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Chapter 2
CHAPTER
2 SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following is true of sociology?

A. It is conducted primarily in a lab setting.
B. It represents a conversation between theory and research.
C. Its theories rely primarily on common sense assumptions.
D. It focuses on identifying biological differences that affect relationships.
Answer: B
Bloom’s Level: Comprehension
Topic: social science; sociological research; sociological theory
2. The scientific method

A. hinders the objectivity of scientists.
B. maximizes consistency in research.
C. enables researchers to prove their ideas are correct.
D. ensures value neutrality.
Answer: B
Topic: scientific method
3. If you were interested in studying the relationship between date and acquaintance rape victims
and the characteristics of the rapist, your first step would be to
A. conduct interviews.
B. define a problem to study.
C. create a hypothesis.
D. choose a research design.
Answer: B
Topic: sociological research; scientific method
4. Defining a sociological problem involves

A. explicitly identifying the concepts you want to learn more about.
B. the creation of new social theory.
C. extensive field study and use of the scientific process.
D. decades of experience in the field and research into other theories.
Answer: A
Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 1
Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill
Education.
Chapter 2

Topic: sociological research; scientific method
5. An operational definition is
A. a speculative statement about the relationship between two variables.
B. the extent to which a measure provides consistent results.
C. the transformation of an abstract concept into indicators that are observable and
measurable.
D. a relationship between two variables whereby a change in one coincides with a change in
the other.
Answer: C
Bloom’s Level: Knowledge
Topic: scientific method; operational definition
6. Which of the following best describes theories?

A. They are objective statements that are known for a fact to be true.
B. They are measurable traits that are subject to change under different conditions.
C. They are testable statements about the relationship between two or more variables.
D. They are our most informed explanations of what happens and why.
Answer: D
Topic: scientific method; sociological theory
7. Which of the following would be least likely to be used in formulating an operational definition
for a study on racial bias in the workplace?
A. racial discrimination complaints to the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission

B. racial discrimination lawsuits filed in court
C. the narrative of a single person describing an incident of employment discrimination
D. racial discrimination complaints to Human Resources directors at Fortune 500 companies
Answer: C
Topic: operational definition; scientific method
8. When researching a concept, why do sociologists conduct a review of the available literature?
A. to refine the problem under study
B. to clarify possible techniques to be used in collecting data
C. to eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes
D. All of the answers are correct.
Answer: D

Topic: sociological research
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9. A testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables is known as a
A. correlation.
B. hypothesis.
C. sample.
D. research design.
Answer: B

Topic: hypothesis
10. The statement “Women who receive welfare are less likely than other women to have babies” is
an example of
A. an operational definition.
B. a hypothesis.
C. a research design.
D. causal logic.
Answer: B
Topic: hypothesis
11. A variable is
A. a measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions.
B. the extent to which a measure provides consistent results.
C. the unintended influence that observers or experiments can have on their subjects.
D. a speculative statement about the relationship between two traits.
Answer: A
Topic: variables
12. Which of the following can serve as a variable in a study?

A. marital status
B. ethnic background
C. age
Answer: D
Topic: variables
13. The relationship between variables in which a change in one leads to a change in the other is
known as
A. observation.
B. causal logic.
C. a correlation.
D. an index.
Answer: B
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Topic: variables; causation
14. The statement “People who live in poverty have shorter life expectancies than wealthier citizens”
is an example of
A. a dependent variable.
B. a hypothesis.
C. an independent variable.
D. the Hawthorne effect.
Answer: B
Topic: hypothesis
15. The causal variable that brings about change is known as a(n)
A. independent variable.
B. dependent variable.
C. spurious variable.
D. operational variable.
Answer: A
Topic: variables; causation
16. Which of the following would be considered the independent variable in the statement “People
who live in poverty have shorter life expectancies than wealthier citizens”?
A. life expectancy
B. level of income
C. source of income
D. quality of life
Answer: B
Topic: variables
17. Sociological studies have indicated that people who are married are less likely to commit suicide
than people who are divorced. In this example, marital status is a(n)
A. hypothesis.
B. independent variable.
C. dependent variable.
D. index.
Answer: B
Topic: variables
18. The race of a criminal offender is associated with the frequency with which capital punishment is
administered. In this example, capital punishment would be considered the
A. hypothesis.
B. independent variable.
C. dependent variable.
D. index.
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Answer: C
Topic: variables
19. The relationship between two variables in which a change in one coincides with a change in the
other is known as a(n)
A. index.
B. correlation.
C. operational definition.
D. scale.
Answer: B
Topic: variables; correlation
20. Individuals who have divorced parents are more likely to experience long-term adverse effects
than individuals who have parents who did not divorce. This statement is an example of a(n)
A. theory.
B. correlation.
C. independent variable.
D. law.
Answer: B
Topic: correlation
21. In which type of sample does each member of the entire population have the same chance of
being selected?
A. a random sample
B. a quota sample
C. an index sample
D. a Roper sample
Answer: A
Topic: research methods
22. If researchers wanted to examine the opinions of people listed in a city directory, they might call
every tenth or fiftieth or hundredth name listed. This would constitute a
A. scale.
B. control variable.
C. quota sample.
D. random sample.
Answer: D
23 Valid research measures

