Wide Area Network

Technologies
TMF6044 ICT Infrastructure
Introduction
• WAN is a computer network that spans a relatively large geographical
area.
• Typically, a WAN consists of two or more local-area networks (LANs).
A WAN is a network usually provided by a specialised company called
a network provider.
• Individual organisations can use the services offered by these
companies.
• WAN technologies are classified into two i.e. packet switching or
circuit switching.
Type of Networks IAN

Internet Area Network (IAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)
Regional Area Network (RAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Campus Area Network (CAN)
Local Area Network (LAN)
Personal Area Network (PAN)
Body Area Network (BAN)
Nanoscale Network (Nano)
WAN / MAN Technologies
• X.25
• Frame Relay
• ATM (Cell Relay)
• CISCO MPLS
• Carrier Ethernet
• Broadband Internet (VPN)
• SD-WAN (Software Defined WAN)
Packet Switching Type of WAN
What is Packet Switching
• Packet Switching refers to protocols in which messages are divided
into packets* before they are sent. Each packet is then transmitted
individually and can even follow different routes to its destination.
Once all the packets forming a message arrive at the destination, they
are recompiled into their original form.
• Breaking communication down into packets allows the same data
path to be shared among many users in the network. This type of
communication between sender and receiver is known as
connectionless network.
What is Packet Switching
• In contrast, circuit switching is the way the PSTN works in which the
same path cannot be shared among users.
TCP/IP
• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, the
suite of
• communications protocols used to connect hosts on the Internet.
TCP/IP uses
• several protocols, the two main ones being TCP and IP.
X.25
X.25 History and Overview
• Designed to provide a low cost alternative for data
communication over public networks
• Pay only for bandwidth actually used
• Ideal for “bursty” communication over low quality circuits
• Standard provides error detection and correction for reliable data
transfer
• X.25 standard approved in 1976 by CCITT (now known as ITU) International
Telecommunication
• Can support speeds of 9.6 Kbps to 2 Mbps Union (ITU)

• Can provide multiplexing of up to 4095 virtual circuits over on

DTE-DCE link
• Frame Relay later replaced X.25
X.25 Devices
• Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
• Terminals, personal computers, and network hosts
• Located on premises of subscriber
• Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE)
• Modems and packet switches
• Usually located at carrier facility
• Packet Switching Exchange (PSE)
• Switches that make up the carrier network
 Layer 2 of X.25

DCE ya boleh ada di tower

or di rumah or di office
Packet Assembler/Disassembler (PAD)
• Used for DTE devices that are too simple to
implement X.25 (such as character-mode terminals)
• Acts as intermediary device between DTE and DCE
• Performs three functions
• Buffering to store data until a device is ready to process it
• Packet Assembly
• Packet Disassembly
• PAD structure defined by 3 standards:
• X.3 – line speed, flow control etc.
• X.28 – DTE-C (Character mode) interface
• X.29 – DTC-P (Packet mode) interface
PAD in Action
PSE

X.25 Packet
Data
PAD
Terminal Modem
DTE DCE

PSE

Data

Assembly/ Buffer
Disassembly
X.25 mapping to OSI Model
Application
Packet Layer Protocol (PLP)
Presentation
Other Services Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB)
Session

