LESSON 1: STARTING POINTS FOR UNDERSTANDING OF CULTURE, SOCIETY AND

POLITICS

1. Sharing of Social and Cultural Backgrounds of Students as Acting Subjects or Social

Actors, Agents, Persons
● Gender - Is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between,
masculinity and femininity.
● Socioeconomic Status (SES) - Is an economic and sociological combined total
measure of a person’s work experience and of an individual’s or family’s economic and
social position in relation to others, based on income, education and occupation.
● Ethnicity - Refers to cultural traits that are shared by a category of people such as
language, religion, or national origin. When people integrate ethnicity as part of their
identity and create a specific cultural, religious, or national community, they
self-consciously constitute an ethnic group.
● Religion - Is a “unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, things
set apart and forbidden - beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral
community.
● Identity - Refers to distinctive characteristics that define an individual or are shared by
those belonging to a particular group.

2. Observation about Social, Political and Cultural Behavior and Phenomena

a. Food Taboos - One of the food taboos among Muslims, for instance, is eating pork.
Understanding their culture rather than regard them as “weird”.
b. Istambays - Usually regarded as unruly, often suspected as thefts, and of other
misdemeanors. Many of them are people who have difficulty in finding jobs because of
inadequate opportunities in the Philippines.

There should be:

- Holistic knowledge and understanding of the characteristics and overall identities of
oneself, of other people, and of different groups.
- Constant dialogues and interactions with each other

c. Political Dynasty - Refer to groups whose members are involved in politics.

- In the Philippines, political dynasties can be seen in families that have been part of the
government for several generations. This can occur in two ways. One way is for
members of a family to occupy the same certain government position in every term.

d. Election - A formal decision - making process by which a population chooses an

individual to hold public office
- Have been the usual mechanism by which modern representatives democracy has
operated since the 17th century. May fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the
executive and judiciary, and for regional and local governments.
3. Observation on Social, Political and Cultural Changes
● Social Change - Refers to transformations that alter the role and status of people as
well as the structure and organization of society and its institution.
● Political Change - Occurs when there is an alteration in the way power and authority
are exercised in a particular state.
Examples of these changes:

- Txting
- Transnational families
- Local public services
- Youth volunteerism

4. Definition of Anthropology, Political Science and Sociology

A. Anthropology
- Is the systematic study of the biological, cultural, and social aspects of man. It is derived
from two Greek words, anthropos, which means “man” and logos, which means “study”
or “inquiry”.
- It is a significant branch of knowledge because it integrates elements from the biological
sciences and humanities to fully comprehend the complex human species, including
their past practices, and social patterns across diverse culture
- Examples of renowned anthropologists are: Edward Burnett Taylor, Franz Boas, Alfred
Kroeber, Bronislaw Malinowski, Clifford Geerts, and Margaret Mead.

1. Social Anthropology - Studies how social patterns and practices and cultural variations
develop across different societies.
2. Cultural Anthropology - Studies cultural variation across different societies and
examines the need to understand each culture in its own context.
3. Linguistic Anthropology - Studies language and discourse and how they reflect and
shape different aspects of human society and culture.
4. Biological or Cultural Anthropology - Studies the origins of humans as well as the
interplay between social factors and the processes of human evolution, adaptation and
variation over time.

B. Political Science
- The systematic study of politics, which Andrww Heywood describes as “the activity
through which people make, preserve and amend the general rules under which they
live.” It focuses on the fundamental values of equality, freedom and justice and its
processes are linked to the dynamics of conflict, resolution and cooperation.

C. Sociology
- Is defined by Anthony Gidden as “the study of human social life, groups, and society.” It
is an academic discipline that attempts to provide a deeper assessment of individual and
group behavior, as well as the phenomena, by examining the interplay between
economic, political and social factors.
 - Sociology has been largely shaped by the works of August Comte, Herbet Spencer, Karl
Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber.