A. always provide consistent results.
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B. are always independent, rather than dependent, variables.

C. accurately reflect the phenomenon under study.
D. are typically ambiguous when put into words.
Answer: C
Topic: variables; research methods
24. Which of the following would be considered a valid measure of an individual’s intelligence?
A. the individual’s employment
B. the researcher’s opinion
C. the number of years of school that the individual has completed
D. None of the answers are correct.
Answer: D
25. A research measure that provides consistent results is considered

A. valid.
B. reliable.
C. an index.
D. a scale.
Answer: B
26. A factor held constant to test the relative impact of the independent variable is known as a
A. control variable.
B. dependent variable.
C. correlation.
D. cross-tabulation.
Answer: A
Topic: variables; research methods
27. Which of the following is true about a research design?

A. It is a specific explanation of an abstract concept that allows researchers to measure the
concept.
B. It is a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
C. It is an indicator of attitudes, behavior, or characteristics of people or organizations.
D. It is a detailed plan or method for scientifically obtaining data.
Answer: D
28. Developing an effective research design is important because it directly influences both the
amount of time needed to collect the data and the
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A. ethics of the study.

B. cost of the project.
C. purpose of the project.
D. general interest in the study.
Answer: B
29. To conduct a cross-cultural study of job discrimination against women, a sociologist interviews
75 women between the ages of 20 and 40 in an American city, and 75 women in the same age
group in a Canadian city. This study would be classified as
A. a secondary analysis.
B. participant observation.
C. a survey.
D. a content analysis.
Answer: C
30. In order to provide information that is useful, open-ended survey questions

A. must require a yes or no answer.
B. should be varied for each respondent.
C. should contain the answer that will confirm the study.
D. must be worded accurately and without bias.
Answer: D
31. The results of an interview may be influenced by

A. the gender of the interviewer.
B. the race of the interviewer.
C. Neither answer is correct.
D. Both answers are correct.
Answer: D
32. Surveys most often represent research, which collects and reports data primarily in
numerical form.
A. qualitative
B. quantitative
C. descriptive
D. ethnographic
Answer: B
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33. The number calculated by adding a series of values and then dividing by the number of values is
referred to as the
A. mean.
B. mode.
C. median.
D. percentage.
Answer: A
34. The midpoint, or number that divides a series of values into two groups of equal numbers of
values, is referred to as the
A. mean.
B. mode.
C. median.
D. percentage.
Answer: C
35. Which number would be considered the mode of the following: 10-10-9-9-8-8-7-7-7-6-5?
A. 10
B. 8
C. 7
D. 5
Answer: C
36. Research that relies on what sociologists observe in the field and naturalistic settings, and that
often focuses on small groups and communities, is referred to as
A. qualitative research.
B. quantitative research.
C. ethnographic research.
D. experimental research.
Answer: A
Topic: sociological research; research methods
37. Researchers who use sociological observation to collect data do so by either watching a group or
by
A. directly participating in a group.
B. reading literature about a group.
C. interviewing members of a group.
D. giving questionnaires to a group.
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Answer: A
38. A sociologist attends meetings at all the schools and churches in his community over several
years, and meets as many residents as he can for the purpose of exploring all facets of the
community’s social life. He then compiles a detailed description of the community. He is
conducting a(n)
A. content analysis.
B. secondary analysis.
C. quantitative study.
D. ethnography.
Answer: D
39. The initial obstacle participant observers encounter is

