CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN IFUGAO

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
SECOND SEMESTER – FINAL TERM A. Y. 2023-2024

LESSON 1. HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH

The history of life on earth is filled with many fascinating events. These events present important pieces of
information that will help us understand how life on earth came to be.
The first widely accepted idea of how life on earth formed was proposed by the Russian chemist Alexander
Ivanovich Oparin (1894-1980) in the 1920’s. He proposed that the atmosphere of early earth was very reactive, with
numerous incidents of lightning and high levels of ultraviolet radiation. Because of this highly reactive atmosphere, Oparin
thought that the early oceans contained a solution of many essential elements and compounds. He referred to it as a
“primordial soup”, wherein the earliest form of life arose through a series of reactions that made simple compounds
become complex.

Since then, Scientists have developed various intellectual procedures in identifying life’s history by examining
ancient rocks, petrified sap of ancient trees, tar pits, and even polar glaciers. With the information obtained from rock
layers and fossils worldwide, scientists have estimated the relative age of the earth and identified the major groups of
organisms that have survived on earth during a specific time frame.

THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

Geologic pieces of evidence show that the earth was not formed from a single event. Our planet was formed by
different pieces of cosmic debris that were probably attracted to one another over a course of about 100 million years. As it
was forming, it was struck by one or more meteor-like objects, possibly one as large as Mars. The collision most probably
produces enough heat to melt the entire globe. When the Earth melted, the different elements contained in it rearranged
themselves according to density. The densest elements formed the core of Earth. From there, radioactive decay generated
enough heat to convert the interior of Earth into molten rock. Moderate dense elements floated to the surface, forming the
earth’s solid crust. The planet was so different from modern Earth because the sky was most probably pinkish orange, and
its early atmosphere contained hydrogen cyanide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide and
water. No life-form would have been able to survive that kind of harsh environment.
The following is a graphical representation of the early life on Earth, which show the atmosphere forming mainly
from gases spewed from volcanoes.

FIRST ORGANIC MOLECULES

Earth in its early form had very harsh condition. To find out if organic molecules could evolve from inorganic
molecules accompanied with the harsh conditions of early Earth, American chemists STANLEY MILLER and HAROLD UREY
conducted an experiment in the 1950’s, which involved simulating the early conditions of Earth inside the laboratory. In
their experiment, they filled a flask with hydrogen, methane, ammonia, and water to represent the early atmosphere of
Earth. They also made sure that no microorganisms would contaminate it. Then, they passed electric sparks through the

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mixture to simulate lightning. After a few days, they noted very spectacular results. They discovered that several amino
acids-the building blocks of proteins-began to accumulate in their setup. This result was surprising.

WHERE DID LIFE EVOLVE?

With the many speculations about the origin of life, scientists have found different habitats where life may have
begun. Some of these locations include soil surfaces, interstellar space, and even the atmosphere. However, soil surfaces
would not attract the quantity of organic material that would be available in water, whereas stellar space and the
atmosphere are too dry for life to exist. Some scientists also suggest that life might have originated from the oceans, but
complex organic molecules are vulnerable to damage due to the high sodium and chlorine concentration in seawater, lakes,
and seashore lagoons can also be places where life might have been originated because they have warm temperatures
(about 25o C) that can promote chemical reactions. However, RNA bases become increasingly unstable as temperatures rise
above 0oC. so perhaps, cold volcanic vents were the best environment for organic reactions to occur during early Earth.
Laboratory experiments have implied that amino acids and other important molecules can form in such conditions.

ORIGINS OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Complex life began from simple prokaryotic organisms, which are said to be the ancestors or precursors of
eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are so successful in an incredible range of habitats that they can even live in swamps, hindguts of
termites, hot springs, deep sea, and underground rocks. Compared with other groups of living things, prokaryotes are
numerous; there are 500 million prokaryotic organisms per liter of ocean water, 1 billion of them per liter of fresh water,
and about 300 million bacteria on the skin of a person. The different kinds of prokaryotes make it difficult to search for the
possible ancestry of eukaryotes among them.

Recall that prokaryotic cells do not possess true nuclei. About two million years ago, they began forming internal
cell membranes. Then something radical seemed to have happened because primitive prokaryotes entered the ancestral
eukaryote. They did not infect their host; instead they formed an endosymbiotic relationship with it. ENDOSYMBIOSIS is a
type of relationship wherein an organism lives inside its partner. According to the endosymbiotic theory, eukaryotic cells
created a symbiotic relationship with prokaryotic organism-one group can produce ATP, and the other group can do
photosynthesis. These organisms became mitochondria and chloroplast, respectively. Due to modern technology and the
subsequent study of the endosymbiotic theory, scientists are able to support the theory’s claim. By studying DNA structure
and ribosomes, scientists have found out that mitochondria and chloroplasts have many features similar to some forms of
free-living bacteria present today. These similarities provide strong evidence of common ancestry between free-living
bacteria and the organelles inside eukaryotic cells. In summary;

MULTICELLULARITY and SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Most prokaryotes reproduce asexually. After eukaryotic cells arose, they began to reproduce sexually. This event
caused the rapid evolution of more complex life-forms. The reason behind this far greater speed of evolution is the shuffling
and reshuffling of genes from one generation to the next. Unlike asexual reproduction produces organisms that are
genetically identical to their parents, sexual reproduction produces organisms that never exactly resemble their parents.
These changes in genetic information result in increased chances of evolutionary changes in a species. After the emergence
of sexual reproduction, there came the development of multicellular organisms from single-celled species.

We have learned about how life originated. But the previous discussion show only how it happened at the
microscopic scale. Now, we must learn about the history of life on Earth at the macroscopic level. There are two fields
involved in providing us with facts on the timetable of the evolution of life Earth; PALEONTOLOGY and GEOLOGY.

PALEONTOLOGY
Paleontology is the scientific study of the existence of life, including the origin and eventual destruction or
extinction of different groups of organisms. It is a science that incorporates different disciplines such as biology, geology,
ecology, archeology, and even computer science to study the evolution of organisms and how they interact with the
environment. Paleontologists specialize in studying ecologies through careful observation and documentation of fossils.
They work to identify the forms of life that existed millions of years ago. They figure out how things were in ancient times
using fossil records. An example is a fossil of Archaeopteryx lithographica from the late Jurassic period. The Archaeopteryx
is said to have many features of dinosaurs, which provide strong evidence of the dinosaur ancestry of birds.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 1a.

Show a picture of the fossil of the Archaeopteryx lithographica and several pictures of bird species. Let the learners
analyze and compare the features of the bird species and the fossil.
* Is there a strong evidence of the dinosaur ancestry of birds?