LESSON 2: Defining Culture and Society from the Perspectives of Anthropology and
Sociology

Society - Is a group of individuals sharing a common culture, geographical location, and

government.
Human beings are considered to be naturally inclined to establish societies, since it is in
interacting with others that they are able to ensure their survival by establishing mutually
beneficial relationships with one another.
It enables individuals to acquire necessary survival skills, maximize their potential and share
resources.

The classic definition of society is based on E.B Taylor’s concept which states that society is
“that complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms,
artifacts, symbols, knowledge and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of
society.”
A society is characterized by the presence of the following elements:
a. Social solidarity, whereby members of the community live together for mutual benefit
b. Shared identity and culture among members that serve as basis for their patterns of
actions and behavior
c. A common language
d. A large population and the ability to sustain succeeding generations of members
e. Definite geographical area
f. Political, economic and social organization

Culture - Is one of the most important bases that define and influence as society. It refers to the
set of beliefs, ideas, values, practice, knowledge, history and shared experiences, attitudes, as
well as material objects and possessions accumulated over time and shared by the members of
society.
Learning culture may come in the form of:
Enculturation - Learning one’s own culture
Acculturation - Leanings another culture

Components of Culture:
1. Technology - The combination of objects and rules
2. Symbols - Anything that represents something else; the very basis of human culture
3. Language - The organization of written or spoken symbols into a standardized system
4. Values - Are shared beliefs about what is good or bad; the type of values held by a
group determines their character
5. Norms shared rules of conduct - Folkways and Mores
a. Folkways - Are norms that describe socially acceptable behavior but do not have
a great moral significance attached to them
 b. Mores - Norms that have a great moral significance attached to them that when
violated endangers society

Culture helps to explain human social behavior. Culture may be material or non-material
- Material Culture - consists of tangible things. Technology, architecture, fashion and etc
- Non-material Culture - consist of intangible things. Values, language, beliefs, and etc.

C. Aspects of Culture
a. Dynamic, flexible, adaptive
b. Shared and contested (given the reality of social differentiation)
c. Learned through socialization or enculturation
d. Patterned social interactions
e. Integrated and at time sustainable
f. Transmitted through socialization/enculturation
g. Requires language and other forms of communication

- Culture is varied, diverse and at the same time hold similarities

- Culture universals are common traits or elements among cultures
- Culture Particulars are different ways develop to express universal
- Subculture - is a part of the dominant group but differs from it in some important
aspects
- Counterculture - is a subculture deliberately and consciously opposed to certain central

- Culture is learned through enculturation and socialization

Enculturation - the process of acquiring and internalizing culture
Socialization - the process of learning and accepting social behavior, values, beliefs,
norms and language

- Society functions and maintains social order through social interaction

Patterns of Social Interaction:
1. Exchange
2. Cooperation
3. Competition
4. Coercion
5. Conflict

Ethnocentrism - Diminishes or invalidates other ways of life and creates a distorted view of
one’s own. As a result, this could affect individual behavior and relationships with other cultures.
Extreme forms of ethnocentrism have led to wars or colonization
William Howard Taft, for example, once referred to the Filipinos as the American’s “little brown
brothers” who needed to be supervised by the USA in establishing a society and government
that approximates “Anglo American Standards”
Cultural Relativism = Recognizes and accepts the cultural difference between societies. This
view believes that every aspect of a culture has been formed. Interaction between members of
different societies is more likely to succeed if everybody is aware and is respectful of cultural
diversity.