Transport

Network PLP
X.25
Data Link LAPB Protocol
Suite
x.21 bis, EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449,
Physical EIA-530, G.703
X.25 Physical Layer
• Several well-known standards are used for X.25 networks
• X.21bis – supports up to 2 Mbps
• 15-pin connector
• RS-232 (EIA/TIA-232) – supports up to 19.2 Kbps
• 25-pin connector
• RS-449 (EIA/TIA-449) – supports up to 64 Kbps
• 37-pin connector
• V.35 – supports up to 2 Mbps
• 34-pin connector
• Uses serial communications in either asynchronous or synchronous
modes
X.25 Data Link Layer
• Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB) is the protocol used for this layer
• LAPB is a version of HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)
• HDLC in Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)
• DTE and DCE are peers and can both perform all functions
• LAPB manages communication and packet framing between DTE and DCE devices
• Makes sure that frames are delivered in sequence and error-free
• Uses sliding window of 8 or 128 frames
LAPB Frame Types
• Three types of frames
• I-Frames (Information Frames)
• Carry data as well as Next Send (NS) and Next Receive (NR) counts
• S-Frames (Supervisory Frames)
• Controls flow of data with Receiver Ready (RR), Receiver Not Ready (RNR), and Reject
(REJ) frames
• U-Frames (Unnumbered Frames)
• Establish and maintain communications with Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode (SABM),
Unnumbered Acknowledgment (UA), Disconnect (DISC), Disconnect Mode (DM) and
Frame Reject (FRMR)
LAPB Frame Format At layer 2
Flag Address Control Data FCS Flag

Flag: (8 bits) Indicates start and end of frame (01111110)

Address: (8 bits) DTE address is maintained in higher layer so this field is
used to identify command and responses between DTE and DCE. A value of
0x01 indicates a command from DTE and responses from DCE while a value
of 0x03 indicates commands from DCE and responses from DTE.
Control: (8 bits) Contains sequence numbers, commands and responses for
controlling data flow
Data: (varies is size) Contains upper layer data
FCS: (16 bits) Frame Check Sequence used to determine if an error has
occurred in transmission (variation of CRC)
X.25 Network Layer
• Packet Layer Protocol (PLP) is the X.25 network layer protocol
• PLP manages calls between a pair DTE devices using a Permanent
Virtual Circuit (PVC) or a Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC)
• PVC – VC available at all time by network operator
• SVC – VC established on-demand by end users
• PLP handles segmentation, reassembly, bit padding and error and
flow control
• PLP uses X.121 Addressing Scheme to setup a virtual circuit
bit padding
X.121 ya untuk address
• Add dummy bit utk cukupkan bits yang dah di set awal.
pun bukan utk address
• Contoh: nya assigned data ya 128bits tapi nya cuma pakei 64bits, so
whole packet ta
perlu add dummy bits untuk cukupkan, 128bits yang dah di assigned
awal²
PLP Operates in Five Modes
• Call Setup
• Used to setup virtual circuit for SVC
• Data Transfer
• Used for transferring data with both SVC and PVC
• Idle
• Used when SVC or PVC call has been established but no data is currently being transferred
• Call Clearing
• Used to end communication between DTEs for a SVC
• Restarting
• Used to synchronize DTE and DCE for all virtual circuits that exist between them
 PVC vs SVC
• Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) • Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC)
• Data Transfer • Call Setup
• Idle • Data Transfer
• Idle
• Call Termination
 PLP Frame Format At layer 3
User data ya adalah LAPB Frame