A. maintaining their objectivity when studying people face-to-face.
B. formulating the sequence of questions in an interview.
C. determining which group will be the experimental group.
D. gaining acceptance into an unfamiliar group.
Answer: D
40. Once a researcher has been accepted into a group, a major challenge of participant observation is
A. maintaining a degree of detachment.
B. finding a group to study.
C. getting funding.
D. collecting enough useful information.
Answer: A
41. An artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables is known as a(n)
A. survey.
B. experiment.
C. replication.
D. research design.
Answer: B
42. In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the independent variable is called the
A. experimental group.
B. representative group.
C. study group.
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D. control group.
Answer: D
43. Sociologists performing research

A. tend to use laboratory experiments as their primary method of gathering data about a
study.
B. tend not to use laboratory experiments because the information fails to capture the
subtleties of field work.
C. tend to combine laboratory experiments and field work.
D. tend to use both laboratory experiments and field work, but not in conjunction with each
other.
Answer: D
44. A sociologist decides to study the interaction among students in the college’s computer center.
When the students realize they are under observation, they become shy and reserved in their
interactions. This is an example of
A. replication.
B. secondary analysis.
C. the Hawthorne effect.
D. value neutrality.
Answer: C
45. Which of the following is true about Devah Pager’s research?

A. It found that white ex-convicts have a harder time becoming employed than blacks with
no criminal records.
B. It attempted to approximate experimental conditions in the field.
C. It was hampered by the Hawthorne effect.
D. It found that most convicts released from prison each year are white.
Answer: B
46. Secondary analysis includes a variety of research techniques that

A. conduct surveys in order to obtain information for a study.
B. utilize participant observation to collect information and data.
C. use previously collected and publicly accessible information and data.
D. use control groups to assess the effects of variables in an experiment.
Answer: C
Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 10
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Chapter 2
47. If a sociologist uses information gathered by the United States Census Bureau in a study, that
sociologist is performing
A. an experiment.
B. a questionnaire.
C. a secondary analysis.
D. participant observation.
Answer: C
48. Sociologists consider secondary analysis to be

A. more valid than other forms of research.
B. more reliable than other forms of research.
C. a nonreactive form of research.
D. an outdated mode of research.
Answer: C
49. An inherent problem in using secondary sources of data is that

A. researchers may not find the exact data needed for their research.
B. the data are plagued with statistical errors.
C. researchers may be more careless when using someone else’s data.
D. all of the analysis has been completed by an initial research team.
Answer: A
50. A researcher studies adolescent attitudes about senior citizens by analyzing depictions of the
elderly in the lyrics of popular music and the content of teen magazines. This is an example of
A. content analysis.
B. replication.
C. survey research.
D. an experiment.
Answer: A
51. Erving Goffman’s pioneering exploration of how advertisements portray women as dependent
upon men is an example of
A. survey research.
B. content analysis.
C. census analysis.
D. participation observation.
Answer: B
Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 11
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Chapter 2

52. Which of the following is included in the code of ethics for sociology?
A. using appropriate research techniques
B. maintaining integrity in research
C. remaining unbiased and non-discriminatory
Answer: D
Topic: ethics; sociological research
53. Which of the following is not incorporated into the basic principles of the code of ethics for
sociology?
A. a required number of data sources
B. respect for subjects’ privacy
C. acknowledgment of research collaboration
D. disclosure of sources of financial support
Answer: A
54. Rik Scarce’s jail experience in 1993 revealed the potential consequences of
A. forging transcripts.
B. raiding a university laboratory.
C. maintaining the confidentiality of sources.
D. “snitching” on university administrators.
Answer: C
Topic: ethics
55. After the 1989 Valdez disaster, the Exxon Corporation sought out many experts, including
sociologists, to study jury deliberations. Which of the following was a major ethical concern for
these sociologists?
A. Jury members might have their privacy violated.
B. Results of the studies might not be kept confidential.
C. Funding from Exxon might influence the results of the studies.
D. Researchers might not be able to secure the required number of research sources.
Answer: C
Topic: ethics
56. According to value neutrality, investigators have an ethical obligation to accept research findings
even when the data run counter to which of the following?
A. their own personal views
B. theoretically based explanations
Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 12
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C. widely accepted beliefs

Answer: D
57. Joyce Ladner’s The Death of White Sociology called attention to

A. the rising number of African American sociologists.
B. the tendency of White sociologists to view African Americans as inferior.
C. the tendency of mainstream sociology to investigate the lives of African Americans only
in the context of social problems.
D. the tendency of mainstream sociologists to avoid investigating the lives of White
Americans in reference to social problems.
Answer: C
58. Which of the following is true about Shulamit Reinharz?