LESSON 3: Looking Back at Human Biocultural and Social Evolution

Stages of Human Evolution:

1. Hominid (Manlike Primates)
There have been various relics of hominids which could be described as manlike
primates:
A. Ramapithecus - 14 million years ago, remains found in Siwalik Hills of India.
Could stand upright and used stones and sticks to frighten enemies. Found by
Mrs. Mary Leaky at the volcanic ash of Laetoli, Tanzania, East Africa in 1975
B. Lucy - Discovered by American archaeologist, Donald C. Johnson
C. Australopithecus - Live in Africa about 5 million years ago, small brain but could
walk up straight and use simple tools

2. Homo Habilis (Handy Man)

The apelike men used stone tools as weapons and protection from their enemies
A. Zinjanthropus - 4ft, could walk upright with a small brain. Believe to live 1.74
million years ago. Used crude stone as weapons for protections against
predators. Discovered by Louis S.B. Leakey in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, East
Africa in 1999
B. Lake Turkana (1470 man) - 5ft tall, walked uprights. Had a brain double the size
of a chimpanzees. Used more refined tools. Was excavated in Lake Turkana,
Kenya, East Africa by Dr. Richard Leakey (son of Leakeys) in 1972; remains
consisted of a shattered skull and leg bones

3. Homo Erectus (Upright Man)

First manlike creature that lived 500,000 years ago in Asia, Africa and Europe. Malike
species could walk straight; with a brain almost the same as modern man. Made refined
tools for hunting and weapons for protection from the enemies
A. Pithecanthropus Erectus (Java Man) - 5ft tall; could walk erect heavy and
chinless jaw; hairy body
B. Sinanthropus Pekinensis (Peking Man) - Was discovered at Choukoutien
village, Beijing, China in 1929. ABout 5’2 tall; could walk upright; brain size large
as modern man. Believed to have lived 500,000 years ago

4. Homo Sapien (Wise Man)

Believed to be where modern man had directly descended from; lived about 250,000
years ago. Had similar physical descriptions as the modern man. Activities were largely
dependent on hunting, fishing and agriculture. Buried their dead, used hand tools and
had religion.
 A. Neanderthal Man - Was discovered in the cave of Neanderthal valley near
Dusseldorf, Germany in 1856. Lived in the high temperate zones in Asia and
Europe about 70,000 years ago. Heavily built with powerful jaws, brutish and
primitive intelligence. Usually lived in caves and dependent on hunting and
fishing. Had religious beliefs and was more advanced than homo erectus.
B. Cro Magnon Man - Stronger than homo sapiens , discovered by French
archaeologist Louis Lastet in the
Cro Magnon Cane at Les Eyzies
in Southern France. Believed to
live in Europe, Asia and Africa.
Remains had been found in
western Asia including Italy, Sapin,
France and Russia and all over
Africa. 5’11 with a more developed
brain than their predecessors.
They had stone implements, art
objects, and consistent hunting
skills.

The Evolution of the Primitive Men

1. Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age: 3 million years ago to 8,000 B.C)
- Common primitive men identified in this period were the homo erectus such as
the Java Man and Peeking Man; Homo sapien Neanderthal and Cro Magnon
Man
- Rough stone tools were used as main weapons
- Lived in hunting, fishing and gathering fruit
- Used fire, live in caves and later learned to build primitive
- Learned to develop primitive arts, personal ornaments and other art forms.

2. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age: 8,000 - 4,000 B.C.)

- Disappearance of the Cro-Magnon and new people which are considered
modern men/
- Development of refined stone tools and weapons
- Made their own house
- Learned to domesticate animals such as horse, pigs, dogs, cattle
- Learned to weave and use clothes
- Began to cut trees which was used as boat for mean of transportation

3. Age of Metals (4,000 - 1,500 B.C)

- Use of metal: such as bronze, copper and iron produced a new historical
development from the cradle of civilization of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India
and China
 - More developed social, cultural, political and economic system which had spread
in Middle east, Asia and even South America
- Had already direct contacts through the tribes, kingdoms, empire and later on
state which are constant political activities were through conquest, wars and
trade.

B - Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution

1. The Neolithic Revolution
- Agriculture and the Origins of Civilization
- Causes of the Agrarian Transformation
- The domestications of plants and animals
- The spread of neolithic revolution

2. Early Civilization and the Rise of the State

a. Before The Rise of Civilization (Paleolithic Age)
- Nomadic hunter-gatherers; lived off the land; pastoral society helped to
further tie groups to specific areas of land
- Raising animals created strain on nomadic people to find large and
reliable sources of food.
- Drawback: unusually aggressive; babies were greatly dependent for many
years on adult care
- Homo sapiens evolved; evidence showed that they had belief in the
afterlife; developed social structures and hierarchies
- Cave paintings, burials, and tools are leftover relics of the period

b. Civilization Makes Its Debut (8000-3000 BC)

- Neolithic means "new stone" though agriculture was the crowning
achievement of the period
- Agriculture increasingly became widespread causing surplus of food and
to stay and be rooted to protect property causing social and cultural
bonds to form.
- When everyone did not have to farm anymore, people became artisans
and craftsmen which brought trade and a class of merchants.
- Artisans contributed to the homogenization of culture
- Merchants caused Cultural Diffusion; human religion began to evolve

c. Democratization
- Democratization is the transition to a more democratic political regime. It
may be the transition from an authoritarian regime to a full democracy, a
transition from an authoritarian political system to a semi-democracy or
transition from a semi-authoritarian political system to a democratic
political system.

Origins of Democracy
 - Democracy means people-power or rule by the people.
- Came from the ancient Greeks who combined the words demos (people)
and krates (rule) to create the term.
- The term was coined during a period in Greek history when the city of
Athens experimented with a form of government in which all citizens,
rather than one king or a small group of wealthy men, made the laws of
their state.

Democracy is a system in which people decide matters as a group. The term is

typically used in the context of a form of government in which all the citizens have a vote.
The principles of democracy are also applicable to other bodies, such as universities,
unions, companies or other organizations.

In a democratic government, the people's views influence the laws and decisions
made by the government. The development of democracy can be traced back to ancient
times, particularly to ancient Greece.

Athens was the first city state to allow ordinary citizens access to government
offices and courts. In theory, all Athenian citizens were eligible to speak and vote in the
Assembly which set the laws of the city-state.
In reality, Athens was not a true democracy as women were not included nor
were foreigners, slaves or freed slaves.
Also, according to the rules of citizenship both parents must have been Athenian
citizens for a person to qualify to take part in the Assembly.
The democracy therefore, was only a very small minority of the people living in
Athens. It was, however, the closest any country had come to establishing a democratic
society at this time.

Causes of Democratization
- Wealth
- Social equality Culture
- Foreign intervention Education
- Foreign trade
- International cooperation Dictatorship
- Democracy protests
 - Threat of conflict

Lesson 4

Enculturation / Socialization

Enculturation
- Describes the process of being socialized into a specific culture.
- Through this, individuals learn cultural symbols, norms, values, and language by
observing and interacting with family, friends, teachers and the rest of the society.

Socialization
- refers to the lifelong process of social interaction through which people acquire their
identities and necessary survival skills in society.
- It prepares new members of society and trains them to think, feel, and act in appropriate
ways.
- Socialization is a continuous process through which personal identity is formed and the
norms, values, and the social skills appropriate to the individual's social position/status
and the roles associated with specific statuses are learned.
- May be: 1. Objective 2. Subjective

Social process
- The process which in society we all become uniform because of the norms and values
we learn.

Functions:
1. Personality and role development
2. Skills development and training
 3. Values formation
4. Social integration and adjustment
5. Social control and stability

Becoming a Member of Society

A. Identity formation
- According to George Herbert Mead, "The self is something which has a development; it
is not there at birth, but arises in the process of social experience and activity, that is
develops in the given individual as a result of his or her relations to the process as a
whole and to the individuals within that process" (Mead 1934, p. 135).

The individual personality is the important result of the process of socialization.

An individual's stable pattern of thought, feeling and action is referred to as personality.