GEOLOGY

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 Geology is the study of life on Earth based on the evidence found on rocks. Geologists have a lot of contributions in
terms of studying the history of life on Earth. Geologists are scientists who carefully study the different materials that make
up the Earth. They work to understand the history of Earth. They work to understand the history of the earth by focusing on
the changes earth over time in relation to changes in climate and land formation. They especially investigate rock
formations and even fossils to measure different physical properties of the earth.
To summarize, paleontologists look at the fossil remains of different types of organisms beneath the surface of the
Earth to study primitive life, and geologists study the outer layer of Earth’s crust to understand the history of Earth. Both of
them work together to understand the history or evolution of life on Earth. Both of them use the geologic time scale to
provide Earth’s history in time intervals.

GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE

The Geologic timescale is used to represent evolutionary time

Organism
Eon Era Period Epoch Significant Event
according to Era
Phanerozoic Cenozoic -aslo Quarternary – Holocene (from Progress of human
(from 540 know as the also known as the 11 000 year ago civilization
million years ago “Age of “Age of Man” to present)
to the present) Mammals” (from (from Pleistocene – also The existence of
65million years known as the the first Homo

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 ago to the Sapiens, as well as
present) other mammals
such as saber-
toothed cats,
mammoths, and
“Last Ice Age” giant sloths; also
(from 1.8 million involves mass
years ago to 11 extinction brought
000 years ago) about by the end
of last age that
killed numerous
species of
mammals and
birds.
Domination of the
Australopithecus
(the first
Pliocene (5.8 hominids) and
million years ago) other modern
forms of whales
on both land and
Tertiary – divided sea.
into two parts: Existence of
 Neogene numerous species
(from 24 of mammals
to 1.8 Miocene including horses,
million dogs, and bears
years ago) with modern
 Paleogene birds.
(from 65 Started with a
million to minor extinction
24 million that happened 36
years ago) million years ago;
mammals such as
Oligocene pigs, deer, cats,
rhinos, and tapirs
appeared; grasses
were already
common on lang
surfaces

Phanerozoic Mesozoic – also Cretaceous (from Occurrence of

(from 540 million called the “Age 146 million to 65 high tectonic and
years ago to the of Repriles” million years ago) volcanic
present) (from 248 million activities; ended
to 65 million with the large
Upper (from 98
years ago extinction of
million to 65
dinosaurs and
million years ago)
marine
invertebrates
brought about by
asteroid impact
or volcanism.
Lower (from 146 Peak of the
to 98 million domination of
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 dinosaurs;
existence of the
years ago) earliest-known
snakes, ants, and
bees.
Existence of
numerous
species of
dinosaurs and
appearance of
the first bird
Jurassic (from 208 million to 146 know as
million years ago) Archaeopteryx;
evolution of the
first flowering
plants, as well as
ferns, cycads,
gingkos, and
conifers.
-Apperance of
the first
dinosaurs, as well
as mammals and
crocodiles;
Triassic (from 248 million to 208
mollusks became
million years ago)
dominant; many
reptiles appeared
-ended with a
minor extinction

Paleozoic (from -The domination

500 million to of amphibians
280 million years and a few on
ago) both land and
water; most
plants included
gymnosperms.
-Continents
merged into a
single
Permian – also
supercontinent
known as the
know as
“age of
PANGEA.
Amphibians”
-Ended with the
(from 280 million
largest mass
to 480 million
extinction caused
years ago)
by glaciations or
volcanism that
made the
trilobites extinct,
as well as, 50% of
animal families,
95% of all marine
species, and
many plant
species.
Carboniferous Pennsylvanians Appearance of
(from 360 million (from 325 million reptiles, may
to 280 million to 280 million ferns, and even
years ago) years ago) cockroaches
Mississippian Appearance of
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 Period (from 360 the first winged
million to 325 insects.
million years ago)
-Abundance of
aquatic fish
species and land
plants;
appearance of
first amphibians,
sharks, bony
fishes, and
ammonoids.
-Ended with a
mass extinction
345 million years
ago due to
glaciations or
meteorite
impact, which
wiped out 30% of
all animal
families.

Phanerozoic Paleozoic (from Silurian (from 438 million to 408 Appearance of

(from 540 million 500 million to million years ago) the first jawed
years ago to the 280 million years fishes and
present) ago) uniramians
(insects,
centipedes, and
millipedes), as
well as the first
vascular plants
Ordovician (from 505 million to 438 Appearance of
million years ago) primitive plants,
fungi, fishes, and
seaweeds;
characterized by
high sea levels,
global cooling,
glaciations, and
volcanism.
Cambrian- also known as the “Age of Appearance of
Trilobites” (from 500 million to 350 many marine
million years ago) invertebrates
including
trilobites; ended
with mass
extinction of
almost 50% of all
animal families
due to glaciations
Precambrian Proterozoic Eon Vendian/ Ediacaran Period ( from 600 Appearance of
(from 4.6 billion (from 2.5 billion million to 540 million years ago) multicellular
to 540 million to 540 million organisms
years ago) years ago) including
sponges and soft-
bodied
invertebrates
Archean or Also known as
Archeozoic Eon the “Ancient
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 (from 4.6 billion Life,” where the
to 541 million first life-forms
years ago) might have
evolved;
characterized by
the appearance
of blue-green
algae,
Archaean’s, and
bacteria in the
sea.
Hadean Eon Also known as
(from 4.6 billion the “Rockless
to 3.9 billion Eon”
years ago)

The geologic timescale shows significant events in the history of Earth and of the evolution of living things.
Scientists were able to develop the geologic timescale by studying rock layers and index fossils worldwide. The information
obtained from the pieces of evidence made it possible for them to identify the relative age of Earth. They were also able to
identify the different groups of organisms that they have lived during specific time periods. These pieces of evidence were
used to mark the start and the end of segment of geologic time. Other techniques such as radioactive and relative dating
were also used to confirm the specific ages of rock layers in the recent year. Not surprisingly, scientists found out that these
divisions did not turn out to be of standard lengths, such as 100 million years. Instead, geologic divisions vary in duration of
by several million years.

EONS
Eons are the largest divisions in the geologic timeline. They are composed of hundred of million years in duration.
The recent one is the phanerozoic eon, which began more than 500 million years ago. This eon is characterized by the
existence of organism that had skeletons or hard shells. Other eons are the Proterozoic eon, where the first multicellular
organisms arose and where mass extinction occurred; the Archaeozoic eon, where the first life-forms represented by single
celled organisms appeared; the Hadean eon, which is characterized by Earth’s formation from dust and gases. The
Proterozoic, Archaeozoic, and the Hadean eons are sometimes collectively known as the Precambrian time, which accounts
for almost 90% of Earth’s history.

ERAS
As mentioned previously, an eon can be divided into smaller time intervals known as eras. The Phanerozoic eon is
divided into three eras, namely, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. The boundaries of the era have been determined
based on the different organisms that were present during a certain period of time in the geologic timescale.

