THEORY OF STRUCTURES

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load.

Important examples related to civil engineering include buildings, bridges, and
towers, and in other branches of engineering, ship and aircraft frames, tanks,
pressure vessels, mechanical systems, and electrical supporting structures are
important.

Structural analysis is a fundamental aspect of structural engineering that

involves the evaluation and assessment of how a structure or system behaves
under various loads and conditions. It is a crucial step in the design and
construction of buildings, bridges, dams, towers, and other civil engineering
structures. The primary objective of structural analysis is to ensure the safety,
stability, and functionality of these structures. Here are some key components
and concepts related to structural analysis:

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES

1. Tension Structures
The members of tension structures are subjected to pure tension under the action
of external loads. Tension structures composed of flexible steel cables are
frequently employed to support bridges and long-span roofs. Because of their
flexibility, cables have negligible bending stiffness and can develop only
tension. The figures below are examples of tension structures.

Main cable

Hangers

Roadway

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 THEORY OF STRUCTURES

2. Compression Structures
Compression structures are structures that carry only compressive loads. Two
common examples of such structures are columns and arches. Columns are
straight members subjected to axially compressive loads. An arch is a curved
structure, with a shape similar to that of an inverted cable. Arches develop
mainly compressive stresses when subjected to loads and are usually designed
so that they will develop only compression under a major design loading.
Because compression structures are susceptible to buckling or instability, the
possibility of such a failure should be considered in their designs; if necessary,
adequate bracing must be provided to avoid such failures. The figures below are
examples of compression structures.

Column P Arch 𝑤

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3. Trusses
A truss is a structure that is made of straight bars that are joined together to form
a pattern of triangles. A truss can be classified as a lightweight structure,
meaning that the weights of its members are generally much smaller than the
loads that it is designed to carry. In practice, the members at each joint are
usually riveted or welded to a plate. However, if the members at a joint are
aligned so that their centroidal axes intersect at a common point, advanced
methods of analysis indicate that the assumption of pins is justified. Trusses are
designed so that the major applied loads act at the joints. The members of the
truss carry only tensile force and compressive force.

𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝟑
Truss
B C D
𝑷𝟏

A
E
H G F

𝑷𝟒

4. Bending Structures
Bending structures are structures subject to bending stresses under the action of
external loads. Some of the most commonly used structures, such as beams,
rigid frames, slabs, and plates, can be classified as bending structures. A beam is
a straight member that is loaded perpendicular to its longitudinal axis.

Beam P

Rigid frames are composed of straight members connected together either by

rigid (moment-resisting) connections or by hinged connections to form stable
configurations. Unlike trusses, which are subjected only to joint loads, the
external loads on frames may be applied on the members as well as on the joint

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 THEORY OF STRUCTURES

Rigid frame 𝑤1

𝑷𝟏

𝑤2 𝑤2

𝑷𝟐

LOADS ON STRUCTURES

1. Dead loads
Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. These
consists the weight of the structure and other permanent attachments like ceiling
and floor finished.
Minimum Unit weights for Design Loads from Materials
Materials KN/m3
Aluminum 25.9
Brick 18.8
Concrete, reinforced 23.6
Structural steel 77
Wood 6.3
Masonry,lightweight solid concrete 16.5
Masonry,normal weight 21.2
Plywood 5.7

1. Live loads
Live loads are different to dead loads because it may change in magnitude and
position. Moving loads, wind, rain, earthquake, soils are considered as live load.
Minimum floor live loads for building
Materials KPa
Hospital patient rooms, residential dwellings, 1.92
apartments, hotel guest rooms, school classrooms
Library reading rooms, hospital operating rooms and 2.87
laboratories
Dance halls and ballrooms, restaurants, gymnasiums 4.79

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES

Light manufacturing, light storage warehouses, 6.00

wholesale stores
Heavy manufacturing, heavy storage warehouses 11.97

3. Impact
The dynamic effect of the load that causes this increase in stress in the structure
is referred to as impact. To account for the increase in stress due to impact, the
live loads are increased by certain impact percentages, or impact factors. For
elevator loads on buildings, it should be increased by 100% to account for
impact. For highway bridges, the AASHTO Specification gives the expression
for the impact factor as

𝟏𝟓
𝐈= > 𝟎. 𝟑
𝐋 + 𝟑𝟖. 𝟏

where:
L = span of the loaded member
4. Wind Loads
Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The
magnitudes of wind load that may act on a structure depend on the geographical
location of the structure, obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby
buildings, and the geometry and the vibrational characteristics of the structure
itself.