B. Norms and Values

Norms - are informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society. It
recognizes smaller group units, such as a team or an office, may also endorse norms separate
or in addition to cultural or societal expectations. In other words, norms are regarded to exist as
collective representations of acceptable group conduct as well as individual perceptions of
particular groups conduct.

Values - social values form an important part of the culture of the society.
- Values account for the stability of social order.
- Provide the general guidelines for social conduct
- Values such as fundamental rights, patriotism, respect for human dignity, rationality, sacrifice,
individuality, equality, democracy etc. guide our behavior in many ways.
- Values are the criteria people use in assessing their daily lives; arrange their priorities and
choosing between alternative course of action.

C. Status and Roles

Status
- defined by Max Weber as the esteem or "social honor" given to certain individuals or
groups.
- Status refers the relative position of an individual in a society or a social group. An
individual may have many statuses. A status can be acquired or lost as an individual go
through his/her life.
- Statuses can either be ascribed or achieved.

● Ascribed status is the

social status that an individual
has no control of. It is set by
the circumstance of one's birth.
Ascribed statuses include one's
socioeconomic status at birth,
age, and ethnicity, among
others.
● Achieved status is the
social status that an individual
voluntarily takes based on
his/her own merits or capability.

Roles
- refer to the characteristic way of behaving of an individual according to his/her status.
- For instance, a woman, takes on many different roles like being a mother or a sister, a
worker and a team member.
- When one displays a behavior that is against an individual role, it is called deviance.

ROLES
THE BEHAVIOR EXPECTED OF SOMEONE WHO HOLDS A PARTICULAR STATUS
ROLE SET
- A NUMBER OF ROLES ATTACHED TO A SINGLE STATUS

-EXAMPLE: STATUS OF MOTHER DIETITIAN

DISCIPLINARIAN DR. MOM
SPORTS AUTHORITY PRETTY MOM

Roles
- The behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status

Role set
- A number of roles attached to a single status
- Example: Status of Mother - Disciplinarian, sports authority, dietitian, dr. mom, pretty mom
 Socialization: Role Conflict
- When an individual is subjected to
a scenario wherein the individual is
required to do more than one task based
on his/her social role that cannot be done
at the same time or the roles are
incompatible with each other, this is called
a role conflict.

Socialization and Enculturation

Socialization is a social process wherein an individual is interacting with a society through

which the individual acquire personality and learn the way of that society.

Enculturation is the process of learning the culture of a particular group of people through
experience, observation, and instruction.

Socialization: Context
- The context of socialization is concerned with the relationship of a person to his or her
social environment. It is used by social scientists to refer to the lifelong process that a
person uses to learn the norms, customs, and values necessary for interacting and
developing relationships with other people.

Enculturation: Context
- The context of enculturation is focused on cultural learning.
- Unlike socialization, it is specific to the culture where we live in.

Socialization: Content
- Socialization is the learning and mastering of social norms, values, and belief systems
existing in a society.
- Since there is a possibility of multiple cultures existing in a society, socialization does not
focus only on one particular culture, instead, it teaches a person how to interact with
his/her social environment.
- In turn, socialization is the umbrella process where enculturation and acculturation (the
process of learning another culture aside from own culture) belong.

Enculturation: Content
- In enculturation, the person learns the "control mechanisms that govern his or her
behavior through traditional activities and beliefs.
 - People learns the symbols and their meanings as used in their own culture. A person
also learns about the customs, traditions, and moral beliefs that are considered
acceptable in one's culture.
- Enculturation answers such questions as: How should we do things? How can we make
sense of the world? What is right? What is wrong? Why do things happen? What affects
my thoughts and actions?