GFI LCI PTI User Data

General Format Indicator: (4 bits) Identifies packet parameters, such as

whether the packet carries user data or control information, what kind of
windowing is being used, and whether delivery confirmation is required
Bit 1 – 0=User Data, 1=Data for PAD
Bit 2 – 0=Local Ack, 1=Remote Ack
Packet type Bits 3 & 4 – 00=Reserved, 01=Window Size 8, 10=Window Size 128,
identifier
11=Extended Format
• Mok tauk nya sama
ada supervisory Logical Channel Identifier: (12 bits) Identifies the virtual circuit (1-4095)
packet, information
packet or across the local DTE to DCE interface. This field consists of a 4-bit Logical
unnumbered frame Channel Group Number (LCGN) and an 8-bit Logical Channel Number (LCN)
(slide 19)
Packet Type Identifier: (8 bits) Identifies one of 17 different packet types
User Data: (varies is size but typically 128 bits) Contain encapsulated user
data for data packets or additional control information for other packets
Frame Relay
• X.25 is a concept that being
implemented in early days
• X.25 is the reason why frame
relay is design
Frame Relay History and Overview
• Frame Relay was originally designed for use on Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN)
• Usually considered a replacement for X.25 using more advanced digital and fiber
optic connections
• Does not perform error correction at intermediate nodes making it faster than
X.25
• When an error is detected (FCS) the frame is discarded and correction is left up to higher
layer protocols
• Original standard proposed in 1984 but widespread acceptance did not occur
until the late 1980’s
• Service Description Standard (ITU-T I.233)
• Overall service description and specifications, Connection Management
• Core Aspects (ITU-T Q.922)
• Frame Format, Field Functions, Congestion Control
• Signaling (ITU-T Q.933)
• Establishing and Releasing switched connections and status of permanent connections
Frame Relay History and Overview
• Layer 2 implementation
• Very similar to X.25 except
• No flow control and error control
• Uses PVC and SVC
• Frame Relay later being overtaken by
• Ethernet over fiber optics
• MPLS
• VPN over broadband services
• Cable modem
• DSL
Frame Relay Devices
• Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
• Terminals, Personal Computers, routers, and bridges typically at the customer
location
• Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE)
• Typically packet switches owned by the carrier that transmit data through the
WAN
Sample Frame Relay Network

Packet Switch Packet Switch

DCE DCE

Personal Computer
DTE
Terminal
DTE
Frame Relay
WAN

Packet Switch Packet Switch

DCE DCE
Network Host
DTE
 DTE
DTE

DTE
Frame Relay Assembler/Disassembler (FRAD)
• To handle frames from other protocols a FRAD is used
to provide conversion to Frame Relay packets
• A FRAD can either be a separate device or part of a
router/switch

X.25 X.25
ATM FRAD Frame Relay FRAD ATM
PPP PPP
Frame Relay mapping to OSI Model

Application
Link Access Procedure for Frame Relay
Presentation (LAPF)

Session Other Services

Transport

Network
Any standard ya
Data Link LAPF Frame
maksudnya copper boleh,
Relay
fiber boleh, wireless pun
Physical Any Standard boleh
Protocol
Frame Relay Physical Layer
• No specific protocol is defined
• Any protocol recognized by ANSI can be implemented
• Examples:
• ISDN
• T1/DS1
• V.35 56kbps lease line
Frame Relay Data Link Layer
• Link Access Protocol for Frame Modes Services (LAPF) is the protocol
defined for Frame Relay Layer 2 services
• LAPF is a version of HDLC
• Does not provide flow or error control
• Uses Address field for DLCI (addressing) as well as for congestion control
• DLCI enables multiple VCs across a physical connection
LAPF Frame Format
Flag Address Information FCS Flag

