TOPIC: CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS

Crops are classified into three categories.

1. Agricultural classification
2. Life cycle classification
3. Botanical classification.
AGRICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS
This classification is based on the uses of plants.
1. CEREALS PLANTS
These plants belong to the grass family, they are grains or seed
crops that provide carbohydrates. E.g maize, rice, millets,
guinea corn, wheat, barley, oat etc
2. PULSES OR LEGUMES
They are grains or seed crops that provides protein. E.g
cowpea, soya beans, ground nut, lima beans, pigeon pea.
3. ROOTS AND TUBERS CROPS
These crops produce tubers under the ground and provide
carbohydrates. E.g cassava, yam, cocoyam, potatoes, beets,
carrots. Etc
4. VEGETABLES CROPS
These crops appear as leaves or fruits, and provide vitamins
and minerals. E.g tomatoes, onion, okra, spinach, bitter leave,
water leave, lettuce, cabbage, carrots, cucumber, peas, e.t.c
5. FRUIT PLANTS
They Provide vitamins and minerals, E.g oranges, banana,
water melon. E.t.c
6. BEVERAGE PLANTS.
 They provide us with food drinks when processed into finished
products like bournvita, ovaltine, pronto. Examples of beverage
plants are coffee, tea, kola, e.t.c
7. SPICES
Spices are crops that gives aroma and flavor to our food, they
are used in small quantity. They provide vitamins and minerals.
Examples are ginger, pepper, onion. E.t.c
8. OIL PLANTS
These plants provides oil when processed. Examples are oil
palm, groundnut, melons, coconut, soya bean, cotton. E.t.c
9. FIBRE CROPS
These are crop plants that are used for making clothing
materials, such as ropes, and bags. E.g cotton, sisal, hemp,
kenaf, hibiscus. E.t.c
10. LATEX CROPS
These crops provide white sticky liquid called latex used in
plastic industries. E.g rubber plants.

CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS BASED ON LIFE CYCLE

These involves the number of years a plant grows, mature and
produce fruits.
1. ANNUAL CROPS
2. BIENNIAL CROPS
3. PERENNIAL CROPS
ANNUAL CROPS: these crops are grown to mature and
produce fruits within a year. Examples of annual crops are
millets, maize, rice, cowpea, vegetables e.t.c
BIENNIAL CROPS: these crops grow, matures and produce
fruits within two years. Examples are pepper, carrots,
onion, ginger. e.t.c
PERENNIALS CROPS: these crops grows and produce fruits
from two years and above, up to 20 – 35 years. E.gare
cocoa, banana, orange, oil palm and tree plants etc

TOPIC 2: THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.

Digestion is the break down of complex food materials
into smaller and absorbable form in an organism.
The digestive system is the organs associated or the
organs that takes part in the breakdown of food.
TYPES OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. Complete tract ( i.e two opening of mouth and anus)
2. Incomplete tract ( i.e one opening, the mouth serving
for both ingestion and egestion).
The alimentary canal of man includes the following
parts:
1. Mouth
2. Oesophagus
3. Stomach
4. Small intestine
5. Large intestine
6. Rectum/anus
THE MOUTH
The mouth contains
1. SALIVA, the saliva consist the following:
 Mucin—lubricates food to stick into bolus for
easy swallowing.
 Enzyme ptylin--- digest cooked starch.
 Water
2. TONGUE, the tongue helps roll food into bolus as
it mixes with saliva. After mechanical digestion in
the mouth by the teeth, food is passed down the
oesophagus as bolus by PERISTALSIS movement.
NB .peristalysis is an involuntary constriction and
relaxation of the muscles creating a wavelike
movement which pushes the contents of the
canal forward.
The oesophagus is a muscular tube from the
pharynx to the stomach.
The pharynx is a short muscular tube connecting
the mouth with the oesophagus.

STOMACH
1. The stomach stores food temporarily for 1-4
hours before protein digestion.
2. The twisting or churning of the stomach wall
or gastric mucosa
3. breaks food particles into chyle. (semi-solid)
4. The wall of the stomach or gastric mucosa has
three glands which secretesthe GASTRIC
JUICE. The gastric juice from the first gland
are;
a. Enzyme pepsin—it digest protein to peptone.
 b. Enzyme rennin--- coagulate or curdle milk
before the action of pepsin.
ii. thesecond gland secrets : Hydrochloric acid
----which kills germs in the stomach and
convert pepsinogen to pepsin.
iii. the third gland secret the Mucus--- this
prevents HCL from injuring the stomach wall,
otherwise gastric ulcer will occur.