PALEOZOIC ERA
The Paleozoic era began about 540 million years ago and lasted for about 300 million years. Many kinds of
organisms lived during this era. This is when fossil records became rich with evidence of many marine organisms.

MESOZOIC ERA
The Mesozoic era began about 200 million years ago and lasted about 180 million years ago. This era is also called
the Age of Reptiles and sometimes, the Age of Dinosaurs because this is when many kinds of dinosaurs existed. The
Mesozoic era is also marked by the appearance of flowering plants.
CENOZOIC ERA
The Cenozoic era is considered to be the latest era in the geologic timeline, which began 65 million years ago up to
the present. It is composed of the Quaternary and Tertiary Periods, which are characterized by the presence of primitive
mammals and modern human civilization. During the Cenozoic era, mammals have evolved and adapted to live in various
environments, including land water, and even air. This is why the Cenozoic era is sometimes called the Age of Mammals.
PERIODS
Periods are further subdivisions of eras, the Proterozoic eon is composed of the Vendian/ Ediacaran period.
Prokaryotic organisms began to appear during this period, first with the anaerobic life-forms, and then followed by the
photosynthetic organisms, which added oxygen to the atmosphere. However, life in this period only thrived underwater,
and only a few fossils existed because the animals were all soft-bodied.
The Paleozoic era has been divided into the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian
periods.

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 During the Cambrian period, organisms were noted to have hard body parts such as shells and outer skeletons. The
first known representatives of most animal phyla evolved during this period, which include jellyfish, worms, and sponges.
Also common during this period were the brachiopods, which were small animals with two shells. These organisms
resembled modern clams. Hard-shelled, segmented creatures call trilobites were the most dominant macroscopic life forms
in the period. A fossil of modocia typicallis, a representative trilobite from the Cambrian period.
In the Devonian period, many plants, including ferns, adapted to drier areas, which allowed them to invade other
kinds of habits. Aquatic areas, on the other hand, were mostly populated with both invertebrates and vertebrates. This
period is referred to as the Age of Fishes because many groups of fishes have evolved during this period. Most of the fishes
in this period had jaws, bony skeletons, and scales. Sharks appeared in the later parts of the period. A fernlike leaf fossil was
found during the Devonian period.
Life continued to expand on Earth’s surface during the Carboniferous and Permian periods. The reptiles – animals
with scaly skins that lay eggs with tough leathery shells – evolved from amphibians. Winged insects evolved into many
forms, such as dragonflies and cockroaches. Giant ferns and other plants formed vast swampy forests. The remains of
ancient plants formed thick deposits of sediments that changed into coal over millions of years, especially during the
Carboniferous period. An illustration of the environment during the Carboniferous period and a fossil skeleton of Eryops
from the Permian period are shown.

At the end of Paleozoic era, many organisms became extinct, including trilobites and many amphibians. The mass
extinction at the end of the Paleozoic era affected both plants and animals on land even in the seas. As much as 95% of
complex life-forms in the oceans disappeared. However, those which survived the mass extinction included reptiles and
groups of fishes.

The Mesozoic era was divided into Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Triassic periods. These periods represent the age when
many forms of dinosaurs are believed to have existed on Earth. Their extinction could have been brought about by an
asteroid’s impact on volcanism.
Many organisms at the one set of the Triassic period survived the mass extinction during the Permian period,
including fishes, insects, reptiles, and cone-bearing plants.
Then about 225 million years ago, the first dinosaurs appeared. One of the earliest dinosaur species belonged to the
genus Coelophysis, which were meat – eaters that had light, hollow bones to help them run swiftly on their hind legs.
Mammals also appeared during the latter part of this period, which probably evolved from mammal-like reptiles. Mammals
during the Triassic period were very small (about the size of a mouse). A remarkable skeleton of Coelophysis bauri, a very
small dinosaur, and a graphical representation of how Earth looked like during the Triassic period.

During the Jurassic period, dinosaurs became dominant animals on land for about 150 million years, however,
various type of land animals lived at different time frames. Dicraeosaurus was one of the largest dinosaurs in this period.
Archeopteryx, one of the earliest known birds, also appeared on this period. Because of the presence of feathers, their
similar body structure, and the presence of scales usually on their feet, Archeopteryx made paleontologists believe that
birds are close relatives of dinosaurs.

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 The Cretaceous period is the time when reptiles were dominant vertebrates on Earth. During this period, several
kinds of birds began to exist alongside Pterosaurs (flying reptiles). It is also the period when new kinds of dinosaurs evolved.
Iguanodon and Triceraptors species emerged as common herbivores, and Tyrannosaurus rex and Spinosaurus were some
of the dominant carnivores in this period, other aquatic organisms such as rays, sharks, corals, and sea stars, as well as
marine reptiles such as mosasaurs and Plesiosaurus ,dominated different bodies of water. The angiosperms, the flowering
plants, also arose during this period.
The cretaceous period ended with a meteorite-caused mass extinction. Tyrannosaurus rex, one of the largest and
fiercest carnivorous dinosaurs,

The Cenozoic era is divided into the Tertiary and Quaternary periods.
The Tertiary period is from 65 to 1.8 million years ago. This period started with the emergence of primitive
mammals. During this period, Earth’s climate was generally warm and mild. In oceans, marine mammals such as whales and
dolphins thrived. Flowering plants and insects flourished on land. Grasses also emerged, providing a vital food source that
encouraged the evolution today’s grass-eating mammals such as cattle, deer, and sheep.

The Quaternary period, on the other hand, is coined as the “Age of Man” because the earliest modern humans are believed
to have existed at the start of this period. The Quaternary period is from 1.8 million years age up to the present and is
characterized by a series of ice ages followed by warmer climates. At the start of this period, thick continental glaciers
advanced and retreated over parts of Europe and North America. A large portion of the bodies of water was frozen in
continental glaciers, causing the sea level to fall by more than 100 meters. Then about 20 000 years ago, Earth’s climate
began to warm, causing the continental glaciers to melt, which resulted in the increase in sea levels. Different marine
organisms such as algae, corals, mollusks, fishes, and sea mammals thrived. Flying insects shared the skies with birds. On
land, mammals such as bats, cats, dogs, cattle, and mammoths became common. Fossils recorded suggest that the earliest
ancestors of our species, called hominids, appeared about 4.5 million years ago but they did not look entirely like humans.
Modern humans called Homo sapiens may have evolved as early as 100 000 years ago in Africa. From there, they began a
series of migrations, which resulted in the human colonization of the world,

EPOCHS
Epochs are finer subdivisions shown in the Cenozoic era and parts of the Mesozoic era. They are only done for the
most recent portion of the geologic timescale because old rocks in the late portions of the timescale have been buried
deeply, causing them to be intensely deformed and severely modified by long-term Earth processes.
Our geologic timescale is an important tool that visually shows Earth’s history. With the help of this timescale, we
can look at the past and identify the organisms that have existed a long time ago.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 1b.

