WELCOME TO

WEEK 3

INSTRUCTOR’S NAME;
MR ABIDEEN D.A
 PREVIOUS CLASS

 Periodic law
 Description of the periodic table
 On what basis are elements classified in the periodic
table?
 Define periodicity
 What are the properties upon which periodicity of
elements are studied?
 Describe the trends in these properties across the
periods and down the groups.
STARTER
TOPIC: RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
(CHEMICAL KINETICS)
 Real-life Application

 Daily life things such as toothpaste, drugs, bread,

soap, detergent, cookies, cooking ingredients,
fertilizers, lotions, batteries etc are produced in
chemical industries by maintaining a specific rate of
reaction, because a slight change in rate of reaction
during production, may make the products
miserable. Thus rates of reaction is a diagnostic tool
used in chemical industries to find out how fast
products are made, what causes reactions to slow
down and to develop methods to improve on
production of products.
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Identify reactants and products of any chemical reaction.
 Define rate of chemical reaction.
 Explain the terms: reaction time and reaction rate; and the relationship
between the two
 Mention the various ways of determining rate of reaction
 Explain collision and transition state theories with respect to reaction
time and rate and state factors influencing collision.
 Explain the graphical representation of endothermic and exothermic
reactions.
 Describe the influences of the following on chemical reaction rates: -
nature of substances; concentration/pressure, temperature and
catalysts.
WHAT IS RATE OF REACTION?
 What is Rates of reaction?

 Rates of chemical reaction is the number of moles of

reactant converted or product formed per unit time.
i.e R = Amount (mol) / Time taken (min)
 Rate of chemical reaction also means the change in
concentration/mass/volume of reactant consumed or
product formed per unit time.
i.e R = Change in concentration of reactant or product
(mol/dm3) / Time taken for the reaction (sec)
They are important in industry as the deciding
factors that determine whether a reaction may be
used economically or not.
 For instance:
A+B C
(Reactant) (Product)
R = -d[A] / dt = -d[B] / dt = +d[C] / dt
 Note; the negative sign signifies decrease in
concentration, while positive sign signifies increase
in concentration.
 Reaction time and Reaction rate and
relationship

 Reaction time; is the time taken from the start of

the reaction to the end. i.e how long the reaction
takes to occur. While,
 Reaction rate; is the rate at which reactants are
consumed or products formed per unit time. i.e how
fast or slow a reaction proceeds.
 Thus; A reaction that proceeds slowly will
have a long reaction time and a slow reaction
rate, while a reaction that proceeds rapidly
will have short reaction time and fast
reaction rate.
Ways of measuring/determining reaction rates
Ways of measuring/determining reaction rates

We can measure the rate of reactions through the following ways:

 Pressure measurement for gas phase (Manometry).
 Spectrometric measurement using change in colour intensity
with concentration. E.g orange to colourless, violet to pale pink.
 Measuring the concentration of reactant (loss/decrease in
mass) or concentration of product (gain/increase in mass) at a
particular time interval.
 Measuring the angle of rotation for optically active compounds
(polarimetry)
 Measuring the conductivity of ions/electrons.
 Measuring concentration of acid or base through titration
method.
 Measuring mass of precipitate formed.
 Measuring PH of the system or temperature.
Note: Rate of reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of the
reactant. This is called Rate law.
For instance; aA Product
R α [A]a
R = K [A]a (rate law)
Where: R = rate of reaction
K = rate constant
A = reactant
And a = order of reaction.
If a = 0 (Zeroth order) i.e the rate of reaction is independent of the reactant
concentration.
a = 1 (First order) i.e the rate of reaction is dependent on the reactant
concentration.
a = 2 (Second order) i.e the rate of reaction is dependent on the reactant
concentration.
a = 3 (Third order) i.e the rate of reaction is dependent on the reactant
concentration.
 Rate Curve