THE SMALL INTESTINE

The small intestine are of three parts:
1. The first part emerging from the stomach as
the duodenum.
2. The mid part called the Jejunum
3. The last part terminating into the caecum as
the ileum.
THE DUODENUM
The bile duct and pancreatic duct opens into
the duodenum.
1. The bile (greenish alkaline salt) in the gall
bladder emulsifies fat in our food.
 The liver produces bile from outlived red blood
cell and stores it in the gall bladder.
 The bile doesn’t contain digestive enzymes but
important for digestion.
 It contain high % of water therefore add water to
chyme.
  It alkaline nature (sodium salt) neutralizes the
HCL in chime. This is because enzymes in the
small intestine works in an alkaline medium
 The bile reduces the surface tension of fats and
emulsifies them.(i.e large fat and oil drops are
broken up into tiny droplets, thus providing a
large surface area for enzymes action.
1. The pancreas secrets the following:
i. ENZYMES
a. Enzyme amylase /amylopsin--- digest starch
to maltose(sugar)
b. Enzyme trypsin a protease ----- digest
peptone to polypeptides.
c. Enzyme lipase ----emulsifies fat to oil.
Food substance at this state is in form of
chyle( watery).

II.HORMONES

The islets of langerhans in the pancreas

secretes two hormones

a. Insulin ---- stores excess blood sugar as

glycogen in the liver and muscle.
b. Glucagon ----- reconvert glycogen to glucose
into the blood.
THE ILEUM
The intestinal wall secretes intestinal juices
containing the following enzymes which
complete the process of digestion.
a. Erepsin: finally changes polypeptides to
amino acids.
b. Lipase : changes fats to fatty acids or
carboxylic acids and glycerol
c. Maltase: changes maltose to glucose.
d. Lactase: changes lactose to glucose and
galactose.
e. Sucrase: changes sucrose to glucose and
fructose.
The end products of carbohydrate digestion
are thus simple sugars (glucose, fructose
and galactose)

ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED FOOD

Glucose , amino acid, fatty acid and

glycerol as well as vitamin and mineral
salts are all absorbed in the ileum the
small intestine
Absorption of digested food is enabled by
the villi a finger like structure in the wall of
the small intestine and it large surface area
it provide, this occurs through the process
of diffusion or active transport.
NB: there is a reach supply of blood vessels
and lymphatic vessels containing blood and
lymph respectively to carry away the
absorbed food substances. In each villus,
there is a blind lymphatic tube called a
lacteal surrounded by a network of blood
capillaries. The lymph in the lacteals
transports fatty acids and glycerol which
usually recombines to form fats again in the
lacteals. the lymphatic vessels eventually
empty their contents into the blood vessels
near the heart. The blood then carries the
fats to where they are needed. Excess fats
are stored in fats cells which group
together to form adipose tissue, found
usually under the skin and around organs.
The capillaries transport sugars and amino
acids away from the intestine. Mineral salts
and vitamin are also absorbed by these
capillaries. All these food substances are
brought by the blood stream to the hepatic
portal vein which runs from the small
intestine to the liver. The liver processes
the food substances .some are broken
down, come converted to other
substances, some stored and some left
unchanged. The food is then carried in the
bloodstream to the cells in the rest of the
body where they are assimilated.
THE COLON OR LARGE INTESTINE
The undigested food passes into the large
intestine, water is absorbed here
concentrating waste products into semi
solid called faeces which pass into the
rectum and egested out of the body
through the anus

NB: the liver regulates the amount of

glucose and amino acids that are present in
the blood, these processes are controlled
by hormones.
The liver also releases only the required
amount of amino acids into the blood. The
body cant store amino acid. The liver
breaks down or deaminates the excess
amino acids in the blood from the gut, the
nitrogen containing parts of the amino
acids are converted to urea and excreted in
the urine, the remaining parts are changed
to glucose, glycogen or fat.
The above is so because the liver receives
blood carrying nutrients from the gut via
the hepatic portal vein. It also receives
oxygenated blood from the hepatic artery.
The hepatic vein carries blood away from
the liver.
TOPIC: FEEDING MECHANISM
This are the different structure and means used by different organism
for feeding. This structures varies based on diet of organism.

