Statistics – collection, organization,
Discrete – integer values
presentation, analysis, and interpretation
Statistical Analysis – investigating trends,
patterns and relationships
Division of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics – collecting, organizing,
summarizing, and presenting data
Inferential Statistics – generalizations,
predictions, estimations, or approximations
Data – pieces of factual information
Grouped data – organized into categories
Ungrouped data – not organized in any way
Population – entire group
Sample – part or subset of a population
Parameter – descriptive measure from
population
Statistics – value of measurement
Variable - characteristic or attribute
Constant – does not change
Independent Variable/Predictor – manipulated
by researchers
Dependent Variable – values that are predicted
by the independent variable
Types of Variables
1. Qualitative – expressed non-numerically
2. Quantitative – numerical value
a.
b. Continuous – any value at any
point along an interval
Nominal – attributes are only named. ex. plate
number
Ordinal – attributes can be ordered. ex. ranking
military, likert scale – agree, strongly agree,
disagree, strongly disagree
Interval – distance is meaningful. ex.
temperature, IQ
Ratio – absolute zero. Meaning wala talagang
value
Example:
1. Size of classroom – ratio
2. Places of residence – nominal
3. Thermostat setting in summer – interval
4. The scent of flower – nominal
5. The order of birth in the family – ordinal
Types of Data
Primary – collected directly
Secondary – collected by someone else
Methods of Collecting Data
Direct Method – conduct of interview
Indirect Method – conduct of survey
questionnaires
 Structured or Unstructured
Observation Method – take note of behavior
Registration – private and government offices
Experiment – investigates if one variable would
have an effect to another variable
Sampling technique – process used to
determine which individual member of the
population could be included in the sample
Probability sampling – equal chance for every
member to be selected
 Random sampling - equal chance of
being selected as samples. Draw lots
method
 Sampling frame – list of all
elements of the population
 Systematic sampling – between any
two consecutive numbers
 Stratified sampling – initially grouped
into different classification
 Cluster sampling – divides the
population into separate groups then
a simple random sample of clusters is
selected from the population.
 Multi-stage sampling – significant
clusters are split into sub-groups
Non-probability sampling – does not calculate
the chance for each member to be selected
 Convenience sampling – what is
convenient to the researcher
 Quota – same proportion of subjects
 Purposive – researcher selects a sample
based on their knowledge
 Snowball sampling – look for other
participants of the study when subjects
are hard to find.
Methods of Data Presentation
1. Textual form – paragraph and narrative
form
2. Tabular form – quantitative information
a. Table heading – table number
and title
b. Body – main part of the table
c. Stubs – give account to the info
found
d. Box heads – data found in
columns of the table
e. Footnotes – clarify info that
may not be clearly shown
f. Source note – origin of the data
3. Graphical form – charts, graphs or
pictures
a. Bar graph – vertical or horizontal
axis and displays data as
rectangular bars
b. Line graph – predicting future
events over time
c. Pie chart – represent proportions
d. Pictographs – symbols or pictures to
represent the frequency or
percentage
Measure of location – single value that
summarizes set of data that describes its
location
Measure of Central Tendency – measures the
middle of a given set of data
Mean – average
Median – middle value
Mode – most frequent observation
Measures of Dispersion – degree of spread or
dispersion
Measures of variability
 Range
 Standard variance
 Variance
 Interquartile range
Inferential Statistics – conclusions and make
predictions ; making estimates about
populations, draw conclusions
Sampling error – difference between population
values (parameters) and measured sample
values (statistic) ; arises any time you use a
sample
Point estimate – single value estimate of a
parameter
Interval estimate – range of values
 Confidence interval – most common
type of interval estimate
o Confidence level tells the
probability of interval
Hypothesis testing – formal process of statistical
analysis ; to compare population or to assess
relationships between variables
Hypothesis – proposition about some
characteristics
Statistical hypothesis – inference concerning
one or more populations
Parametric tests – more likely to detect an
effect of one exists
Types of Hypothesis
1. Null hypothesis – initial supposition
about the parameter of a population ;
no difference
2. Alternative hypothesis – states specific
difference ; difference between two
parameters
P-value or probability value – tells how likely
your data could have occurred ; can only tell
whether or not the null hypothesis is supported
 If p-value is greater than alpha = fail to
reject the null hypothesis. If it is less
than alpha = reject the null
T-test – statistical test used to compare the
means of two groups
Anova or post-hoc test – comparing more than
two groups or multiple pairwise comparisons
Paired-samples t-test – difference between two
points in time
Independent-samples t-test – difference
between two groups
One-sample t-test – difference between a group
and a standard value
Paired t-test – single population
Two-sample t-test – two different populations
One-sample t-test – one group being compared
against a standard value
Two-tailed test – whether a difference exists
Left-tailed or right tailed one-tailed test – one
group’s mean is greater or less than the other
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – technique in
inferential statistics whether or not more than 2
sample
Correlation Analysis – measure the strength of
the linear relationship between two variables
Coefficient of Correlation – describes the
strength of the relationship between 2 sets of
variables
Simple Regression Analysis – technique used to
develop an equation between two variables