 Is the graph which shows the rate of reaction

 The curve passes through the origin and becomes
horizontal when one of the reactant is completely
used up or product completely formed.
 A larger gradient (slope) indicates a faster reaction
rate, while a smaller gradient (slope) indicates a
slower reaction rate
 For instance: A B
 Activity 1

 When 0.5g of CaCO3 was added to excess dilute HCl, CO2

was evolved. The entire reaction took 5 minutes. What
was the rate of reaction? (Ans = 0.1g/min)
 What is rate law?
 What is order of reaction?
 For each of the following, write the rate law and
determine the order of reaction.
a. 2N2O5 4NO2 + O2
b. 3O2 2O3
c. NO2 + CO NO + CO2
d. 2HI H 2 + I2
 If the rate law obtained for a given reaction is
rate = K[X]n[Y]m , What is the order of the reaction?
A. nm B. n/m C. n + m D. n-m [WAEC]
 In the equation below; 2X + Y Z. The rate
of formation of ‘Z’ is found to be independent of the
concentration of ‘Y’ and to quadruple when the
concentration of X is doubled. The correct rate
equation is……
A. R = K[X][Y] B. R = [X]2[Y] C. R = K[X]0[Y]0
D. R = K[X]2[Y]0 [UME
 Match Column A with B
Column A Column B

a) How long the reaction takes to Arrow

occur

a) Substances that are changed in a Reaction rate

chemical reaction.

a) Increase of product molecules Products

with time.

a) Indicates the changing of Reaction time

substances

a) New substances formed in a Reactants

chemical reaction.
State Collision theory
 Collision theory

 Collision theory States that for a chemical reaction to

occur, the reacting particles must collide with one another
 Collision theory states that there must be effective collisions
between reactant particles for a chemical reaction to occur.
 Collision theory states that two or more particles of reactants
must collide before products can be formed.
 A reaction occurs only if collisions equals or greater than
activation energy
 This theory is based on the principle that rate of reaction is
directly proportional to the number of effective collisions
between the reactant particles.
 For a collision to be effective (i.e to form product), the reactant
particles must be properly oriented and also possess the
minimum amount of energy called activation energy (Ea).
 Transition state theory

 transition state theory states that when reactant

particles had collided effectively, their kinetic energy
transists to a point called transition state or activated
complex.
 This state forms an intermediate between the
reactants and the products.
What are the factors influencing collision during
reactions?
 Factors influencing collision

 Activation energy
 Collision frequency/effective collision (determined
by concentration and temperature)
 Energy of collisions (determined by temperature)
 Orientation of reactant molecules
 Definition of terms

i. Activation energy: is the minimum amount of

energy required by the colliding reactant
particles for a chemical reaction to occur

ii. Effective collision: is the collision which

produces an energy greater than or equal to the
activation energy, thus leading to a chemical
reaction.
iii. Energy Profile (Reaction Profile): is the graphical
representation of the energy changes in the course of
a chemical reaction.
iv. Activated complex: is a complex of high energy
content formed when the activation energy is acquired
by the reactant particles. It is unstable and readily
decomposes to give the product of the reaction. i.e
intermediate between the reactant and the product.
In other word, it is an unstable species formed by the
reactants after absorbing enough energy (activation energy)
before forming the products.
Graphical representation of Endothermic and
Exothermic reaction
What are the factors affecting/influencing rates
of reaction?
 Factors affecting/influencing rates of reaction

 Nature of reactants
 Concentration of the reactants ( or the pressure
if reactants are gases)
 Temperature of reaction mixture/system
 Surface area of contact (particle size of
reactants)
 Presence of light
 Presence of a catalyst
 1. Effect of the nature of reactants

 The rate of a chemical reaction is influenced by

the chemical nature of the reactants taking part in
the reaction
 The nature of some reactants in a reaction are fast
(e.g Zn and HCl), slow (e.g Fe and HCl), while others
does not give evidence of reaction (e.g Au and HCl).
The reactions in gaseous phase are more faster than
liquid under the same condition, while liquid phase
is more faster than solid.
2. Effect of concentration of reactants