1. Study the Geologic time record and determine the flora and fauna that existed and perished or became extinct
during a certain period.
2. What could have caused the extinction of such organisms

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LESSON 2. EVOLUTION

Definition of terms:
 Biological diversity- the number and the kinds of organisms living on earth at a particular time.
 Evolutionary theory- is the scientific explanation of the diversity of life.
 Evolution or Change over time- the process of how present day organisms have descended from ancient ones.
 Theory –a well-supported, testable explanation of a natural phenomenon.

I. MECHANISMS OF CHANGE
A. NATURAL SELECTION
 A key factor for an organism to thrive and reproduce depends on how well-suited the organism is to the
environment.

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  Fitness – the ability of an individual to survive and reproduce in a specific environment. For an individual to
be fit in an environment, it has to successfully adapt to it.
 The concept of fitness is the central process by evolution by natural selection.
 Individuals with characteristics that are not suited to the environment either die or live with few offspring,
whereas individuals with characteristics that are very much suited to the environment survive and
reproduce successfully.
 Natural selection results in changes in the inherited characteristics of a population. The changes in
characteristics increase a species’ fitness in its environment.
 Example: Raphus cucullatus or the DODO BIRD. Dodos were found on the small island of Mauritius in the
Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar. Dodos were nonflying, overweight, pigeonlike birds that were allegedly
unfit to the environment because they could not fly. This made an easy prey for predators. Their obesity,
slowness and lack of intelligence are the common reasons cited by scientists for their extinction.
 Over long period of time, natural selection produces organisms with improved body structures and
habitats. As a result, present day organisms are different from their ancestors. This can be explained by the
principle of descent with modification, wherein species descend through generations with several
changes over time. this principle also implies that organisms are related with one another.
 Another principle, principle of common descent, which means that all organisms share common ancestry.

II. SOURCES OF EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE

TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION:
1. DIRECTIONAL SELECTION
 Happens when a change in the environment causes a change in the observable spectrum of
phenotypes. In this process, organisms with a phenotype that is well-suited to their current
environment are more likely to survive.

 Example: the original population of peppered moths was predominantly light in color, so they were able
to blend with light-colored trees and lichens in the environment. However, as industries developed, the
trees darkened because of the soot coming from these industries, so the light-colored moths became
easier to spot. As a result, they become easy prey. Because of this change in environment conditions,
there was a gradual shift over time in their phenotype- from light t dark color- to increase their chances
of survival.

Figure 1. the first Black peppered was recorded in 1848. By 1895, 98% of peppered moths were black in color. In this
picture, the white peppered moth is easier to spot.
2. STABILIZING SELECTION
 Occurs when an intermediate phenotypes are more likely to survive in the environment.
 Example: in a population of deer that live in the woods, those that blend well with the forest are less
likely to be spotted by the predators.

3. DISRUPTIVE OR DIVERSIFYING SELECTION

 Occurs when extreme phenotypes are more likely to adapt to their environment.
 Example: lobsters with multiple mating strategies. Large alpha males can obtain a mate by force,
whereas small males can sneak in copulate with females in an alpha male’s territory. In this situation,
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 both large and small lobsters will be naturally selected, but medium-sized males, which overtake large
males are too big to sneak unlike small males, will not be favored.

Figure 2. Different types of Natural Selection

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 2a.

How do the types of natural selection differ from each other? Give examples of organisms that exhibit each type of
natural selection.

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
 Nature provides variation among different organisms so that humans can select the variations that are
useful to them.
 It is done thru a SELECTIVE BREEDING which is done by farmers and breeders.
 In Selective breeding, individuals with desirable traits are bred to increase the chances of having offspring
with the same desirable traits.
 With the help of artificial selection, breeders are able to produce a wide range of plants and animals that
look very different from their ancestors.

Figure 3. Some of the common vegetables that have been cultivated from the wild mustard include
cabbage, broccolii, and cauliflower
B.
NONRAMDOM MATING
 Also contributes to the population change from one generation to the next.
 It has two types, inbreeding and outbreeding.
1. INBREEDING
 When individuals are more likely to mate with their close relatives than with distant relatives. In this
manner individuals choose their mates based on genetic history.
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 Example: royal families several years ago when they preferred marrying only other royal members to
keep their bloodlines “pure”. This happens in nature when the population size is relatively small. The
problem with this type of breeding is that here is a higher chance of inheriting disease conditions
caused by harmful recessive genes.
 INBREEDING DEPRESSION - condition where inbreeding may lower the population’s ability to survive
and reproduce.
2. OUTBREEDING or ASSORTATIVE MATING
 Happens when individuals select distant relatives than close relatives as their partners. In this type of
breeding, individuals with similar phenotypes are more likely to mate.
 Example: in humans, if short girls prefer only short guys, then there would be a higher frequency of
short alleles in the population.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 2b.

What are the advantages of Inbreeding and Selective Breeding

C. GENETIC DRIFT
 Caused by unpredictable changes in allele frequencies due to small population sizes. Thus a certain allele
can be passed on to numerous offspring by chance. Over a period of time, many individuals with that
certain allele can become common in the given population.
 POPULATION BOTTLENECK- occurs when a sudden sharp decline in the population (usually from natural
disasters such as volcanic activities and strong weather disturbances) results in a drastic reduction of the
total genetic diversity of the original population. The surviving population is considerably different from the
original population in terms of genetic makeup.
 FOUNDER EFFECT- happens when there is a loss of genetic variation because of the migration of a small
subgroup in a population. Due to small population size and the geographical or social isolation of the
population from other organisms of the same species, some genetic traits prevalent in the subgroup may
lead to the presence of a certain genetic diseases in the next generation.

Figure 4. Founder Effect

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 Figure 5. Bottleneck effect

D. MUTATION
The change in the structure of a gene caused by alterations in the DNA sequence of an organism.
TYPES OF MUTATION
1. SUBSTITUTION – Occurs when the genetic codon has one altered nitrogenous base. Substitution may
cause following effects;
a. it may cause changes in the protein structure because the alteration of the codon causes a change
in the amino acid produced.
b. It may cause a silent mutation, wherein an altered nitrogenous base still produces a codon that
encodes for the same amino acid.
c. It may change an amino acid producing codon STOP codon, causing a formation of an incomplete
protein. This can cause serious effects.
2. INSERTION – characterized by the addition of an extra set of base pairs to the genetic material.
3. DELETION – occurs when a set of base pairs to the genetic material is omitted
 Insertion and deletions in the genetic material cause another type of mutation known as
FRAMESHIFT. This happens when the information is no longer passed correctly resulting in the
production of useless proteins.