Socialization: Processes
- The process of socialization mainly involve the internalization of rules and patterns of
behaviors observed from the members of the society.
- The process of socialization begins at the first day of the life of a person.
According to John Berry, Ype Poortinga, and Janak Pandey, socialization occurs through
different means such as:

a. imitation e. language acquisition

b. identification f. contact with books
C. play g. media
d. role taking h. Education

2. Conformity and Deviance

Conformity- refers to the process of altering one's thoughts and actions to adapt to the
accepted behavior within his or her group or society.
Deviance - is defined as a behavior that elicits a strong negative reaction from group
members and involves actions that violate commonly held social norms.

A. Social control is defined as any systematic means and practices used to maintain
norms, rules, and laws.
May be informal sanctions or formal sanctions
● Gossip
● Social Ostracism
● Laws
● Punishments
 B. Forms of deviance
- Ritualism
- Retreatism
- Rebellion
- Innovation

Conformity involves the acceptance of the cultural goals and means of attaining those goals.

Innovation involves the acceptance of the goals of a culture but the rejection of
the traditional and/or legitimate means of attaining those goals. For example, a member of the
Mafia values wealth but employs alternative means of attaining his wealth; in this example, the
Mafia member's means would be deviant.

Ritualism involves the rejection of cultural goals but the routinized acceptance of the means for
achieving the goals.

Retreatism involves the rejection of both the cultural goals and the traditional means of
achieving those goals.

Rebellion is a special case wherein the individual rejects both the cultural goals and traditional
means of achieving them but actively attempts to replace both elements of the society with
different goals and means.

3. Human dignity, rights, and the

common good
Human Dignity- refers to the idea that a
person has the innate right to be valued,
respected, and treated well.
Human Rights- are legal, social, and
ethical
principles that consider the human person
as deserving of liberties and protections by
virtue of his or her human dignity.
Common Good
- The common good aims to see the possibility of using politics, collective action, and
active citizens in the realization of freedom, autonomy, and self- government for the self-
interest of the whole society.
- Common good can also be perceived to prioritize the "benefits and interest of all".
- The foundations of the common good are the human dignity and human rights.

Lesson 5

SOCIETY
- is a social system that is composed of people assigned to perform definite tasks and
functions in a social system called social institution.

How Society is Organized

● Three requirements for a group:

1. There must be two or more people.
2. There must be interaction.
3. The members of the group must be together physically.

● Generally:
- A group is composed of two or more persons who have something in common,
are interacting with one another, and are guided by a set of norms.

Other human cluster sociologists consider important:

1. Aggregate - unstructured group of people found in one place but do not interact with
each other (important characteristic is common physical location)
2. Social category - an agglomeration where members possess common identifying
characteristics but do not interact socially
3. Collective - crowds, masses, public and social movements are temporary groups; these
are clusters of people interacting with each other, but the interaction is temporary or
short-lived

Importance of Groups (Salcedo 2002)

1. The group is a transmitter of culture.
 2. The group is a means of social control.
3. The group socializes the individual.
4. The group is the source of ideas.
5. The group trains the individual in communications.

Social Group - a collection of individuals who have relations with one another that make them
interdependent to some significant degree.

- Interdependence is a necessary condition that exists within social groups because it is

what enables its members to pursue shared goals or promote common values and
principles.)
- Our social groups profoundly define our identity, as well as our roles in society.

Self Categorization Theory

- a relevant approach in understanding the characteristics of social groups.
- proposes that people's appreciation of their group membership is influenced by their
perception towards people who are not members of their group.
- Incorporation into a group both helps people to adapt to various social processes
and attain their goals in life
- But may also encourage them to commit wrongdoing or lead others to socially deviant
practices

● Groups within society: (Primary & Secondary)

- Groups are the smaller units that compose society.
- A unit of interacting personalities with an interdependence of roles and statuses
existing between members
- Have been responsible for the development and advancement of cultures,
economics, politics, and other aspects of human civilization

"Man as a social animal"

- According to Plato, human being are naturally equipped with tools such as language and
reason that enable them to engage others in meaningful interaction

