict or an error is detected during
parsing, appropriate error handling mechanisms, such as error messages or error
recovery strategies, need to be applied to handle the errors and continue the parsing
process.
The stack in the shift-reduce parsing implementation serves as a memory buffer that holds
the intermediate parsing results and allows for the construction of the parse tree or AST in a
bottom-up manner. The stack is updated with tokens during shift operations and reduced with
grammar rules during reduce operations, until the parsing is complete.
It's important to note that shift-reduce parsing is a general parsing technique that can be
implemented using different data structures, such as arrays, lists, or stacks with additional
information, depending on the requirements and constraints of the compiler implementation.
The stack implementation is just one common approach used in many shift-reduce parsing
algorithms.
4. Explain operator precedence parsing algorithm?
Operator precedence parsing is a type of parsing technique used in compiler design and
syntax analysis, which uses the precedence and associativity of operators in a grammar to
determine the order of parsing operations. It is a bottom-up parsing technique that builds a
parse tree or an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) by comparing the precedence and associativity
of operators in the input source code.
The operator precedence parsing algorithm follows these general steps:
I. Define operator precedence and associativity: The first step in implementing an
operator precedence parsing algorithm is to define the precedence and associativity of
operators in the grammar. Each operator is assigned a precedence level, which
indicates its priority relative to other operators in the grammar. Operators with higher
precedence levels have higher priority.
II. Build the parse stack: The parsing process starts with an empty stack. The stack is
used to keep track of the operands and operators encountered during parsing, and it is
updated based on the precedence and associativity of operators.
III. Process input tokens: The algorithm reads input tokens (or lexemes) one by one from
the source code and processes them according to their precedence and associativity.
IV. Shift operation: If the precedence of the incoming token is higher than the precedence
of the top operator on the stack, the token is shifted onto the stack. This means that
the token is pushed onto the stack as a new element.
V. Reduce operation: If the precedence of the incoming token is lower than the
precedence of the top operator on the stack, or if the precedence of the incoming
token is the same as the precedence of the top operator on the stack but with a
different associativity, a reduce operation is performed. The operators on the stack are
popped and combined with their corresponding operands to form a reduced
expression, which is then pushed back onto the stack as a new element. This step is
repeated until the top operator on the stack has lower precedence than the incoming
token.
VI. Handle conflicts: If the precedence of the incoming token is the same as the
precedence of the top operator on the stack and they have the same associativity, a
conflict occurs. This can happen when the grammar is ambiguous or when there are
 overlapping precedence levels. Conflicts need to be resolved using additional rules or
heuristics to ensure correct parsing.
VII. Repeat shift and reduce: The shift and reduce operations are repeated iteratively until
the entire input source code is parsed and the stack contains only the reduced
expression or the final result of the parsing.
Error detection and recovery: If an error is detected during parsing, appropriate error
handling mechanisms, such as error messages or error recovery strategies, need to be applied
to handle the errors and continue the parsing process.
Operator precedence parsing is efficient because it allows for parsing expressions without the
need for backtracking or lookahead, and it can handle left-associative and right-associative
operators correctly based on their precedence and associativity. However, it requires careful
definition of operator precedence and associativity rules to avoid conflicts and ensure correct
parsing. It is commonly used in parsing expressions in programming languages, such as
arithmetic expressions or logical expressions, where the precedence and associativity of
operators are well-defined.
5. What is an operator grammar?
An operator grammar, also known as precedence grammar or precedence climbing grammar,
is a type of context-free grammar that is used to define the syntax of expressions in
programming languages, particularly those that involve operators with different precedence
levels and associativity.
In an operator grammar, the grammar rules are augmented with precedence and associativity
annotations to specify the precedence and associativity relationships among operators. These
annotations provide additional information to the parser to determine the correct order of
evaluating operators in expressions.

The precedence of an operator in an operator grammar is typically represented by an integer

value, where higher values indicate higher precedence. The associativity of an operator can
be either left-associative, right-associative, or non-associative. Left-associative operators are
evaluated from left to right, right-associative operators are evaluated from right to left, and
non-associative operators do not allow consecutive operators of the same precedence level.
The key idea of an operator grammar is to use the precedence and associativity annotations to
guide the parsing process. During parsing, the parser compares the precedence and
associativity of operators in the input expression with the precedence and associativity
annotations in the grammar rules to determine the correct order of parsing operations.
Operator grammars are commonly used in parsing expressions in programming languages,
such as arithmetic expressions, logical expressions, or relational expressions, where the
precedence and associativity of operators are critical for correct evaluation. They are used in
parsing algorithms, such as operator precedence parsing, which utilize the precedence and
associativity annotations to determine the order of parsing operations and build a parse tree
or an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) accordingly.