DLCI C/R EA DLCI FECN BECN DE EA

DLCI: (10 bits) Data Link Connection Identifier is used to identify the Virtual
Circuit number
C/R: (1 bit) Provided for up layers to determine commands and responses
EA: (1 bit) Determines if this byte is last byte of address (0=more, 1=last)
FECN: (1 bit) Forward Explicit Congestion Notification indicates congestion in
the direction the frame is traveling
BECN: (1 bit) Backward Explicit Congestion Notification indicates congestion
in the opposite direction the frame is traveling
DE: (1 bit) Discard Eligibility indicates that a frame is low priority when set
Frame Relay Operating States
• Original Frame Relay standard only covered PVC
• SVC support was added but does not have widespread
implementation
• PVC States
• Data Transfer – data is being transmitted between DTE devices
• Idle – connection is still active but no data is being transferred
• SVC required the addition of two additional states
• Call Setup – virtual circuit between DTE devices is established
• Data Transfer
• Idle
• Call Termination – virtual circuit between DTE devices is terminated
Congestion Management
• Because of the shared resources of a virtual circuit, congestion can cause the
loss of packets as buffers become full
• Frame Relay defines a congestion control mechanism using the FECN and BECN
bits in the address field
• When a switch determines that congestion has occurred it will set the FECN bit
on packets traveling in the direction of the congestion to alert the receiver to
slow down requests for data. The BECN bit will be set for packets going in the
opposite direction of the congestion to let the sender know to send data more
slowly
• The FECN and BECN bits will allow higher layer protocols to manage flow.
• Discard Eligible bit is used to identify frames that are low priority and can be
discarded in the event of congestion
Local Management Interface (LMI)
• LMI is a set of extensions to Frame Relay developed in 1990 by Cisco Systems,
StrataCom, Northern Telecom, and Digital Equipment Corporation
• LMI provides global addressing which allows additional management capability
such as standard address resolution and discovery
• LMI allows status messages to be passed between DCE and DTE devices to
provide communication and synchronization (uses DLCI 1023 on a 2-byte address)
• LMI specifies multicast capability to allow creation of multicast groups to limit
bandwidth use
Comparison of X.25 and Frame Relay
X.25 Frame Relay
Layer 1 Specification Yes None
Layer 2 Protocol Family HDLC HDLC
Layer 3 Support PLP None
Error Correction Node to Node None
Propagation Delay High Low
Ease of Implementation Difficult Easy
Good for Interactive Applications Too Slow Yes
Good for Voice No Yes
Good for LAN File Transfer Slow Yes
X.25 and Frame Relay Today
• Many X.25 networks have been replaced by Frame Relay or X.25 over
Frame Relay Networks
• X.25 still in use for low bandwidth applications such as credit card
verification
• It is likely that ATM Networks will ultimately replace Frame Relay and
X.25 Networks
Circuit Switching Type of WAN
What is Circuit Switching
• Circuit-switched is a type of network in which a physical path is
obtained for and dedicated to a single connection between two end-
points in the network for the duration of the connection.
Leased Line
• Leased line is a permanent telephone connection between two points
set up by a telecommunications common carrier or service/network
provider.
• Typically, leased lines are used by businesses to connect
geographically distant offices.
• Unlike normal dial-up connections, a leased line is always on(or
active).
Leased Line
• For example, an E-1 line circuit is a type of leased line that provides a
maximum transmission speed of 2.048 Mbps.
• You can divide this connection into different lines (or channels) for
data and voice communication. Dividing the connection is called
multiplexing or you could use the entire E-1 line for one high speed
data circuit.
• Another Example, T1 line with DS1 signaling.
ISDN
• ISDN, which stands for Integrated Services Digital Network, is a system of
digital phone connections which has been available since 1990s.
• This system allows voice and data to be transmitted simultaneously across
the world using end-to-end digital connectivity.
• The Basic Rate Interface (BRI) is the standard last mile connection (for end
users) offering 2B + D channels
• 2 x 64kbps Bearer (B) channels
• 1 x 16kbps Delta (D) channel
• At later stage, it was largely replaced by xDSL technologies
• The Primary Rate Interface (PRI) is used to replace T1/E1 lines between
Telephone Central Offices. PRI offers 2.048Mbps (30B + 2D)
ISDN Components
• Terminal Equipment type 1 (TE1) *
ISDN compatible device (Router with ISDN Interface)
* TE1s connect to the ISDN network through a four-wire,
twisted-pair digital link
• Terminal Equipment type 2 (TE2)
* ISDN Non-compatible devices.
* Will require a terminal adapter.
• Terminal Adapter (TA)
* Converts standard electrical signals into the form used by ISDN
* Needed for connection with TE2 devices
* The ISDN TA can be either a standalone device or a board inside
the TE2
ISDN Components
• Network termination type 1 (NT1)
* Network-termination devices that connect the four-wire
subscriber wiring to the conventional two-wire local loop
* Is a customer premises equipment (CPE) device (North America)

• Network termination type 2 (NT2)

* Intelligent device that performs switching & concentrating.
* Provides multiple ISDN interfaces on an ISDN line. The NT2 may
be as simple as a bridging device connected to an NT1 unit or it
may be as complicated as a PBX (Private Branch exchanges)
ISDN Reference Points
ISDN specifies a number of reference points that define logical
interfaces between functional groupings, such as TAs and NT1s.
ISDN reference points include the following:

• R---The reference point between non-ISDN equipment and a TA.