I. Primary Group
- A small, intimate, and less specialized group whose members engage in face to face
and emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time.
- Interdependence among members is characterized by a deep and profound relationship
with each other.
- Some of the examples include family, close friends, work-related peers. classmates and
church groups.
- It is within these groups that an individual establishes and defines his or her identity,
values, ideals, and aspirations
II. Secondary Group
- are larger and less intimate, and more specialized groups where members engage in an
impersonal and objective- oriented relationship for a limited time.
- mutual benefit, rather than emotional affinity, becomes the driving force that compels
individuals to stay together in a secondary group.
- professional relationships between lawyers and clients, and a corporation that has
hundreds of employees are examples of secondary group.

In-groups
- a group to which one belongs, and with which one feels a sense of identity.
- members of such groups devise ways to distinguish themselves from nonmembers. This
may come in the form of group titles, symbol and even rituals required for membership.
- members display positive attitudes and behavior toward their fellow members, while may
exhibit negative attitudes and views toward members of their out-groups.

In-groups
- Similarities and shared experiences foster unity and cooperation among group members.
- It is a group that an individual identifies in a positive direction.
- It is a social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty.
- Differences with nonmembers could transform into feelings of competition and even
hostility

Out-group
- A group to which one does not belong and to which he or she may feel a sense of
competitiveness or hostility.
- It is a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition.
- It is a group that an individual identifies in negative direction.

III. Reference groups

- A group to which an individual compares himself or herself.
- A social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions
individual compares himself or herself.
- Such groups strongly influence an individual's behavior and social attitudes whether he
or she is a member of these groups.
- Examples of reference group include an individual's primary group (family, work
colleagues, etc.) or his or her in-groups (church, fellow club members, neighbors in the
community, etc.)

Some examples of types of groups:

Peer group : A peer group is a group with members of approximately the same age, social
status, and interests. Generally, people are relatively equal in terms of power when they interact
with peers.
Clique : A group of people that have many of the same interests & commonly found in a High
School/College setting; most of the time they have a name & rules for themselves.
Club : A club is a group, which usually requires one to apply to become a member. Such clubs
may be dedicated to particular activities: sporting clubs, for example.
Cabal : A cabal is a group of people united in some close design together, usually to promote
their private views or interests in a church, state, or other community, often by intrigue.
Household : All individuals who live in the same home. Anglophone culture may include various
models of household, including the family, blended families, share housing, and group homes.
A community is a group of people with a commonality or sometimes a complex net of
overlapping commonalities, often but not always in proximity with one another with some degree
of continuity over time.
Gang : A gang is usually an urban group that gathers in a particular area. It is a group of people
that often hang around each other. They can be like some clubs, but much less formal. They are
usually known in many countries to cause social unrest and also have negative influence on the
members and may be a target for the law enforcers in case of any social vices
Mob : A mob is usually a group of people that has taken the law into their own hands. Mobs are
usually groups which gather temporarily for a particular reason.
Posse : A posse was originally found in English common law. It is generally obsolete, and
survives only in America, where it is the law enforcement equivalent of summoning the militia for
military purposes. However, it can also refer to a street group.
Squad : This is usually a small group, of around 3 to 15 people, who work as a team to
accomplish their goals.
Dyad : This is a social group with two members. Social interaction in a dyad is typically more
intense than in larger groups because neither member shares the other's attention with anyone
else.
Triad : This is a social group with three members, which contains three relationships, each
uniting two of the three people. A triad is more stable than a dyad because one member can act
as a mediator should the relationship between the other two become strained.
Team : Similar to a squad, though a team may contain many more members. A team works in a
similar way to a squad.

IV. Networks
- refers to the structure of relationships between social actors or and the larger social
institutions to which they all belong to.
- In the age of the Internet, a good example of networks are those provided by social
media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram.
- In traditional societies, networks are exclusive, limited, and mostly defined by kinship.
Modern societies feature more expansive, diverse, and overlapping social networks.