Mutations may occur because of mistakes in the replication of genetic materials or as a result of exposure to
radiation or chemicals in the environment. Many mutations produce changes on the phenotype of organisms. Thus
their ability to survive and reproduce in the environment is already affected. This is why mutations are the ultimate
source of genetic variations.
Mutations may be NEUTRAL MUTATION AND BENEFICIAL MUTATION
NEUTRAL MUTATION – Affects the organism’s phenotype but has no impact on its survival or reproduction
Example: the change in the eye color of an organism. The phenotype is affected but has no impact on the survival of
organisms.
BENEFICIAL MUTATION – affects the phenotype of organisms, resulting in an increase in their chances of survival or
reproduction.
Example: a mutation experiment done to Escherichia coli allowed it to metabolize citrate, which was not normally
done before.
E. RECOMBINATION

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 Simply a rearrangement of genes. This process naturally occurs during the crossing over stage in meiosis, where
there is exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes. Crossing over enables the offspring to have a new
gene sequence resulting in variation of traits.
The result of recombination is greater diversity on the population’s gene pool. Recombination itself is not the major
cause of evolution, but it can be a contributing factor transferring favorable genes from one generation to another.
F. GENE FLOW (MIGRATION)
Happens when there is transfer of gens from gene pool of one population to another.
It has two types: EMIGRATION and MIGRATION
EMIGRATION – happens when organisms leave their habitat
IMIGRATION – happens when organisms enter another habitat and live in it.
Both types affect the number of alleles that are present in the population.
Example: when some plants species spread their pollen in long distances to other populations in other places by
means of wind, birds or insects. There is movement of alleles because the pollen grains that have been sent to long
distances are able to fertilize the plants.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 2c. Give examples of organisms that mutated. Tell whether the mutation is beneficial or
neutral.

III. THEORIES OF EVOLUTION AND THE EVIDENCE SUPPORTING THEM

A. CHARLES DARWIN AND HIS THEORY OF EVOLUTION

He was born in England on February 12, 1809.
In 1831, Darwin went aboard the H.M.S Beagle in its voyage around the world.
Every time he traveled, Darwin read scientific books, collected plant and animal specimens as evidence and
recorded many of his observations which served as hypotheses on how life changes over time.
His most famous travel involved a trip to the GALAPAGOS ISLANDS, composed of many small islands located 1000
km west of South America. The islands have a differing climates despite the proximity of the islands with one
another. What struck him the most were his observations of several animals, such as the shape of tortoise shells or
the beak of birds, vary form one island to another.
He also found out that the species found in one locations, and what seemed like animals that look alike may actually
belong to several different species.
Darwin wrote and published a book entitled On the Origin of Species, in which he proposed the now famous theory
of evolution by natural selection. He then presented pieces of evidence demonstrating this process, which
according to him has been taking place for millions of years.
Darwin also tried to explain how evolution occurs naturally. With the help of what he learned from Thomas
Malthus, an English economist, Darwin realized that high birth rates and a shortage of life’s basic needs would
eventually force organisms into competition for resources.
The struggle for existence means that members of each species compete to obtain food, living space and other
necessities of life. in this struggle. Those that are stronger and faster are able to hunt for food and protect
themselves from their enemies. This struggle for existence was vital to Darwin’s theory of evolution.

B. JEAN- BAPTISTE LAMARCK AND HIS THEORY OF EVOLUTION

A French naturalist, was one of first scientists to recognize that living things have changed over time. He proposed
that all species descended from other species.
In 1809, Lamarck published hi theory of how organisms changed over time. His main ideas included that through
selective use or disuse of organs, organisms may acquire or lose certain traits during their lifetime. Additionally,
those that have been acquired can be passed on to the next generation. Overtime, this process led to changes in a
species.

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 1. THEORY OF USE AND DISUSE
 Organisms could alter the size, shape, or structure of a particular body parts or organs by continuously using them
in new ways.
 Lamarck proposed that giraffes used to have short necks. However, their increase population caused a shortage in
their food supply on the ground; thus they tried to eat the leaves on the trees to survive. To be able to reach these
leaves, giraffes needed to stretch their necks, as Lamarck proposed. Such continuous stretching over time enabled
the next generation to have longer necks.
 The theory of disuse, states that if an animal chooses not to use its body part, that body part or organ would
eventually decrease in size for several generations until it finally disappears.
 An example of this is the vestigial limb structure found in snakes. According to this theory of disuse, because
ancestral snakes did not use their feet, these body parts eventually became underdeveloped. Vestigial body parts or
organs are those have become functionless in the course of evolution.

2. THEORY OF INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS

 It states that organisms inherited their traits from their parents, and that they may also pass them on to the next
generation of offspring.
 Example is the presence of long trunks in elephants. Lamarck believed that the ancestors of elephants had short
trunks. As ancestral elephants struggled for food and water, their trunks stretched to reach the water and branches.
Their offspring eventually inherited the trait for long trunks.
 Lamarck’s theories of use and disuse and of inheritance of acquired characteristics proved to be incorrect in several
ways.
 Unlike Darwin, Lamarck was not aware of how traits were inherited. He did not know that inheritable characteristics
of organisms are not affected by their behavior. His theory, for example, about elephants was quite different from
Darwin’s.
 For Darwin, most elephants used to have short trunks and some had longer trunks. When there was scarcity of food
and water, those with short trunks were not able to reach the water and food, and they eventually died. The ones
with longer trunks survived and reproduced.

EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
1. BIOGEOGRAPHY
The study of the distribution of plants and animals on Earth. The distribution of organisms in an environment can be
used as an important tool for explaining evolution. As observed by Charles Darwin in the Galapagos Islands, there
were finches with different shapes of beaks depending on their geographical locations.
Each species was slightly different from the others. Using this observation, Darwin was able to infer that these
finches could have descended with modification from a common mainland ancestor. Because different locations
have natural conditions, different animals ended up developing certain striking features.

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2.FOSSIL RECORD
A fossil contains preserved remains or evidence of ancient organisms.
Fossil records provide strong evidence of the history of life on Earth. They also show how different groups of
organisms have changed over time.
One interesting facts about fossil is that they reveal how life on Earth changed from one period of time to the next
because they appear in a particular order.
Fossils of ancient organisms appear on older rocks. Also, there are fossils that appear on a certain rock layer only.
By studying fossil records, paleontologists have found out that almost 99 % of all species that have lived before have
become extinct. This means that we should really know to protect the organisms that exist today.

3. HOMOLOGY
Another evidence of evolution can be found by studying and comparing certain body parts of different animals.
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES:

o Example, the limbs of four modern vertebrates, including humans, turtles, bats and whales, have bone
structures that are quite similar. Such structures may have different mature forms, but they all came from
the same set of embryonic tissues. Some of the limbs are arms, legs, wigs and even flippers. Even though
they may have different functions among these animals, they are all constructed from the same basic
features. Each of the limbs has adapted in ways that enable each organism to survive in different
environments.