6. What are three types of LR parsers?
The three types of LR parsers are:
I. SLR (Simple LR) Parser: SLR parser is the simplest type of LR parser. It uses a
parsing table that is generated from a grammar to perform parsing. The parsing table
has entries based on the states of the LR parsing automaton and the input symbols
(terminals) of the grammar. SLR parsers have limitations in handling certain types of
grammars with conflicts, and they may require additional manual modifications to the
grammar or parsing table to resolve such conflicts.
II. LALR (Look-Ahead LR) Parser: LALR parser is a more powerful variant of the LR
parser compared to SLR parser. It also uses a parsing table like the SLR parser, but it
can handle a larger class of grammars without conflicts. LALR parsers are more
widely used in practice due to their ability to handle a broader range of grammars and
their efficient table size compared to other types of LR parsers.
III. LR(1) Parser: LR(1) parser is the most powerful type of LR parser. It uses a one-
symbol lookahead (i.e., it looks ahead one input symbol) to determine the parsing
action, which makes it capable of handling a larger class of grammars without
conflicts. LR(1) parsers are more complex and require a larger parsing table
compared to SLR and LALR parsers, but they are capable of handling more complex
grammars with greater precision.
All three types of LR parsers are bottom-up parsing techniques that build a parse tree or an
Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) from the input source code. They use LR parsing automaton and
a parsing table generated from the grammar to perform parsing operations, such as shift,
reduce, or accept, based on the current state of the automaton and the input symbols of the
grammar.
7. What are the various phases of a compiler? Explain each phase in detail by using the
input “a=(b+c)*(b+c)*2”.
A compiler typically consists of several phases or stages that are responsible for converting
the source code written in a high-level programming language into machine code or
executable code that can be executed by a computer. The various phases of a compiler are:
A. Lexical Analysis (also known as Scanning): The first phase of a compiler is lexical
analysis or scanning. In this phase, the source code is broken down into individual
tokens, which are the basic units of a programming language, such as keywords,
identifiers, literals, operators, and special symbols. The lexical analyzer scans the
input source code character by character and generates a stream of tokens as output.
For the input "a=(b+c)*(b+c)*2", the tokens generated by the lexical analyzer may
be:
Token Lexeme
-------------------------------
Identifier a
Operator =
Left Paren (
Identifier b
Operator +
Identifier c
Right Paren )
Operator *
Left Paren (
Identifier b
Operator +
Identifier c
Right Paren )
Operator *
Literal 2
B. Syntax Analysis (also known as Parsing): The second phase of a compiler is syntax
analysis or parsing. In this phase, the stream of tokens generated by the lexical
analyzer is analyzed according to the grammar rules of the programming language to
determine the syntactic structure or the syntax tree of the input source code. The
parser builds a parse tree or an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) as output, which
represents the syntactic structure of the input source code. The parsing process
ensures that the input source code conforms to the syntax rules of the programming
language. For the input "a=(b+c)*(b+c)*2", the parse tree or AST generated by the
parser may be:
*
/ \
= 2
/\
a *
/\
+ +
/\/\
b cbc
C. Semantic Analysis: The third phase of a compiler is semantic analysis. In this phase,
the compiler checks the semantic correctness of the input source code by analyzing
the meaning of the statements or expressions. This includes checking for type
compatibility, variable declarations, scope rules, and other semantic rules of the
programming language. For example, the semantic analyzer may check if the
variables "a", "b", and "c" have been declared before their use, if the "+" and "*"
operators are used with operands of compatible types, and if there are any other
semantic errors in the input source code.
D. Intermediate Code Generation: The fourth phase of a compiler is intermediate code
generation. In this phase, the compiler generates an intermediate representation of the
input source code, which is an intermediate code that is closer to the machine code
but still independent of any specific target machine. Intermediate code is used as an
 intermediate step to optimize and generate the final machine code in the next phases.
Different types of intermediate representations can be used, such as Three-Address
Code (TAC), Abstract Syntax Tree (AST), or Intermediate Representation Language
(IRL), depending on the compiler design.
E. Code Optimization: The fifth phase of a compiler is code optimization. In this phase,
the intermediate code generated in the previous phase is analyzed and transformed to
optimize the performance of the resulting machine code. Various optimization
techniques can be applied, such as constant folding, common subexpression
elimination, dead code elimination, register allocation, and loop optimization, to
improve the efficiency and speed of the generated machine code.