A. She argued that sociological research should be open to drawing on relevant research by
nonsociologists.
B. She argued that sociologists cannot hope to achieve value neutrality as long as racism
exists.
C. She described the American Sociological Association’s code of ethics as sexist.
D. She refused to classify herself as a feminist scholar.
Answer: A
59. Feminist sociologists

A. have had little impact outside of feminist academic circles.
B. view work and family as interrelated topics.
C. view work and family as distinct topics.
D. are generally considered to be biased.
Answer: B
Topic: feminist theory; sociological research
60. Which of the following statements is true about the contributions of feminist sociologists?
A. They have contributed to a greater global awareness within sociology.
B. They tend to involve and consult their subjects less often than other researchers.
C. They have difficulty maintaining value neutrality due to the subject of their research.
D. They are typically more reluctant to seek change than other researchers.
Answer: C
Topic: feminist theory
Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 13
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True/False
61. One important goal of applying the scientific method to the study of society is to ensure that the
researchers’ own values and opinions are allowed to influence the results.
Answer: F
Topic: scientific method; sociological research
62. The purpose of transforming a concept into its operational definition is to make the concept easier
to observe and measure.
Answer: T
Topic: operational definition
63. In the hypothesis “the more socially integrated a person, the less likely that person is to commit
suicide,” level of social integration is the independent variable.
Answer: T
Bloom’s Level: Application
Topic: variables; hypothesis
64. If x is correlated with y, then by definition, x must be the cause of y.
Answer: F
Topic: variables; correlation; causation
65. If x causes y, then by definition, x must be correlated with y.
Answer: T
Topic: variables; correlation; causation
66. For the purposes of data analysis, the most important quality of a sample is that it is
representative of the population from which it is drawn.
Answer: T
67. One way to ensure that a sample is representative of the broader population from which it is taken
is to ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected in the
sample.
Answer: T
Bloom’s Level: Application
Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 14
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lesion is in the cerebellum, so that, if continuous, it is not likely to
mean that anything worse is coming. It has been said to be strongly
significant if occurring without the digestive derangements or
circulatory disturbances likely to cause it, and be unconnected with
disease of the ear. Unfortunately for diagnosis, but fortunately for the
patients, the so-called vertigo a stomacho læso, may arise in cases
where the stomach trouble is very difficult or impossible to detect,
and it often continues for weeks or months after the most careful
regulation of the diet, and yet is followed by no cerebral lesion.
Although a vertigo for which every other cause can be excluded
certainly justifies a suspicion of cerebral trouble, the tendency to
exaggerate its prognostic importance should not be encouraged by
the physician, as it may exist a long time, and disappear without
another sign of the catastrophe which has been keeping the patient
in dread.
Among the more significant and immediate symptoms are to be

reckoned paræsthesiæ of the side about to be paralyzed, such as
numbness or tickling. Headache of great severity is often, but not
invariably, present. It has nothing characteristic about it, except that
it may be different from those the patient has been in the habit of
having, or may be of unusual severity, so that the patient says it is
going to kill him. Such a headache in a person in whom there is good
reason, from age, interstitial nephritis, or other symptoms, to suspect
the existence of vascular lesions is likely to be an immediate
precursor of a hemorrhage. Persistent early waking with a slight
headache, which passes off soon after rising, is said by Thompson29
to be a somewhat frequent premonition. Vomiting is hardly a
premonitory, but may be an initial, symptom, especially in
hemorrhage of the cerebellum.
29 N. Y. Med. Record, 1878, ii. p. 381.
Reference is had in these statements chiefly to the ordinary form of