Figure 6. Homologous Structures of Different organisms

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
4.EMBROYOLOGY
Another piece of evidence involves the similarities in the early development of various organisms. Different
organisms have similar structures during their early embryological development.
The comparative embryology among different species suggests that there is common ancestry because all the
embryos have similar early developmental stages.

5.DNA/ PROTEIN SEQUENCES

The study of DNA and protein sequences is important for identifying the evolution of organisms on Earth. In fact,
DNA sequencing is the most advanced tool or evidence for evolution. Similarities in DNA sequences among
organisms indicate their close relation with one another.
By studying DNA sequences, scientists were able to discover that chimpanzees code for proteins that are exactly the
same as humans. This strongly suggests that humans and chimps share a common ancestor.
By comparing DNA sequences, scientists can determine how closely related one species is with another. Studying DNA and
other molecular pieces of evidence makes it easier to trace the evolutionary history of organisms.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 2d. Among the theories of evolution, what best explains how organisms evolved

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LESSON 3. SYSTEMATICS BASED ON EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS
TAXONOMY – the science of identifying, naming and classifying organisms.
-also known as SYSTEMATICS or BIOSYSTEMATICS.

I. BRIEF HISTORY OF TAXONOMY

ARISTOTLE – the first scientist who attempted to classify organisms; he grouped organisms into two large groups;
the plants and animals
Grouping of plants- Aristotle based it on their size:
* Herbs – short plants but with soft stems
* Shrubs- short plants with hard stems
* Trees – tall plants with trunks
Grouping of Animals – Aristotle based it on habitat
* Aquatic Animals
* Aerial Animals
* Terrestrial Animals
LATIN – the language used in naming organisms since it was the widely used language during the Middle Ages
KARL VON LINNE (Carolus Linnaeus) –introduced the modern system of classification; the Binomial System of
Nomenclature. He also grouped organisms into taxonomic categories (hierarchical order)

II. PHYLOGENY – a natural system of classification based on the evolutionary history or genealogy shared by a group of
organisms.
The phylogeny of organisms can be traced using phylogenetic trees

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
CLADISTICS – a way of drawing phylogenetic trees.
- An analytical method of refining the evolutionary classification of organisms

CLADOGRAM – a diagram that represents the evolutionary relationships among organisms

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 3a. Show several examples of Cladograms. Allow learners to determine the common lineage
and explain how it is used to classify organisms

Answer the following questions:

1. What trait separates the fishes from the mammals?
2. What organism is closely related to the chimpanzee?
3. What are the traits of mammals based on the cladogram

III. THE BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE – an organism is given two Latin names; the first name is the genus name
of which the first letter is upper cased; the second name is the species name; all in small letters (the scientific name of an
organism).

Importance of Naming Organisms

By creating a system of naming organism, confusion can be avoided. Common names very among languages even
regions within single country.
*Scientific name-uses Latin and Greek words, the languages understood by 18th century scientists.
Binomial Nomenclature/Binary Nomenclature- (two-term naming system) is a formal system of naming species of living
things by giving each name composed of two part, both of which is use Latin grammatically forms. Scientifically naming
organism developed by Carl Linnaeus. In this naming system, each species is assigned a two-part (Generic epithet and
Specific epithet) scientific name, wherein the first letter of the first word is capitalized and the second word is set in
lowercase.
Generic name- identifies the genus to which the species belongs
Specie name- identifies the species within the genus. It is sometimes followed by the name of the author or scientist who
gave the scientific name of the species.
Example: Humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens.
Tiger-Panthera represents the genus and tigris represents a particular species
Indian bullfrog- Rana is the genus and tigrina is the species
How to Write:
1. Genus comes first. 4. Genus name should be capitalized
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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
 2. Species follows next 5. Species name should be in small letters
3. Should be in Greek or Latin
SN maybe underlined or written in italics
Advantages of Binomial Nomenclature
 These names are simple and meaningful, precise and standard as they are accepted universally.
 Using this system confusion created by vernacular or local language can be avoided. For example, Ipomea batatas is
called sweet potato (English), Shakarkad (Hindu), Ratalu (Marathi), Meetha alu (Bengali), Kandmul (Telugu) and
Janasu (Kannada). It is easy to remember and understand.
 It indicates a phylogenic (evolutionary) history of that species.
 It helps to understand the relationship between organisms and groups of organisms.

Linnaues’s System of Classification

In 1735, Carl Linnnaeus (the father of classification) published his Systema Naturae, which contained his taxonomy
for organizing the natural world. Linnaes’s system of classification uses seven taxa, which are arranged in logical order from
the most general (kingdom) to the most specific (species): kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
This is important because it led to the use of binomial nomenclature to identify each species. Scientist could
communicate without the use of misleading common names.
The Seven Taxa:
Kingdom- the largest and most inclusive. The highest category in the hierarchical classification of organisms. It deals with
the main division where all organisms on Earth are classified. The six kingdoms are Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Plantae,
Animalia, fungi and Protista.
Phylum (phyla)- more specific group than Kingdom.
Class- subdivision of a phylum. It includes the major organisms that are distinct from other organisms internally and
externally.
Order- used in the classification of organisms and recognized by the nomenclature codes. Composed of a number of similar
families.
Family- includes one or more genera that share a common phylogenetic origin. This consists of a number of genera with
similar characters.
Genus (genera)- class, kind or group marked by common characteristics or by one common /attributes characteristics
specifically category of biological classification ranking between the family and the species, compromising structurally or
phylogenetically.
Species- basic unit of classification. It is used as the specific epithet in the scientific name. Made up of organisms that can
both interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

E.g., The Complete Classification of Modern Humans

TAXONOMIC
CLASSIFICATION CHARACTERISTICS
CATEGORY
Kingdom Animalia Heterotrophic, with highly specialized tissues and organ systems
Phylum Chordata Presence of notochord and backbone
Class Mammalia Presence of hair and mammary glands
Order Primata Large and complex brain; opposable thumb; has placenta
Family Hominidae Upright, two-legged stance; no tail
Genus Homo Large brain, rounded skull; extensive use of tools
Species sapiens High degree of intelligence
Scientific Name Homo sapiens

Fox Rose Human Corn Eagle

Kingdom Animalia Plantae Animalia Plantae Animalia
Phylum Chordata Angiospermae Chordata Magnoliophyta Chordata
Class Mamalia Dicotyledonae Mammalia Liliopsida Aves
Order Carnivora Rosales Primate Cyperales Accipitriformes
Family Canidae Rosaceae Hominidae Poaceae Accipitridae
Genus Vulpes Rosa Homo Zea Haliaetus
Species vulpes Indica sapiens Zea mays leucocephalus