F. Code Generation: The sixth phase of a compiler is code generation. In this phase, the
optimized intermediate code is translated into target machine code or executable code
that can be executed by the computer. The target machine code is generated according
to the specific architecture of the target machine, such as x86, ARM, or MIPS.
8. Explain the various Compiler Construction Tools.
Compiler construction tools are software tools that are used by compiler developers to assist
in the process of building compilers. These tools provide various features and functionalities
that aid in the development, testing, and optimization of compilers. Some of the commonly
used compiler construction tools are:
I. Lexical Analyzer Generator: Lexical analyzer generators, such as Flex and Lex, are
tools that generate lexical analyzers or scanners from a set of regular expressions or
patterns. These tools automate the process of generating code for scanning and
tokenizing the input source code, which is the first phase of a compiler.
II. Parser Generator: Parser generators, such as Bison and Yacc, are tools that generate
parsers from a set of grammar rules. These tools automate the process of generating
code for parsing the input source code and building the parse tree or abstract syntax
tree, which is the second phase of a compiler.
III. Integrated Development Environments (IDEs): IDEs, such as Visual Studio, Eclipse,
and IntelliJ IDEA, are comprehensive software development environments that
provide a range of tools for compiler construction. These tools include code editors
with syntax highlighting and code completion features, debuggers, profilers, and
 project management tools, which aid in the development, testing, and debugging of
compilers.
IV. Intermediate Code Generators: Intermediate code generators, such as LLVM (Low-
Level Virtual Machine), provide a framework for generating intermediate code that is
closer to the machine code but still independent of any specific target machine. These
tools offer various optimization and transformation functionalities that aid in the
generation of efficient machine code.
V. Code Optimizers: Code optimization tools, such as GCC (GNU Compiler Collection)
and LLVM, provide a range of optimization techniques, such as constant folding,
common subexpression elimination, dead code elimination, and register allocation,
that can be applied to the intermediate code or machine code to improve the
efficiency and performance of the resulting code.
VI. Debugger and Profiler: Debugger and profiler tools, such as GDB (GNU Debugger)
and Valgrind, assist in the debugging and profiling of compiled code. These tools
provide features for setting breakpoints, inspecting variables, and analyzing program
execution, which aid in identifying and fixing bugs, as well as optimizing the
performance of the compiled code.
VII. Testing Frameworks: Testing frameworks, such as JUnit, CUnit, and PyUnit, provide
tools for automated testing of compilers. These tools allow compiler developers to
write test cases and test suites to ensure the correctness and reliability of their
compilers, which is crucial for building robust and dependable compilers.
VIII. Version Control Systems: Version control systems, such as Git, SVN, and Mercurial,
are tools that aid in the management of source code changes and collaboration among
compiler developers. These tools provide features for versioning, branching, merging,
and conflict resolution, which enable compiler developers to work collaboratively on
the source code, track changes, and manage the development process efficiently.

These are some of the common compiler construction tools that are widely used by compiler
developers to build, test, optimize, and debug compilers. Depending on the specific
requirements and goals of the compiler development project, different combinations of these
tools may be used to achieve the desired results.
9. Draw the transition diagram for relational operators and unsigned numbers.
The transition diagram for relational operators (such as less than, less than or equal to,
greater than, greater than or equal to, equal to, and not equal to) and unsigned numbers
typically consists of states and transitions representing the possible transitions between states
based on input symbols (e.g., characters or tokens).
Here is a high-level description of a possible transition diagram for relational operators and
unsigned numbers:
Start state: Represents the initial state of the transition diagram.
State for unsigned numbers: Represents the state where input symbols for unsigned
numbers are processed. This state may have transitions to itself for digits (0-9) to allow for
multiple digits to form unsigned numbers.
State for relational operators: Represents the state where input symbols for relational
operators are processed. This state may have transitions to other states based on the specific
relational operator being input.
Final states: Represent the states where the input sequence is accepted as a valid
combination of relational operator and unsigned number.
Transitions: Represent the transitions between states based on the input symbols. For
example, transitions from the start state to the state for unsigned numbers may be labeled
with digits (0-9), while transitions from the state for unsigned numbers to the state for
relational operators may be labeled with relational operators.
The exact structure and layout of the transition diagram may vary depending on the specific
implementation and requirements of the compiler or parser being developed. It's important to
note that creating a complete and accurate transition diagram requires a thorough
understanding of the grammar and syntax rules for relational operators and unsigned numbers
in the specific programming language or domain being considered.
10. What is meant by lexical analysis? Identify the lexemes that makeup the token in the
following program segment. indicate the correspond token and pattern.