There are five feeding mechanism associated with some organism.

1. Absorbing mechanism.
2. Biting and chewing mechanism
3. Sucking mechanism
4. Trapping and absorbing mechanism
5. Grinding
ABSORBING MECHANISM (E.G TAPEWORM)

FEATURES:
1. The tapeworm has no alimentary canal. i.e mouth-anus.
2. The tapeworm has hook and sucker for firm attachment to host
intestine.
3. Its body has thick cuticle which resist digestive enzymes of the
host.
4. It flat body provides large surface area for absorption of
digested food.

BITING AND CHEWING MECHANISM

E.G cockroach and grasshopper
FEATURES:
1. Presence of modified parts for biting and chewing.
2. Presence of labrum( upper lip ) which prevent food from falling
off mouth.
3. Presence of labium (lower lip) which prevents wastage of food
from the mouth.
 4. Presence of mandible used for cutting and chewing food.
5. Presence of maxillae which breaks food which the mandible
chewed.

SUCKING MECHANISM

E.G mosquito, butterfly, housefly

FEATURES

1. Presence of Proboscis for sucking.

2. Enzymes in saliva prevent blood clothing while being prevent.
3. Presence of labella in housefly for sucking liquid food and also
sponging structure.
4. Mosquito has the ability to fold back labium to allow the stylet
perform easy penetration.

NB. Stylet is the collective mouth part of the mosquito.

The housefly pours out saliva on solid materials and the enzymes
in it changed solid food to liquid state before sucking.

TRAPPING AND ABSORBING MECHANISM

This is common among carnivorous plant or insectivorous plant.

E.g bladder worts, sundew,venus flytraps, pitcher plant,
cobra plant, water wheel.

FEATURES

1. Insects are trapped by insectivorous plants when the insects land

on it, due to response of stimuli of touch.
2. The leaves has long hairs with digestive glands.
 3. Insects on landing (stimuli) causes hairs to curl over the insect and
cover it.
4. Digestive enzymes is secreted to digest insect externally which is
absorbed by plant body.

FEEDING HABITS
Organisms exhibits different feeding habits which includes:
1. Filter feeding
2. Fluid feeding
3. Saprophytic feeding
4. Parasitic feeding
5. Holozoic feeding

FILTER FEEDING
This are mainly aquatic feeders feeding on every tiny organism.
They wallow in water through sieve like structure in their
mouth /body in order to collect responsible quantity of food.
e.g mosquito-larva, mussel, duck, prawn etc
FLUID FEEDERS
Fluid feeders feeds on fluids such as
 Nectar of flowers
 Sap of plant
 Blood or body fluid of insect and higher plant

They have specialized mouth parts for piercing and sucking. E.g
aphid, mosquito, bees, butterfly, humming birds etc

Other fluid feeders like tapeworm absorbs their food by the process of
diffusion using its body surface.
 SAPROPYHTIC FEEDING

Saprophytes are mainly non green plant( lack chlorophyll) that feeds by
decaying dead organic materials using their hyphae. They are mostly
bacteria and fungi.

During feeding they secretes digestive enzymes from their hyphae

which breaks down their food extracellularly to a fluid state. The food is
thereby absorbed in solution through the cell walls.

e.g are mucor, rhizopus, mushroom e.t.c

Features :

Possession of hyphae instead of root for pouring enzymes for digestion.

PARASITIC FEEDING

Parasites are organisms (plants and animals) that feed and are
dependent on other living organisms known as their hosts. Parasites
causes harmful effects on the host.

Examples of plant parasites are:

Mistle- toe

Dodder

Cassytha

Animal parasites includes:

Tapeworm

Ascaris lumbricoides

Liver flukes
Louse

Tick

Guinea worm e.t.c

HOLOZOIC FEEDING (amoeba, and hydra)

In this kind of feeding, food is ingested into the mouth directly . e.g
man, protozoa, hydra.