When concentration of reactants is increase (or

decrease), it results in a corresponding increase (or
decrease) in effective collisions of the reactants and
hence in the rate of reaction.
 3. Effect of pressure for gaseous reactants

 Pressure has a similar effect as concentration, but

affects only the concentration of gaseous phase,
while effect of concentration affects the liquid and
solid phases.
 The higher the partial pressure of the reactants, the
higher the concentration and rate of reaction
 4. Effect of temperature of the reacting system

Reaction rate increases with increase in temperature.

When temperature of the system is raised, energy in the
form of heat is supplied to the reactant particles so that;
 The number of particles with energy equals to or greater
than the activation energy.
 The average speed of reactants increases due to greater
kinetic energy leading to a number of effective collisions
and the reaction proceeds at a faster rate.
 The reverse will be the case if temperature is reduced.
 Reactions are faster at high temperatures and slower
at low temperatures
 5. Effect of Presence of light

 Effect of light affects reaction rate. On absorbing

light energy, reactant particles become activated and
collide rapidly. This increases the number of effective
collisions and hence the rate of reaction. Such
reactions are known as photochemical reactions e.g
Photosynthesis in plants, reaction of CH4 and Cl2,
reaction of H2 and Cl2 etc.
6. Effect of Surface area of contact (Particle size
of reactants)

 The rate of most reactions increases with increasing

surface area of contact between reactants. Reactant
particles will give more effective collisions if there is
greater contact between them e.g dilute HCl reacts
more vigorously and faster with powdered marble
than with marble chips.
 6. Effect of presence of catalyst

 A catalyst is a substance that speed up the rate of

chemical reactions but remains chemically
unchanged after the reaction. A positive catalyst acts
by lowering the activation energy and providing
alternative pathway/route for the reaction. Thus, in
the presence of a positive catalyst, more reactant
particles have sufficient energy to react when they
collide. The reverse of this occur in the presence of a
negative catalyst.
 Activity 2

 On what principle is collision theory based for a

chemical reaction to occur? [NECO]
 State TWO conditions that can lead to ineffective
collisions during a chemical reaction. [NECO]
 Define activated complex [WAEC]
 The collision theory suggests that for two particles to
react, they must collide. What two factors determine
whether or not the collision would lead to formation
of products? [WAEC]
 State one reason why a collision may not produce a
chemical reaction. [WAEC]
 Define activation energy
 Use an energy profile diagram to illustrate what is
meant by the enthalpy change (∆H) and the
activation energy (Ea) of a reaction. [WAEC]
 Using a reaction diagram, distinguish between an
exothermic and an endothermic process.
 Mention five (5) factors that influence rate of
chemical reactions
 Assignment

 Define chemical thermodynamics and state the two

laws of thermodynamics and their mathematical
expressions.
 Define the following terms as used in chemical
kinetics and thermodynamics:
a. Enthalpy (H) and enthalpy change (∆H).
b. Entropy (S) and entropy change (∆S)
c. Free energy (G) and free energy change (∆G)
d. Activation energy (Ea) and Activation complex.
 Differentiate between exothermic and endothermic reaction with one
example each.
 Draw the energy profile diagram for endothermic and exothermic
reaction.
 Define the following energy changes that accompany physical and
chemical changes:
a. Heat of fusion (∆Hᵒfus)
b. Heat of vapourization (∆Hᵒvap)
c. Heat of condensation (∆Hᵒcon)
d. Heat of sublimation (∆Hᵒsub)
e. Heat of solution (∆Hᵒsoln)
f. Heat of neutralization (∆Hᵒneu)
g. Heat of formation (∆Hᵒf)
h. Heat of combustion (∆Hᵒc)
 State Hess’s law and define Born-harber cycle.
Thank you
for your
cooperation
 PRACTICAL CLASS
EXPERIMENT TWO; Investigating the effect of
temperature on the rate of chemical reaction
ENERGY CHANGES IN REACTIONS
 Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students should be

able to:
i. Define enthalpy and enthalpy change, entropy
and entropy change
ii. Define exothermic and endothermic reactions
iii. Define free energy and solve calculations on
enthalpy, entropy and free energy change
 Energy Changes in Reactions

 Energy changes occur in chemical reactions as

reactants change to products. This is because the
reactants and the products of a given chemical
reaction possess different amount of chemical
energy
 Enthalpy (H)

 Is the heat content of a substance.