Void swap (int i, int j)
{
int t; t = i ; i = j ; j = t ;
}
 Lexical analysis, also known as scanning or tokenization, is the first phase of a compiler
where the input source code is analyzed to break it down into a sequence of tokens or
lexemes. A token is a sequence of characters that represents a syntactic unit in the
programming language, such as a keyword, identifier, operator, literal, or special symbol.
In the given program segment, the following lexemes make up the tokens:
1. Lexeme: "void" Token: Keyword Pattern: void
2. Lexeme: "swap" Token: Identifier Pattern: [a-zA-Z]+ (i.e., one or more alphabetic
characters)
3. Lexeme: "(" Token: Special symbol Pattern: (
4. Lexeme: "int" Token: Keyword Pattern: int
5. Lexeme: "i" Token: Identifier Pattern: [a-zA-Z]+ (i.e., one or more alphabetic characters)
6. Lexeme: "," Token: Special symbol Pattern: ,
7. Lexeme: "int" Token: Keyword Pattern: int
8. Lexeme: "j" Token: Identifier Pattern: [a-zA-Z]+ (i.e., one or more alphabetic characters)
9. Lexeme: ")" Token: Special symbol Pattern: )
10. Lexeme: "{" Token: Special symbol Pattern: {
11. Lexeme: "int" Token: Keyword Pattern: int
12. Lexeme: "t" Token: Identifier Pattern: [a-zA-Z]+ (i.e., one or more alphabetic characters)
13. Lexeme: ";" Token: Special symbol Pattern: ;
14. Lexeme: "t" Token: Identifier Pattern: [a-zA-Z]+ (i.e., one or more alphabetic characters)
15. Lexeme: "=" Token: Operator Pattern: =
16. Lexeme: "i" Token: Identifier Pattern: [a-zA-Z]+ (i.e., one or more alphabetic characters)
17. Lexeme: ";" Token: Special symbol Pattern: ;
18. Lexeme: "i" Token: Identifier Pattern: [a-zA-Z]+ (i.e., one or more alphabetic characters)
19. Lexeme: "=" Token: Operator Pattern: =
20. Lexeme: "j" Token: Identifier Pattern: [a-zA-Z]+ (i.e., one or more alphabetic characters)
21. Lexeme: ";" Token: Special symbol Pattern: ;
22. Lexeme: "j" Token: Identifier Pattern: [a-zA-Z]+ (i.e., one or more alphabetic characters)
23. Lexeme: "=" Token: Operator Pattern: =
24. Lexeme: "t" Token: Identifier Pattern: [a-zA-Z]+ (i.e., one or more alphabetic characters)
25. Lexeme: ";" Token: Special symbol Pattern: ;
26. Lexeme: "}" Token: Special symbol Pattern: }
11. Write short notes on buffer pair.
A buffer pair is a common data structure used in lexical analysis or scanning phase of a
compiler to efficiently read and process input source code. It typically consists of two
buffers, namely the input buffer and the output buffer.
1. Input Buffer: The input buffer is used to store a chunk of the input source code that is
read from the input source file or source code input stream. The size of the input buffer is
typically determined by the system or compiler settings and can vary depending on the
implementation. The input buffer is used to hold the characters read from the source code
until they are processed by the lexical analyzer.
2. Output Buffer: The output buffer is used to store the generated tokens or lexemes as they
are recognized by the lexical analyzer. The tokens are formed by scanning the characters
in the input buffer based on the rules of the programming language being compiled. Once
a token is recognized, it is stored in the output buffer until it is passed on to the
subsequent phases of the compiler for further processing.
Buffer pair is used to improve the efficiency of the lexical analysis phase of a compiler in
several ways:
1. Reduced I/O overhead: Reading input characters from the input source file or stream can
be time-consuming. By using a buffer to read and store a chunk of characters at a time,
the number of I/O operations can be reduced, improving the overall performance of the
lexical analyzer.
2. Token buffering: Storing the recognized tokens in an output buffer allows the lexical
analyzer to generate tokens in batches rather than one at a time. This can improve the
efficiency of token generation and subsequent phases of the compiler that rely on the
output of the lexical analyzer.
3. Lookahead capability: The input buffer allows the lexical analyzer to perform lookahead,
which is the ability to peek ahead into the input source code to analyze multiple
characters at once and make decisions based on the language syntax rules. This can help
in efficient handling of complex language constructs and parsing decisions.
Overall, the buffer pair is a commonly used data structure in compiler design to optimize the
lexical analysis phase and improve the efficiency of the compiler.
 12. Write regular expression to describe languages consist of strings made of even numbers a
and b
The regular expression to describe languages consisting of strings made of even numbers of
"a" and "b" can be expressed as follows:
^(aa|bb)*(ε|a|b)$
Explanation:
 ^: Represents the start of the string.