• S---The reference point between user terminals and the NT2.
• T---The reference point between NT1 and NT2 devices.
• U---The reference point between NT1 devices and line-termination
equipment in the carrier network. The U reference point is
relevant only in North America, where the NT1 function is not
provided by the carrier network
 ISDN Reference Points
Reference points are a series of specifications that
define the connection between specific devices,
depending on their function in the end-to-end
connection

• Mun rah Malaysia

nya direct terus
Dari NTU ke
switched network
sbb ISDN switch ya
ada skali dalam
switched network,
packet network and
private-line
network
• diagram tok hanya
diguna pakai di north
america
Telecommuter/Remote User

➢Using 56K Modem>

➢Using ISDN>
Telecommuter/Remote Office
Components & Considerations
• ISDN Router
• Multiple remote users at the same location
ISDN Service
BRI (Basic Rate Interface)
• Connection from the ISDN office to the user location provides for
access to three channels. The channels are two 64Kb B-channels and
one 16Kb D-channel
• The B-channels and the D-channel provide the user with access to the
circuit switched network
 ISDN Service
PRI (Primary Rate Interface)
• ISDN Primary Rate Interface service provides digital access via a T1 line.
A T1 line provides a 1.544 bandwidth. This bandwidth is divided into
24 64Kb channels. The ISDN PRI service uses 23 B channel access and
uses the 24th (D) channel for signaling purposes

23B + D [North American]

30B + 2D [European]
Features
• Uses Digital Signal
• Uses Existing telephone wiring
• Charges are generally based on the duration of call (How
long the WAN link was used)
• Alternate to using leased lines
• Can transport many types of Network traffic (Voice, Data,
Video, Text, Graphics etc) – Integrated services
• Faster Data transfer rate than modems
• Faster Call setup than Modems
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL / ADSL)
ADSL: Emerging Technology
• ADSL is an acronym for Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, a technology that
allows more data to be sent over existing copper telephone lines (PSTN). ADSL is
asymmetrical, which means it provides higher bit rates in the downstream
direction (from Telco Local Exchange to the subscriber’s site) than the upstream
direction (from the subscriber site to the Local Exchange).

Majority country start with ADSL (using copper line)

sebelum berubah ke fiber termasuk Malaysia
xDSL Performance
 DSL / ADSL Concept Digital subscriber line access multiplexing
(DSLAM)
• function : do multiplexer

ADSL
Cth: TM building

Cth:
streamyx

Mun sekda ISDN

boleh pakei line
copper biasa cuma
berbeza bandwidth
(max 2mbps)

Central Office / Exchange Residential Home

SOHO/residential ADSL installation
Central Office

ADSL Modem
Remote office/branch office ADSL installation
Data networking with ADSL

DSLAM: DSL Access Multiplexer

Accessing an ISP
Tying to corporate frame relay network

FRATM
• A modulator
utk ubah Dari
ATM ke frame
relay and vice
versa
ADSL Infrastructure in a local exchange
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM)
HYBRID: BEST OF TWO WORLDS
• Another technology, ATM, attempts to combine the best of both
worlds – the guaranteed delivery of circuit-switched networks and
the robustness and efficiency of packet-switching networks.
• ATM creates a fixed channel, or route, between two points whenever
data transfer begins.
• This differs from TCP/IP, in which messages are divided into packets
and each packet can take a different route from source to destination.
• This difference makes it easier to track and bill data usage across an
ATM network, but it makes it less adaptable to sudden surges in
network traffic.
 Utilizing switch concept
ATM
Router