 Enthalpy of reactants is represented as HR while
enthalpy of products is represented as HP.
 Enthalpy Change (ΔH)

 Is the difference in enthalpy of the products

(HP) and that of the reactants (HR).
i.e ΔH = HP - HR
 In an exothermic reaction, ΔH is negative
while ΔH is positive in an endothermic
reaction.
 Exothermic Reaction

 Is a reaction in which heat is given out (loss or

evolved) to the surrounding
 Enthalpy change (ΔH) is negative
Examples:
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s)

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)

 Endothermic Reaction

 Is a reaction in which heat is absorbed (gain)

from the surrounding
 Enthalpy change (ΔH) is positive
Examples
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)

 Energy changes accompanying physical
and chemical changes

i. Heat of fusion (ΔHofus) : is the heat absorbed

when one mole of a solid melts at its melting
point.
e.g
H2O(s) H2O(l)
ii. Heat of vapourisation (ΔHovap) : is the heat
absorbed when one mole of a liquid is converted
to gas at its boiling point.
e.g
H2O(l) H2O(g)
iii. Heat of condensation (ΔHocon) : is the heat
released when one mole of a gas is converted to
its liquid form.
e.g
H2O(g) H2O(l)
iv. Heat of sublimation (ΔHosub) : is the heat
absorbed when one mole of a solid changes
directly to gas.
e.g
I2(s) I2(g)
v. Heat of solution (ΔHosoln) : is the heat change
when one mole of a substance is dissolved in a
large known quantity of solvent to form a dilute
solution.
e.g
NaCl(s) + H2O(l) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
vi. Heat of neutralization (ΔHoneu) : is the heat
evolved during a neutralization reaction in which
one mole of water is formed.
e.g
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
vii. Heat of formation (ΔHof) : is the heat change
when one mole of a substance is formed from its
elements.
e.g
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
viii. Heat of combustion (ΔHoc) : is the heat
change when one mole of the substance is
completely burnt in oxygen. The heat of
combustion is measured by a bomb calorimeter

e.g
CH4(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
 Entropy (S)

 Is a measure of the degree of disorder or

randomness of a substance.
 The entropy of a gas is greater than that of a
liquid, while a solid has the least entropy
 Entropy Change (ΔS)

 Is the difference in the entropy of the products

(SP) and that of the reactants (SR).
i.e ΔS = SP - SR
 The change in entropy (ΔS) is equal to the heat
absorbed or evolved (ΔH) divided by the
absolute temperature (T).
i.e
 Free energy (G)
 Is a factor that determines whether a process will
occur spontaneously or not. It is the driving force
that brings about a chemical change.
 The free energy change (ΔG) is represented as:
ΔG = ΔH - T ΔS
 If ΔG is negative, the reaction can occur
spontaneously. If ΔG is positive, the reaction
will not take place unless some condition is
altered to make ΔG negative. If ΔG is zero,
then the chemical system is in a state of
equilibrium
 Calculations

1. Calculate the ΔH of a chemical system when the

entropy is 218.2J.K-1.mol-1 and the temperature
is 100oC.
2. In the reaction represented by the equation:
C(s) + H2O(l) CO(g) + H2(g).
The reaction was carried out at 27oC, the enthalpy
change was +45000Jmol-1 and the entropy
change was +12J.K-1.mol-1. Calculate the free
energy change
Thank you
for your
cooperation