cerebral hemorrhage. Of course if, during a leucocythæmia or
purpura, large hemorrhages occur elsewhere, it may be taken as a
hint that possibly the same thing may take place in the brain.
These signs of arterial disease must be considered as of the highest
importance among the (possibly remoter) premonitory signs, not only
of cerebral hemorrhage, but of the other lesions treated in this
article. Atheroma and calcification of the tangible arteries place the
existence of peri-endarteritis among the not remote possibilities.
High arterial tension has already been spoken of in connection with
etiology, and its presence should be sought for. An irregular and
enfeebled cutaneous circulation has been spoken of as an indication
of value.
OCCLUSION OF THE CEREBRAL ARTERIES may take place from several

causes other than those which concern us here, as from the
pressure of tumors or endarteritis, usually syphilitic. Thrombosis and
embolism are grouped together from their great anatomical
resemblance and their frequent coexistence, but the symptoms
produced, although ultimately the same, are often different enough
to make it necessary to bear in mind the fact that there is a
distinction—that is, that embolism is rapid and thrombosis is slow.
A cerebral artery may be occluded from the presence of a plug of

fibrin more or less intermixed with the other elements of the blood.
This plug may have been formed in situ, and is then somewhat firmly
attached to the walls of the vessel, and partly decolorized at its
oldest portion, while on each side of it, but especially on the side
away from the heart, it is prolonged by a looser and darker clot of
more recent origin. This is a thrombus.
When the plug has been transported from elsewhere it is embolus.30

It may consist of various substances, as described in the article on
General Pathology, but is usually of fibrin which has formed a
thrombus or vegetation elsewhere, and, having been broken off, is
carried by the blood until it comes to a place too narrow for it to pass,
or where it lodges at the bifurcation of a vessel. The piece of fibrin
thus lodged has a strong tendency to cause a still further deposition
—that is, a secondary thrombus—which may progress until it comes
to a place where the blood-current is too strong for the process to go
on any farther. It may in such cases not be obvious at the first glance
whether the whole process is thrombosis or whether it started from
an embolus.
30 The Greek word εμβολος (εν, in, and βαλλω, to throw) signifies the beak or rostrum
of a ship of war. Εμβολον signifies wedge or stopper, and would certainly seem the
appropriate form to be adopted for anatomical purposes. As uniformity of
nomenclature, however, seems more to be desired than etymological accuracy, the
writer has conformed in this article to the general usage.
It is probable that a thrombus forming at one point in a cerebral

vessel may break to pieces and its fragments be carried farther
along, forming a number of small emboli. (See Capillary Embolism.)
Embolism or thrombosis may take place anywhere in the brain or
body generally, but has certain points of preference. Of these, the
most usual in the brain is in the neighborhood where the internal
carotid divides into the anterior and middle cerebral, or in either of
these arteries, especially the middle, beyond this point. The plug
may be situated in the carotid just before this point, or even as low
down as its origin from the common trunk. Emboli lodge in this
region, somewhat more often upon the left side. The brain is said to
be third in the order of frequency with which the different organs are
affected by embolism, the kidneys and spleen preceding it. It has
been found that small emboli experimentally introduced into the
carotids are found in much larger numbers in the middle cerebral
than elsewhere. It is the largest branch, and most nearly in the direct
line of the carotid. Position undoubtedly influences the point at which
an embolus lodges, as it probably moves slowly along the vessels
and along their lower side. It has been remarked that, on account of
this course of the embolus, it is doubtful whether it can get into the
carotid when the patient is standing, but it certainly can do so when
he is sitting up; which, so far as the direction of the carotids is
concerned, is the same thing. The frequency with which a
hemiplegia is observed when a patient awakes in the morning may
perhaps be accounted for by the position favoring the passage of an
embolus into the carotid, which otherwise would reach organs more
remote.
The vertebrals and basilar are not infrequently affected.
The sources whence cerebral emboli may spring are various, but
cannot be found outside a certain range. They may, in the first place,
be torn off from vegetations upon either the mitral or aortic valves;
and this source is probably the most common. The appendix of the
left auricle may furnish a plug from the thrombi formed among its
trabeculæ, or the aorta from an aneurism or from parietal thrombi
formed, upon spots roughened by atheroma. The pulmonary veins
are occasionally the source of the embolus, though this is not very
common.
It is rather doubtful whether an embolus can find its way from the
systemic veins through the lungs to the brain, but it is possible that
small emboli may do so, and increase in size from the addition of
fresh fibrin when floating in the blood-current. The occurrence of
pyæmic abscesses in the brain would suggest the possibility of this,
though it is, on the other hand, possible that the brain abscesses are
secondary to older ones in the lungs. In some cases, however, a
careful examination does not disclose the source of the embolus.
In the blood-current the embolus may give rise to no symptoms