Router
Router
ATM Connection
• In an ATM network, connection between two end points is
accomplished through transmission paths, virtual paths, and virtual
circuits.
• A transmission path (TP) is the physical connection (optical cables,
satellite etc) between an end point and a switch or between two
switches. A transmission path is divided into several virtual paths.
• A virtual path (VP) provides a connection or a set of connections
between two switches.
• A VC is like a lane on one side (virtual path) of a highway
(transmission path).
ATM Cell Format
ATM Services
• Three types of ATM services exist: permanent virtual circuits (PVC),
switched virtual circuits (SVC), and connectionless service similar to
SMDS.
• Switched Multimegabit Data Service (SMDS) is a high-speed, packet-
switched, datagram-based WAN networking technology used for
communication over public data networks (PDNs).
ATM: PVC vs SVC
• PVC allows direct connectivity between sites. In this way, a PVC is
similar to a leased line.
• An SVC is created and released dynamically and remains in use only
as long as data is being transferred. In this sense, it is similar to a
telephone call.
Extra Notes
Introduction
• As we have seen, a local area network covers a room, a building or a
campus.
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) covers a city or a region of a city.
• A wide area network (WAN) covers multiple cities, states, countries,
and even the solar system.

Data Communications and Computer

Networks: A Business User's Approach, 75
Sixth Edition
Metropolitan Area Network Basics
• MANs borrow technologies from LANs and WANs.
• MANs support high-speed disaster recovery systems, real-time
transaction backup systems, interconnections between corporate
data centers and Internet service providers, and government,
business, medicine, and education high-speed interconnections.
• Almost exclusively fiber optic systems

Data Communications and Computer

Networks: A Business User's Approach, 76
Sixth Edition
 Metropolitan Area Network Basics

• MANs have very high transfer speeds

• MANs can recover from network faults very quickly (failover time)
• MANs are very often a ring topology (not a star-wired ring)
• Some MANs can be provisioned dynamically

Data Communications and Computer

Networks: A Business User's Approach, 77
Sixth Edition
Metropolitan Area Network Basics

Data Communications and Computer

Networks: A Business User's Approach, 78
Sixth Edition
SONET versus Ethernet MANs
• Most MANs are SONET network built of multiple rings (for failover
purposes)
• SONET is well-proven but complex, fairly expensive, and cannot be
provisioned dynamically.
• SONET is based upon T-1 rates and does not fit nicely into 1 Mbps, 10
Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1000 Mbps chunks, like Ethernet systems do.
• Ethernet MANs generally have high failover times

SONET is the North American standard

SDH is the European standard

Data Communications and Computer

Networks: A Business User's Approach, 79
Sixth Edition
SONET versus Ethernet MANs

Data Communications and Computer

Networks: A Business User's Approach, 80
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SONET versus Ethernet MANs

Data Communications and Computer

Networks: A Business User's Approach, 81
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Metro Ethernet
• One of the latest forms of the metropolitan area network is metro
Ethernet
• Metro Ethernet is a service in which the provider creates a door-to-
door Ethernet connection between two locations
• For example, you may connect your business with a second business
using a point-to-point Ethernet connection (Figure 9-4a)

Data Communications and Computer

Networks: A Business User's Approach, 82
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Metro Ethernet

Data Communications and Computer

Networks: A Business User's Approach, 83
Sixth Edition
Metro Ethernet
• You may also connect your business with multiple businesses using a
connection similar to a large local area network (Figure 9-4b)
• Thus, by simply sending out one packet, multiple companies may
receive the data
• Neat thing about metro Ethernet is the way it seamlessly connects
with a company’s internal Ethernet network(s)

Data Communications and Computer

Networks: A Business User's Approach, 84
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Metro Ethernet

Data Communications and Computer

Networks: A Business User's Approach, 85
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Thank you
Q&A