DYNAMIC PRESSURE q INDUCED ON A FLAT SURFACE

NORMAL TO THE WIND

𝒒 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑 𝑽𝟐

Where the pressure “q” is expressed in Pascal or N/m2 and the velocity
“V” in m/s

To account for the variation in wind speed with the height and the surroundings
in which a structure is located and to account for the consequences of the failure
of structures, the ASCE 7 Standard modifies the equation above.

𝒒𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑𝑲𝒛 𝑲𝒛𝒕 𝑲𝒅 𝑽𝟐 𝑰

Where:
qz = the velocity pressure at height z in N/m2
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 THEORY OF STRUCTURES

V = the basic wind speed in m/s

I = the importance factor
Kz = the velocity pressure exposure coefficient
Kzt = the topographic factor
Kd = the wind directionality factor

The external wind pressures to be used for designing the main framing of
structures are given by
for windward wall

𝒑𝒛 = 𝒒𝒛 𝑮𝑪𝒑

for leeward wall; sidewalls; and roof

𝒑𝒉 = 𝒒𝒉 𝑮𝑪𝒑

Where:
h = mean roof height above ground
qh = velocity pressure at height h
pz = design wind pressure at height z above ground;
ph = design wind pressure at mean roof height h
G = gust effect factor
Cp = external pressure coefficient.

The gust effect factor, G, is used to consider the loading effect of wind
turbulence on the structure. For a rigid structure, whose fundamental frequency
is greater than or equal to 1 Hz, G = 0:85

5. Earthquake load
An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface.
Although the ground surface moves in both horizontal and vertical directions
during an earthquake, the magnitude of the vertical component of ground motion
is usually small and does not have a significant effect on most structures. It is the
horizontal component of ground motion that causes structural damage and that
must be considered in designs of structures located in earthquake-prone areas.
During an earthquake, as the foundation of the structure moves with the ground,
the above-ground portion of the structure, because of the inertia of its mass,
resists the motion, thereby causing the structure to vibrate in the horizontal
direction as shown in the figure below. These vibrations produce horizontal
shear forces in the structure. For an accurate prediction of the stresses that may
develop in a structure in the case of an earthquake, a dynamic analysis,

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES

considering the mass and stiffness characteristics of the structure, must be

performed. However, for low- to medium-height rectangular buildings, most
codes employ equivalent static forces to design for earthquake resistance.

deformed
configuration Initial undeformed
configuration

ground motion

6. Hydrostatic and soil pressure

Structures used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as well as coastal
structures partially or fully submerged in water must be designed to resist
hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure acts normal to the submerged surface
of the structure, with its magnitude varying linearly with height, as shown in the
figure. Underground structures, basement walls and floors, and retaining walls
must be designed to resist soil pressure. The lateral soil pressure depends on the
type of soil and is usually considerably smaller than the vertical pressure.

PRESSURE
INTENSITY

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 THEORY OF STRUCTURES

EQUILIBRIUM ON STRUCTURES
A structure is said to be in equilibrium if, when it is subject to external forces
and couples, it will remain at rest. For equilibriums structures, the resultant force
and the resultant couples are equal to zero. It should satisfy the equations called
equation of static equilibrium.

For plane structures (two dimensional)

σ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎 σ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎 σ𝑴 = 𝟎

For space structures (three dimensional)

σ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎 σ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎 σ 𝑭𝒛 = 𝟎

σ 𝑴𝒙 = 𝟎 σ 𝑴𝒚 = 𝟎 σ 𝑴𝒛 = 𝟎

EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FORCES

External forces are the actions of other bodies on the structure under
consideration. It is convenient to further classify these forces as applied forces
and reaction forces.

Internal forces are the forces and couples exerted on a member or portion of
structure by the rest of the structure. These forces develop within the structure
and hold the various portions of it.

SUPPORT REACTION
Support reaction structures are commonly idealized as either fixed supports,
which do not allow any movement; hinged supports, which can prevent
translation but permit rotation; or roller, or link supports, which can prevent
translation in one direction only.