FEEDING IN PROTOZOA(amoeba)

Amoeba feeds on micro-organism like diatom, bacteria, demids, and

organic particles floating in water by engulfing food particles with the
aid of its pseudopodia which surround the food particles, forming a cup
shape till both ends meets with little drop of water forming a food
vacuole.

This feeding process in amoeba by engulfing food particles is called

phagocytosis.

DIAGRAM SHOWING FEEDING IN AMOEBA

FEEDING IN HYDRA

Hydra feeds on small aquatic animals by means of its tentacles which

has stinging cells used for capturing the food /prey and into its wide
mouths. Before ingestion the stinging cell releases enzymes that digest
the prey extracellularly. i.e external digestion) then ingested.
Undigested food are sent back and forced out through the same
mouth.

DIAGRAM SHOWING FEEDING IN HYDRA

WEEK 10 TOPIC: TRANSPORT SYSTEM

Transport refers to the movement of metabolic materials from various

parts of an organism where they are produced to parts where they are
needed, stored, used or removed.

The transport system are all the vessel or organs associated in the
transportation of substances within an organism. They include:

The transport system in higher organism .

A. IN ANIMALS:

1. The heart ( located in the chest, between the lungs) pump the
blood.
2. The blood( is a fluid tissue ) it consist of red corpuscles, white
corpuscles, platelet, plasma.
3. The blood vessels( artery, vein and capillaries)
The artery carries blood away from the heart
The vein takes blood from the body to the heart.
 The capillaries connects the arterioles and venules in organs of
the body.

Differences Between Arteries and Veins

Following are the major differences between arteries and veins:

ARTERIES VEINS

Involved in carrying
Involved in carrying oxygenated blood
deoxygenated blood except for
except for pulmonary arteries
pulmonary veins

Its layers are thicker and highly Its layers are thinner and less
muscular. muscular.

Located deep within the body. Peripherally located closer to

 the skin.

Red in colour. Blue in colour.

Carry blood towards the heart

Carry blood away from the heart to
from the various parts of the
various parts of the body.
body.

blood flows in high pressure. blood flows in low pressure.

Comparatively higher oxygen level. imparatively low oxygen level.

The level of carbon dioxide is

The level of carbon dioxide is low
high

In the downward direction from the heart In the upward direction from the
to the body tissues. body tissues to the heart.

Lumen /canal is narrow. Lumen/canal is wide.

Valves are present, this prevent

Valves are absent
the back flow of blood.

Arteries are at a greater risk of certain Veins are less susceptible to

diseases like angina pectoris, diseases such as varicose
atherosclerosis, etc. veins.

FEATURES OF CAPILLARIES
1. Found between arteries and vein and around tissues and
organs of the body.
2. Have thin walls which makes it easy for diffusion of oxygen,
nutrient and waste between cell and blood.
 3. They are tiny in order to penetrates to all parts of the internal
organs.

B. IN PLANT they include

1. The Phloem. It transport manufactured food( i.e the starch
produced during photosynthesis) from leave to stem and root.
2. The Xylem. It transport water and dissolved mineral from root to
stems and leaves.
3. The Stomata. This are pores on leaves that allows for the
entrance and exit of substances.
NB: gases dissolves in water of moist cell before entering the cells.
4. The lenticels. This are pores on stem and roots that allows for the
entrance and exit of substances.

PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE TRANSPORTATION OF METABOLIC

SUNSTANCES.