 (aa|bb)*: Represents zero or more occurrences of "aa" or "bb", denoting even numbers of
"a" and "b".
 (ε|a|b): Represents the end of the string, or a single occurrence of "a" or "b" to account
for the possibility of the string ending with an odd number of "a" or "b".
 $: Represents the end of the string.
In this regular expression, "ε" denotes the empty string or no characters, and "a" and "b"
represent the characters "a" and "b" respectively. The regular expression ensures that the
language consists of strings with an even number of "a" and "b" characters, and allows for
strings to end with either an empty string or a single "a" or "b" character.
I. Write the R.E. for the set of statements over {a,b,c} that contain an even no of a’s.
The regular expression (R.E.) for the set of statements over {a, b, c} that contain an even
number of "a"s can be expressed as follows:
(b|c)*(a(aa)*(b|c)*(a(aa)*(b|c)*)*)*
Explanation:
 (b|c)*: Represents zero or more occurrences of "b" or "c" characters, allowing any
number of "b"s or "c"s to appear before or after the "a"s.
 (a(aa)*(b|c)*(a(aa)*(b|c)*)*)*: Represents zero or more occurrences of "a" followed by
an even number of "a"s (represented by (aa)*), followed by zero or more occurrences of
"b" or "c" characters. This ensures that the overall count of "a"s is even, as every "a" is
followed by two "a"s (i.e., "aa"), and the presence of "b" or "c" characters can occur zero
or more times before or after the "a"s.
This regular expression allows for strings containing an even number of "a"s, with any
combination of "b" and "c" characters appearing in between or around the "a"s.
II. Derive the string and construct a syntax tree for the input string ceaedae using the
grammar S->SaA|A,A->AbB|B,B->cSd|e
S -> SaA | A
A -> AbB | B
B -> cSd | e
S -> SaA // Using S -> SaA production
-> cSaA // Using B -> cSd production
-> ceaAaA // Using B -> e production
-> ceaAAbB // Using A -> AbB production
-> ceaBbcSdB // Using B -> cSd production
-> ceBbbcSddB // Using A -> AbB production
-> cBebbcSddB // Using B -> e production
-> cebBbcSddB // Using B -> cSd production
-> cebcSddB // Using A -> B production
-> cebcBd // Using B -> e production
S
______|______
| |
c AaA
|
_____|_____
| |
ce AbB
|
_____|_____
| |
eb cSd
|
_____|_____
| |
Bb dB
 |
|
B
|
|
E
III. Write short notes on YACC.
YACC (Yet Another Compiler Compiler) is a tool used in compiler construction for
generating syntax analyzers or parsers. It is a parser generator developed by AT&T Bell
Laboratories that produces LALR(1) (Look-Ahead Left-to-Right, 1 token lookahead) parsers.
YACC takes a context-free grammar as input and generates C code for a parser that can
recognize and parse input according to the specified grammar.
Here are some key features and notes on YACC:
I. Grammar Specification: YACC uses a grammar specification language to define the
syntax of a programming language or other formal language. The grammar is written
in a formal notation called Backus-Naur Form (BNF) or its variants.
II. Parsing: YACC generates parsers based on the LALR(1) parsing algorithm, which is
efficient and can handle a wide range of programming language grammars.
III. Action Rules: YACC allows the user to associate semantic actions with grammar
productions. These semantic actions are C code snippets that are executed during
parsing and can be used to perform tasks such as building an abstract syntax tree,
generating intermediate code, or performing semantic analysis.
IV. Symbol Table: YACC provides facilities for managing a symbol table, which is a data
structure used by compilers to keep track of identifiers (e.g., variables, functions) and
their attributes (e.g., data type, scope).
V. Error Handling: YACC automatically generates error-handling code that can detect
and recover from syntax errors in the input source code.
VI. Integration with Lex: YACC is often used in conjunction with Lex, a lexical analyzer
generator, to create complete compilers. Lex is used to generate the lexical analyzer,
which scans the input source code and produces tokens that are fed into the YACC-
generated parser for further processing.
VII. Portability: YACC-generated parsers are written in C, which makes them highly
portable across different platforms and architectures.
VIII. Extensibility: YACC allows users to define their own functions and data structures to
be used in the semantic actions, which provides flexibility and extensibility in
implementing custom compiler functionalities.
In summary, YACC is a powerful tool used in compiler construction for generating parsers
based on a given grammar specification. It provides a convenient and efficient way to create
compilers for programming languages or other formal languages.