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 3b. Complete the classification of the following organisms:

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Common Name 1. 6. 11. 16.
Domain Eukarya 7. Eukarya 17.
Kingdom 2. 8. 12. 18.
Phylum 3. Chordata 13. Chordata
Class Mammalia 9. Mammalia 19.
Order 4. Accipitriformes 14. Anura
Family Canidae 10. Balaenopteridae Ranidae
Genus 5. Haliaetus 15. 20.
Species Vulpes vulpes Leucocephalus B. musculus Rana pipiens
DIFFERENT KINGDOM CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Two-Kingdom Classification (Plantae & Animalia)
Established by Aristotle, in which he divided organisms into plants animals based on his observations. He then
divided these big groups further into subgroups. Animal subgroups are based on their habitat and plant subgroups are
based on their size.
This version was used for 2,000 years until Carl Linnaeus published his improved versions in 1700’s which divided
the kingdoms into five levels: class, order, genus, species and variety. Organisms were classified based on their traits,
including similarities in their body parts, size, shape and method of getting food. He categorized and classified the living
organisms on the basis of nutrition and mobility.

Drawback of two-kingdom Classification

 The plants comprised of photosynthetic species.
 Fungi, that feed on dead organic matter, were placed under photosynthetic plants.
 There was another class of classification needed where the organisms with the same characteristics were clubbed
into one kingdom.
 This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular organisms
and photosynthetic (green algae) and non-photosynthetic (fungi) organisms.
 There are some organisms which neither fall into plant nor animal kingdom like lichens.
2. Three-Kingdom Classification (Protista)
Was put forward by Haeckel in order to overcome the objections and limitations of the Two-kingdom system
classification. He suggested the inconsistencies of the two-kingdom system could be avoided by the recognition of a third-
kingdom, and he proposed Protista as a new kingdom to accommodate organisms exhibiting characters either common to
both plants and animals, or unique to their own. Haeckel’s three kingdoms were Animalia, Plantae and Protista.
The arrangement of kingdoms was done on the basis of morphological complexities and tissue system, the division
of labor, and mode of nutrition. Unicellular animals, algae and fungi were separated from other organisms on the basis of
lack of true differentiation. The new group was called the kingdom Protista. Organisms lacking morphological complexities,
tissue system, the division of labor, and enjoying diversified type of modes of nutrition were segregated and put under
kingdom Protista. Members of the kingdom included the protozoa, fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms. Later fungi
and multicellular algae were taken out from the group.
3. Four-Kingdom Classification (Fungi)
Further developments in microscopy led the French marine biologist Edouard Chatton to introduce the term
prokaryotes and eukaryotes. He defined prokaryotes as organisms without nuclei in their cells and eukaryotes as those with
nuclei. This enabled the establishment of the so-called empires. The two-empire system was established upon the creation
of the four system of classification. Empire Prokaryota includes Kingdom Monera, and empire Eukaryota includes Kingdom
Protista, Plantae and Animalia.
Herbert Copeland, an American biologist, proposed the four-kingdom
classification scheme. He grouped all prokaryotes under Kingdom Monera. The
kingdom Monera consist of unicellular organisms. The kingdom Protista,
Plantae and Animalia are the eukaryotic organisms.

4. Five-Kingdom Classification (Bacteria-Monera)

In 1969, Robert
that are not
photosynthetic. With
this addition, he had
proposed the five-
kingdom classification scheme. He based his scheme on the
similarities and differences of body forms, manner of obtaining
nutrients, cell structure, and patterns of development.
In the five-kingdom classification system, Kingdom Fungi is added under Empire Eukaryota.

5. Six-Kingdom Classification (Archaebacteria)

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
 It was given by Carl Woese. The six kingdoms are Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
He separated archaebacteria from eubacteria on the basis of major differences such as the absence if peptidoglycan in the
cell walls of the former and the occurrence of branched chain lipids (monolayer) instead of phospholipid bilayer in the
membrane. Based on ribosomal RNA structure, this lead to the proposal of three domains of life; Bacteria, Archaea and
Eukaryota.
In the six-kingdom classification system, Kingdom Monera is divided into Kingdom Eubacteria and Kingdom Archaebacteria.
6. Seven-Kingdom Classification (Chromista)
By 1981, Cavalier-Smith had divided all eukaryotes into nine kingdoms. He created Chromista for a separate
kingdom of protists. Most chromists are photosynthetic. This distinguishes them from most other protists which lack
photosynthesis. In both plants and chromists photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts. In plants, however the chloroplasts
are located in the cytosol while in the chromists the chloroplasts are located in the lumen of the rough ER. This distinguishes
chromists from plants. Based on the addition of Chromista as a kingdom, he suggested that even with his nine kingdoms or
eukaryotes “the best one for general scientific use is a system of seven kingdoms”, which includes: Plantae, Animalia,
Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi, Eubacteria and Archaebacteria.
7. Eight-Kingdom Classification (Archezoa)
In 1983, Cavalier-Smith introduced Archezoa for (which he called) primitive protists that lack mitochondria. He
originally considered it as a subkingdom, but by 1989, with the establishment of Chromista as separate kingdom, he treated
it as a kingdom. Archezoa is now defunct. He now assigns former members of the kingdom Archezoa to the phylum
Amoebozoa.

TIMELINE OF THE DIFFERENT KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

FIRST
INTRODUCED KINGDOMS

1700’s Plantae Animalia

1800’s Protista Plantae Animalia
1960’s Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
1970’s Archaebacteri Eubacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
a
1990’s Archaebacteri Eubacteria Archezoa Protozoa Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
a

Three Domain System (Phylogenetic Tree of Life)

In 1990, further technological advancements such as genetic sequencing led by Carl Woese to discover that
Kingdom Archaebacteria and Eubacteria are genetically distinct from each other. These two groups are so distinct that they
should nor even be classified together as kingdoms under Empire Prokaryota, but as under separate domains. This enable
him to establish the three-domain system of classification, which replaced the two-empire system: Kingdom Eubacteria is
now classified under Domain Bacteria; Kingdom Archaebacteria is now classified under Domain Archaea and Kingdom
Eukaryota became Domain Eukarya. These domains are classified as the main branches of a universal common ancestor that
existed since the beginning of life, and reflects the current evidence of evolutionary relationships among various organism.
It is an evolutionary model of phylogeny based on differences in the sequences of nucleotides in the cell’s ribosomal
RNAs (rRNA), as well as the cell’s membrane lipid structure and its sensitivity to antibiotics. Comparing rRNA structure is
especially useful. Because rRNA molecules throughout nature carry out the same function, their structure changes very little
over time. Therefore, similarities and dissimilarities in rRNA nucleotide sequences are a good indication of how related or
unrelated different cells and organisms are.
The Phylogenetic Tree of Life, shows the three domains and their descendant groups.