1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis- is a special type of diffusion.
3. Active transport
Diffusion is the process by which molecules of substances of
liquid and gas moves from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration until the molecules are evenly or
equally distributed/spread.
The principles behind diffusion.
1. Velocity--- describes the speed in the movement of molecules
from high concentration to low concentration.
2. Concentraton---this tells the amount of molecules within a
defined volume or area.
3. Concentration gradient--- is the shift in concentration i.e from
high to low as time increases.
OSMOSIS
Is the movement of water molecules from the region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration through a
selectively permeable membrane.
NEED/IMPORTANCE OF DIFFUSION
1. Diffusion aid the transportation or movement of materials such
as oxygen, water, carbon dioxide e.t.c within an organism from
where they are produced( region of high concentration ) to
where they are stored, used or removed(region of lower
concentration).
2. Diffusion also aid the elimination of waste from the body in
order to avoid poisoning of cells and to allow inflow of useful
materials( nutrient) for healthy cells.
3. It also aid the intake of oxygen and nutrient from mother to the
unborn child (foetus) through the placenta.
 4. Diffusion enables gaseous exchange through the lungs in
mammals.
5. Diffusion aid in the exchange of gas in simple organism.
6. Osmosis aid in the absorption of water from soil of root hair to
the plant.
7. Osmosis aid in the opening and closing of the stomata.
8. Osmosis gives turgidity to plant cells.
9. Osmosis aid re- absorption of water in the kidney tubules of
mammals.
10. Osmosis aid absorption of water from undigested food
materials from the large intestine.
11. Osmosis result in haemolysis of red blood cell.
_____ IMAGE OF ROOT HAIR ABSORBING WATER FROM SOIL.
NEED FOR SUBSTANCES TO MOVE OVER GREATER DISTANCE
VIA TRANSPORT SYSTEM
1. Cells are far from each other.
2. Isolated cells need to be connected through linking system.
3. Large quantity of transport material cannot be made possible by
simple process of diffusion/osmosis and active transport, hence
the need for efficient transport system in higher organism.
MATERIALS /SUBSTANCES FOR TRANSPORTATION.
IN PLANTS THIS INCLUDES:
1. Starch
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Excess Water
4. Oxygen. Needed for respiration
5. Amino acids
6. Hormones
 7. Lipids
8. Glucose
9. Nitrogenous waste
10. Mineral salts
11. Latex
IN ANIMALS THIS INCLUDES:
1. Urea ( waste from protein food)
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Excess water and salts
4. Vitamins
5. Glucose
6. Amino acids
7. Lipids
8. Antibodies from white blood cells to body parts for defense
against infection
9. Hormones
MEDIA FOR TRANSPORTATION

The media for transportation in all organism is in fluid form. This varies
from organism to organism.

a. Cytoplasm--- used in unicellular organism and lower multicellular

organism.
b. Water---used in simple multicellular organism e.g flatworms
c. Cell sap or latex---- used in higher plants
d. Blood and the lymph --- used in higher animals.
Example of the lymph vessel is the lacteal in villus which transport
fatty acids.
The lymph is a fluid tissue except it has no red cell.
THE BLOOD
 The blood is a fluid tissue consisting of blood cells and liquid
plasma.
The blood cells are:
 The red blood cell--- has heamoglobin molecules
that is sensitive to oxygen, and so transport
oxygen round the body. It also lacks nucleus.
 The white blood cells--- has nucleus and engulf
foreign bodies.
 The platelet--- lacks nucleus and contains protein
which enables blood clotting.
The liquid part of the blood is called plasma. ( blood plasma)
contains protein(fibrinogen and prochrombin) which produces
clott at the sites of wound to stop blood flow.
An average adult has 5.5 litre of blood.
Substances, solutes and blood cells float in the liquid plasma.

STRUCTURE OF THE BLOOD CELLS

FUNCTION OF THE BLOOD

1. The R.B.C transport oxygen from lungs to the body.

2. The W.B.C defends the body against diseases.
3. The blood is a transport medium.
4. The platelet prevent blood wastage through clotting.
 5. The blood carries various substances round the body.

OPEN AND CLOSED CIRCULATION.

OPEN CIRCULATION is found in animals like insects and mollusks, here

the heart pumps blood out into the blood vessels which branches and
opens into spaces in the body cavity called haemocoel.

In open circulation organs and tissues are bathed in blood, blood

eventually flow into vessels leading to the heart, the heart and blood
vessels only allow blood to flow in one direction and so blood
distribution to body parts is poorly controlled.

CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

This is found in most higher animals. The blood in a closed circulatory

system is contained within the vessels.

Blood vessels leading away from the heart are called arteries this
branches into smaller vessels called arterioles and enters organs and
tissue of the body, the arterioles branches more into the smallest
vessels (fine vessels) called capillaries and are found in all cells.

The exchange of materials between cells and the capillaries occurs

through the walls of the vessels/cell membrane by diffusion. The
capillaries unite to form vein. The vein then transport blood back to the
heart. Therefore blood distribution to various body parts is well
controlled in this system.

DOUBLE CIRCULATION