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Type of support Number of

Reactions Description
Unknowns
T
Tension of unknown
magnitude T in the 1
direction of the cable

Flexible cable
The reaction force R acts perpen-
dicular to the supporting surface
and may be directed either into 1
or away from the structure. The
Roller R magnitude of R is the unknown.

Rx The reaction force R may act

in any direction. It is usually
2
convenient to represents R
by its rectangular components.
Ry
Hinge
The reaction consists of two force
M
components RX and Ry and a couple
Rx
of moment M. The magnitude M, RX 3
& Ry are the three unknowns
Fixed Ry

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STATIC DETERMINACY, INDETERMINACY, AND INSTABILITY

Internal Stability
Internally stable structures are those structures that can maintains its shape and
remains a rigid body when its supports are removed otherwise it is unstable. The
figures below are examples for internally stable and unstable structures.

Internally stable
structures

Internally unstable structures

Static Determinacy of Internally Stable Structures

An internally stable structure is considered to be statically determinate
externally if all its support reactions can be determined by solving the equations
of equilibrium. If the number of reactions exceeds the number of equations of
static equilibrium, the structure becomes statically indeterminate externally. If
the number of reactions is less than the number of equations of static
equilibrium, the structure is considered to be statically unstable externally.

Statically determinate externally

𝑹=𝑬

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES

Statically indeterminate externally

𝑹>𝑬

Statically unstable externally

𝑹<𝑬

Degree of Indeterminacy

𝑰= 𝑹−𝑬
where:

R = number of reactions
E = number of static equilibrium equations
= 3 (for plane structures)
= 6 (for space structures)
I = degree of indeterminacy

Static Determinacy of Internally unstable Structures

Statically determinate externally

𝑹 = 𝑬 + 𝒏 + 𝟐𝒎

Statically indeterminate externally

𝑹 > 𝑬 + 𝒏 + 𝟐𝒎

Statically unstable externally

𝑹 < 𝑬 + 𝒏 + 𝟐𝒎

Degree of Indeterminacy

𝑰 = 𝑹 − (𝑬 + 𝒏 + 𝟐𝒎)
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 THEORY OF STRUCTURES

where:
n = number of internal hinges
m = number of internal rollers

In some cases, there may be as many unknown forces as there are equations of
equilibrium; however, instability or movement of a structure or its members can
develop because of improper constraining by the supports. This can occur if;
1. All the support reactions are concurrent at a point. An example of
this is shown in Figure a-1. From the free-body diagram of the beam it
is seen that the summation of moments about point O will not be equal
to zero thus rotational movement about point O will take place.
2. All reactive forces are parallel. An example of this case is shown in
Figure a-2. When an inclined force P is applied, the summation of
forces in the horizontal direction will not equal to zero, and then the
structure will have a horizontal translation.

O FBD O

A B C A B C

P
P Fig. a-
1
FBD
P P

A B A B C
C

Fig. a-2

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES

Example: Classify each of the structures shown in Figure below as externally

unstable, statically determinate, or statically indeterminate. If the structure is
statically indeterminate externally, then determine the degree of external
indeterminacy.

hinge hinge

Figure 1 Figure 4

hinge hinge

Figure 2 hinge hinge

roller

Figure 3 Figure 5
SOLUTION:

FREE BODY DIAGRAMS

hinge hing
e

Figure 4
Figure 1

hinge hinge

Figure 2 hinge hinge

roller

Figure 3 Figure 5

Figure 1: The Structure is internally stable with R = 5, E = 3. Since R > E, then

it is statically indeterminate externally. The degree of determinacy is I = R – E =
5 – 3 = 2 (2nd degree).
Figure 2: The Structure is internally unstable since it contains internal
connection with R = 6, E = 3, n = 1, m = 0. Since R > (E + n + 2m), then it is
statically indeterminate externally. The degree of determinacy is I = R – (E + n
= 2m) = 6 – 3 – 1 = 2 (2nd degree).

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Figure 3: The Structure is internally unstable since it contains internal

connection with R = 4, E = 3, n = 0, m = 1. Since R < (E + n + 2m), then it is
statically unstable externally.
Figure 4: The Structure is internally unstable since it contains internal
connection with R = 5, E = 3, n = 2, m = 0. Since R = (E + n + 2m), then it is
statically determinate externally.
Figure 5: The Structure is internally unstable since it contains internal
connection with R = 6, E = 3, n = 3, m = 0. Since R = (E + n + 2m), then it is
statically determinate externally.