whatever, and even after its arrival in the cerebral circulation it may
lodge in such a way as not entirely to obstruct the current. In most
instances, however, it does not stop until it plugs the vessel
completely and arrests the current of blood beyond it for a moment.
Whether it shall completely deprive the portion of brain to which it is
distributed depends upon its situation as regards anastomoses and
upon the formation of secondary thrombus. Hence the knowledge of
the distribution of the arteries supplying the brain—that is, the two
carotids and two vertebrals—is of more importance in reference to
embolism and thrombosis than to cerebral hemorrhage, where the
effusion takes place from quite small branches.
The anterior portion of the brain, including the anterior and posterior
central convolutions and the first temporal, are supplied with blood
by the two terminal branches of the internal carotid, the anterior and
middle cerebral, the ganglia underlying these portions of the cortex
being supplied, as already stated, by small branches arising near the
origin of these two trunks, and principally the second. The anterior
cerebrals of the two sides are connected by the anterior
communicating, which is a short and usually wide vessel. Sometimes
one anterior cerebral branches in the longitudinal fissure, and
supplies a part of both sides. Hence in plugging of one internal
carotid which does not reach its bifurcation a collateral supply may
be received from the other side. If, however, an embolus or thrombus
has penetrated beyond the origin of the middle cerebral, this vessel
can no longer receive a supply from the anterior.
The posterior communicating arteries are two small vessels which

connect on each side the posterior cerebrals and either the carotid,
just as it gives off its two chief cerebral branches, or else the middle
cerebral close to its origin. These arteries may be of quite unequal
size, that upon the right usually being the larger, and sometimes so
large as to give the appearance of being the principal origin of the
posterior cerebral. When this happens the part of the posterior
cerebral which arises from the basilar may be reduced to a minute
arteriole, and the basilar, almost entire, goes to supply the left side of
the brain. This condition of the posterior communicating may exist to
some extent on both sides in the same brain. It is probable that in
many cases these arteries are too small to be of great value in re-
establishing the circulation in the anterior portion of the brain when it
is suddenly interrupted by an embolus.
When the large trunks leave the circle of Willis to be distributed upon
the surface of the brain, after giving off from the first centimeter or
two of their course the nutrient arteries for the deep-seated ganglia,
they break up into several branches which ramify upon the surface,
but, as Duret has shown, undergo very few anastomoses. Instead of
forming, as was once supposed, a richly inosculating network, small
branches penetrate into the brain-substance perpendicularly from
the superficial vessels, but these do not communicate freely with
each other by vessels larger than capillaries.
From these anatomical conditions it happens that when a vascular
territory is deprived of its normal supply by an embolus, it cannot be
supplied with blood from surrounding districts. A certain limited
amount of collateral supply is possible through the capillaries and the
rare anastomoses, but it is only around the edges, and the centre of
the territory becomes destitute of circulating blood. Thus an embolus
does not in the brain produce, as it does in other organs with more
abundant collateral supply, a large hemorrhagic infarction.
Small hemorrhages may, however, take place around the edges of