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1. DOMAIN BACTERIA
Bacteria are single celled microbes. The cell structure is simpler than that of other organisms as there is no nucleus
or membrane bound organelles. Instead, their control centre containing the genetic information is contained in a single
loop of DNA. Some bacteria have an extra circle of genetic material called a plasmid. The plasmid often contains genes that
give the bacterium some advantage over other bacteria. For example, it may contain a gene that makes the bacterium
resistant to a certain antibiotic.
Bacteria are found in every habitat on Earth: soil, rock, oceans and even arctic snow. Some live in or on other
organisms including plants and animals including humans. There are approximately 10 times as many bacterial cells as
human cells in the human body. A lot of these bacterial cells are found lining the digestive system. Some bacteria live in the
soil or on dead plant matter where they play an important role in the cycling of nutrients.
The Bacteria possess the following characteristics:
 Bacteria are prokaryotic cells.
 Like the Eukarya, they have membranes composed of unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol byester
linkage.
 The cell walls of Bacteria, unlike the Archaea and the Eukarya, contain peptidoglycan.
 Bacteria are sensitive to traditional antibacterial antibiotics but are resistant to most antibiotics that affect Eukarya.
 Bacteria contain rRNA that is unique to the Bacteria as indicated by the presence molecular regions distinctly
different from the rRNA of Archaea and Eukarya.
Bacterial cells can exist as single cells, in pairs, chains or clusters. In the year 1872 scientist Cohn classified bacteria to

4 major types depending on their shapes are as follows:

A) Cocci: These types of bacteria are unicellular, spherical or elliptical shape. Either they may remain as a single cell or may
aggregate together for various configurations. They are as follows:
 Monococcus: – they are also called micrococcus and represented by single, discrete round Example: Micrococcus
flavus.
 Diplococcus: – the cell of the Diplococcus divides ones in a particular plane and after division, the cells remain
attached to each other. Example: Diplococcus pneumonia.
 Streptococcus: – here the cells divide repeatedly in one plane to form chain of cells. Example: Streptococcus
pyogenes.
 Tetracoccus: – this consists of four round cells, which defied in two planes at a right angle to one another.
Example: – Gaffkya tetragena. Staphylococcus: – here the cells divided into three planes forming a structured like
bunches of grapes giving and irregular configuration. Example: – Staphylococcus aureus.
 Sarcina: -in this case the cells divide in three planes but they form a cube like configuration consisting of eight or
sixteen cells but they have a regular shape. Example: –Sarcina lutea.
B) Bacilli: These are rod shaped or cylindrical bacteria which either remain singly or in pairs. Example: Bacillus cereus.
C) Vibro: The vibro are the curved, comma shaped bacteria and represented by a single genus. Example: Vibro cholerae.
D) Spirilla: These types of bacteria are spiral or spring like with multiple curvature and terminal flagella. Ex. Spirillum
volutans.

2. DOMAIN ARCHAEA
Group of single-celled prokaryotic organisms (that is, organisms whose cells lack a defined nucleus) that have
distinct molecular characteristics separating them from bacteria (the other, more prominent group of prokaryotes) as well
as from eukaryotes (organisms, including plants and animals, whose cells contain a defined nucleus). Archaea is derived
from the Greek word archaios, meaning “ancient” or “primitive,” and indeed some archaea exhibit characteristics worthy of

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
that name. Members of the archaea include: Pyrolobus fumarii, which holds the upper temperature limit for life at 113 °C
(235 °F) and was found living in hydrothermal vents; species of Picrophilus, which were isolated from acidic soils in Japan
and are the most acid-tolerant organisms known—capable of growth at around pH 0; and the methanogens, which produce
methane gas as a metabolic by-product and are found in anaerobic environments, such as in marshes, hot springs, and the
guts of animals, including humans.
The Archaea possess the following characteristics:
 Archaea are prokaryotic cells.
 Unlike the Bacteria and the Eukarya, the Archaea have membranes composed of branched hydrocarbon chains
(many also containing rings within the hydrocarbon chains) attached to glycerol by ether linkages.
 The cell walls of Archaea contain no peptidoglycan.
 Archaea are not sensitive to some antibiotics that affect the Bacteria, but are sensitive to some antibiotics that
affect the Eukarya.
 Archaea contain rRNA that is unique to the Archaea as indicated by the presence molecular regions distinctly
different from the rRNA of Bacteria and Eukarya.
Three major groups
 Methanogens– strict anaerobes that produce methane (CH4) from carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
 Extreme halophiles– which require high concentration of salt for survival.
 Hyperthermophiles– which normally grow in extremely hot environments.
3. DOMAIN EUKARYA
Coming from the Greek words “eu“, which means “true“, and “karyon” which means, “nut“, the domain Eukarya is
composed of organisms having “true nucleus“. The domain Eukarya consists of eukaryotes which are an organism with a
true nucleus and every organelle in them is membrane bound. Eukaryotes are made up of cells that have a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.
The Eukarya possess the following characteristics:
 Presence of membrane bounded organelles
 Presence of a double membrane nucleus
 Cell division is different
 Another distinguishing feature of eukaryotes is that they have a different mode of replicating themselves. Instead of
merely dividing themselves and copying their genetic materials (like what other domains do), cell division in
eukaryotes involves two processes: mitosis and cytokinesis.
 Mode of reproduction may vary
Being eukaryotic is the main feature that unites Kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia into this domain.
The Eukarya are subdivided into the following four kingdoms:
A. Kingdom Protista: Protista are simple, predominately unicellular eukaryotic organisms. Examples include slime molds,
euglenoids, algae, and protozoans.
B. Kingdom Fungi: Fungi are unicellular or multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cell types. The cells have cell walls but
are not organized into tissues. They do not carry out photosynthesis and obtain nutrients through absorption. Examples
include sac fungi, club fungi, yeasts, and molds.
C. Kingdom Plantae: Plants are multicellular organisms composed of eukaryotic cells. The cells are organized into tissues
and have cell walls. They obtain nutrients by photosynthesis and absorption. Examples include mosses, ferns, conifers, and
flowering plants.
D. Kingdom Animalia: Animals are multicellular organisms composed of eukaryotic cells. The cells are organized into tissues
and lack cell walls. They do not carry out photosynthesis and obtain nutrients primarily by ingestion. Examples include
sponges, worms, insects, and vertebrates.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 3c. Question and Answer

1. What characteristic traits separate the archeans form the bacteria and eukaryans?
2. What characteristic traits bind all mammals, reptiles, amphibians, insects together?

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LESSON 4. PHYLOGENETIC TREES

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 4. Question and answer.

* What is a Phylogenetic Tree

* What do Phylogenetic Trees show?

* How are phylogenetic trees different from a cladogram.

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2