COMPUTATION OF REACTIONS PROCEDURE

1. Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) of the structure.

a. A sketch of the body is drawn assuming that all supports (surfaces of
contact, supporting cables, etc.) have been removed.

b. All applied forces are drawn and labelled on the sketch. The weight of
the body is considered to be applied force acting at the center of gravity.
Show each known force or couple on the FBD by an arrow indicating its
direction. Write the magnitude of each known force or couple by its arrow.

c. At each point where the structure has been detached from a support, show
the unknown external reactions being exerted on the structure. The reaction
forces are represented on the FBD by arrows in the known directions of
their lines of action. The reaction couples are represented by curved arrows.
The direction of the reactions is not known and can be assumed. However,
it is usually convenient to assume the direction of the reaction forces in the
positive x and y directions and of reaction couples as counter clockwise.
The actual direction of the reactions will be known after their magnitudes
have been determined by solving the equations of equilibrium and any
conditions. A positive magnitude for a reaction will imply that the assumed
direction was correct, whereas a negative value of the magnitude will
indicate that the correct direction is the opposite to the one assumed on the
FBD.

2. Check for static determinacy. Determine whether the given structure is

statically determinate externally or not. If the structure is either statically or
geometrically unstable or indeterminate externally, the analysis of this type
of structure will be discussed in the next chapter. If the structure is statically
determinate externally, determine the unknown reactions by applying the
equations of equilibrium. To avoid solving simultaneous equations, write
the equilibrium and condition equations so that each equation involves only
one unknown. For some internally unstable structures, it may not be
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THEORY OF STRUCTURES

possible to write equations containing one unknown each. For such

structures, the reactions are determined by solving the equations
simultaneously. The analysis of such internally unstable structures can
sometimes be expedited and the solution of simultaneous equations avoided
by disconnecting the structure into rigid portions and by applying the
equations of equilibrium to the individual portions to determine the
reactions. In such a case, you must construct the free-body diagrams of the
portions of the structure; these diagrams must show, in addition to any
applied loads and support reactions, all the internal forces being exerted
upon that portion at connections. Remember that the internal forces acting
on the adjacent portions of a structure must have the same magnitudes but
opposite direction in accordance with Newton’s third law.

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 THEORY OF STRUCTURES

Example 1: Determine the reactions at the supports for the frame shown.

50 KN/m
200 KN
Hinge C

5m
8m

A
8m

Solution:

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES

Example 2: Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the reaction at

A and D.
30 KN/m 200 KN
C

A B hinge D

6m 3m 2m 2m

Solution:

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 THEORY OF STRUCTURES

1 EXERCISE

PART 1
Instruction: Classify each of the structures shown as externally unstable,
statically determinate, or statically indeterminate. If the structure is statically
indeterminate externally, then determine the degree of external indeterminacy.

Figure 1

Figure 2

pin
Figure 3

pin

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES

Figure 4 roller

Figure 5 pin pin

Figure 6

Figure 7
roller

Figure 8
pin pin

PART 2
Instruction: Answer the following problems below. Show your solutions
clearly and box your final answer.

1. Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown.

30 KN/m

A B
3m 6m 5m

2. Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown.

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 THEORY OF STRUCTURES

120 KN 20 KN/m

A
B
3m 3m 6m

3. Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown.

20 KN/m

A
B

3m 9m 3m

4. Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown.

30 KN/m 80 KN
B
A
150 KN-m
5 1m
m

5. Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown.

30 40 KN/m
KN/m

A B
3m 5m 2m

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES

6. Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown.

50 KN/m

200 KN

12 m

A B

8m

7. Determine the moment reactions at the supports for the structures shown.
15 KN/m

50 KN

25 KN/m
100 KN 12 m

A B
8m

8. Determine the moment reaction at A and B for the structure shown.

6m 6m

200 KN
hinged
6m

hinged hinged

6m
A B

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 THEORY OF STRUCTURES

9. Determine the moment reaction at A for the beam shown.

30 KN/m

A hinge hinge B
3m 3m 3m 5m

10. Determine the reaction at A, B, C & D of the beam shown.

20 KN/m

A
hinge B hinge C D

3m 3m 3m 3m 4m 1.5 m

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