the softening, and when a number of small emboli are present, so as
to afford a number of overlapping areas with their borders of
congestion, a red softening may be the result. When the emboli are
very small, and at the same time not numerous enough to occlude all
the ultimate ramifications of a trunk, the vascular compensation may
be rapidly completed.
The change produced in the cerebral substance from cutting off its
supply of blood is known as anæmic necrosis, and includes what has
been known as white softening, with probably some yellow, and
possibly a little red softening, the latter in case where simple
softening has been complicated by hemorrhage.
When the circulation ceases the substance that should have been
nourished loses its firmness and acquires a custard-like consistency.
The gray and white substances are no longer so distinct in
appearance, the latter losing its milky-white color, the whole surface
of a section becoming of a dirty yellowish-white, somewhat shining,
and looking as if it contained more moisture than normal. When a
considerable portion of the interior of the hemisphere is thus
affected, the brain outside, with its membranes, bags down, looks
swollen, and feels to the fingers as if there were present a sacful of
fluid. The boundaries of such an area of softening are marked off
from the healthy substance with some distinctness, though less than
that of a hemorrhage. There may be some hemorrhage around the
edges or into the cavity, so that the presence of a little blood-pigment
is no proof that the original lesion was not softening from occlusion.
In the further progress the contents of the cavity become more fluid,
and finally a somewhat distinct cyst is formed, not unlike that from a
hemorrhage, with an internal areolar structure from the remains of
connective tissue, and contents of a slightly yellowish or brownish
color, or often of a chalky white. These cysts have little to distinguish
them, when old, from similar ones left by hemorrhage, except the
much greater amount of pigment in the latter. The smaller spots of
softening may after a time lose their fluidity, and remain as yellowish
patches as firm as, or firmer than, the surrounding brain. The region
of the brain involved becomes atrophied, the convolutions shrink,
and the membranes become filled with serous fluid, to compensate
for the sinking of the surface.
The microscope shows gradually increasing fatty degeneration,

disorganization of the nervous tissue, and degeneration of its
elements. The pyramidal cells are sometimes distinctly recognizable
by their form, and show gradual transition into the indeterminate
round granulation-corpuscles. The vessels exhibit fatty degeneration
of their coats, as well as accumulation of fatty granules between the
vessel and the lymphatic sheath. The clot which blocks the artery
becomes adherent to its walls, and the vessel with its contents forms
a round solid cord.
In a few instances the thrombi have become perforated through the

centre, so that a channel is formed for a renewal of the circulation.
There is no reason to suppose that this takes place soon enough to
be of any advantage in restoring the nutrition of the necrosed
portions of brain.
The region involved in softening depends upon the artery which is

plugged and the location of the obstructing body. The place of
election seems to be the carotid near its separation into its large
branches, or these branches after the separation, especially the
middle cerebral, this being peculiarly liable because it is the largest
branch and is the continuation in a direct line of the carotid. It is more
frequent upon the left side. Cases have been observed where the
whole of one hemisphere was softened from obstruction of the
carotid at its bifurcation; which may be accounted for, as Charcot
suggests, by an unusual distribution of the arteries, as described
above, the posterior cerebral as well as the other two being derived
almost entirely from the carotid. In a case recently observed by the
writer the whole right cerebral hemisphere, with the exception of the
tip of the frontal and tip of the occipital lobes, was softened to the
consistency of custard, a thrombus extending from the bifurcation of
the common carotid into all the ramifications of the middle cerebral.
The most common form, however, is where more or less of the brain
around the fissure of Rolando and fissure of Sylvius, with or without
the underlying ganglia, is softened. This happens from a lodgment of
the embolus in the middle cerebral. If the obstruction be close to the
origin of the artery, the corpus striatum suffers, from the mouths of its
small nutrient arteries arising in this part of its course being stopped,
while if it have passed along a little farther, these remain open, and
the cortex, to which the larger branches are distributed, alone is
softened.
The anterior cerebral is not infrequently affected, either alone or with

the middle, and in these arteries as well as the posterior the
embolus, if of small size originally, may penetrate so far as to give
rise only to quite a limited anæmia. The basilar is an artery not very
rarely occluded, though more commonly by thrombus than embolus.
This occlusion may be so limited as to affect only the nutrient
arteries of the pons and cause a very limited softening, the parts
before and behind it being supplied by the unobstructed portion or by
collateral circulation from the carotids. Occlusion of the cerebellar
arteries and softening of the cerebellum are among the rarer forms.
The vertebrals themselves are sometimes plugged. A thrombosis
has been observed in the only inferior cerebellar artery which
existed, causing softening in both lobes. There was atheroma of the
heart and arteries, and a thick calcareous plate in that which was
occluded.31
31 Progrès méd., 1876, 373.
In a general way, it may be said, with many exceptions on both
sides, that thrombosis and embolism tend to affect the cortex, and
hemorrhage the central ganglia.
What has just been written applies to the simple mechanical action
of emboli. If, however, they have a septic origin, as notably in cases
of ulcerative endocarditis, the region in which they lodge becomes,
instead of a simple spot of necrosis, a septic focus or abscess, with
its results of compression or irritation. In such a case there are likely
to be abscesses of similar origin in other organs, and the cerebral
lesion is only a part of the general pyæmic condition.
ETIOLOGY.—So far as the lodgment of an embolus in an artery is

concerned, it can hardly be said that there is any etiology, for the
detachment of the plug from its place of origin is purely a matter of
accident, and may take place at any time. As to its origin in the form
of fibrinous deposit on the valves of the heart or a roughened spot on
the aorta, we must refer to the article on General Pathology. The
most important condition for embolism is disease of the valves of the
heart, rheumatic or otherwise. Next comes arterial disease,
producing roughening of the inner coat and subsequent deposition of
fibrin. So far as we can tell, the causes leading to endarteritis or
atheroma are essentially the same as those which produce the
periarteritis described in connection with cerebral hemorrhage, and
we may therefore put down old age, alcohol, and strain as among
the causes of cerebral embolism. Injuries of the lungs leading to
thrombosis of the veins may be considered as possible sources for
the formation of an embolus, and we might suppose that phthisis and
pneumonia would furnish plugs which would lodge in the brain,
though as a matter of fact they seldom do so.
Experience shows that embolism, unlike hemorrhage, is not specially

a disease of advanced life, but is distributed over different periods,
with preference for old age less marked than with hemorrhage.
Andral gives the ages of patients with softening—which, however,
includes thrombosis as well as embolism—as follows: the average
would undoubtedly be displaced in the direction of youth if
thrombosis could be taken out of the list:
Andral: Andral: Cases (with autopsies) of

Beginning of softening Death with softening embolism, thrombosis, and
in 27 cases. in 153 cases. softening—25 cases.
17–20 4 15–20 10 20–30 4
27 2 20–30 18 30–40 3
30–37 2 30–40 11 40–50 3
43–45 2 40–50 19 50–60 1
53–59 4 50–60 27 60–70 5
63–69 7 60–70 34 70–80 2
76–78 6 70–80 30 Young 1
80–89 4 Middle-aged 1
Old 5
In the etiology of cerebral arterial thrombus there seem to be two

factors of prime importance, although there are cases which seem to
demand a third, and Charcot32 suggests the possibility of some
hæmic dyscrasia favoring the formation of a thrombus, and relates a
case of thrombosis of the middle cerebral, with three others of the
same process in other arteries, occurring in patients with uterine
cancer, where all the usual sources of emboli were explored with
negative results. The first of the two is disease of the cerebral
arteries, not necessarily extensive, but sufficient to form a starting-
point on the inner wall for the deposit of fibrin. In this respect the
etiology of thrombosis may be various. Syphilitic endarteritis, for
instance, may very easily give rise to this lesion, but it is likely to be
accompanied by others, and has a symptomatology more or less
peculiar to itself. It is not, of course, to be included with the form we
are considering.
32 Comptes Rendus Soc. de Biol., 1865, p. 24.
The second factor—one which is perhaps capable of giving rise to

coagulation of the blood or deposit of fibrin without any arterial
disease—is weakness of the heart, connected or not with anæmia.
The causes of this condition may be manifold, and are likely to lead
to many other consequences than cerebral thrombosis. A thrombus
may form upon a very small basis of atheroma. Several of these
points are illustrated in the following case: A lady, aged about sixty-
five, had had for many months vague symptoms of want of strength,
fatigue, want of appetite, and so on, with complaints of distress and
fulness in the abdomen, for which no special cause could be found.
On one occasion she was unusually long in dressing, and her
expression was noticed to be changed and her voice altered for a
few moments. The pulse was habitually 60 or less, and at times
irregular, but nothing abnormal could be detected in the sounds or
position of the heart. Fatty degeneration was suspected. One
morning, after going to bed in her usual health, she was found on the
floor of her room unconscious and with left hemiplegia. She lived
about thirty-six hours. The autopsy showed nothing abnormal in the
abdomen except a considerable accumulation of fat; and in the
thorax the heart appeared normal, and was not fatty. There was very
little atheroma. In the end of the internal carotid artery was a
thrombus, of which the lower and firmest part was connected with a
very small spot of roughening just at the point where the artery
comes through the base of the skull. It extended just beyond the
origin of the middle cerebral artery, which was of course occluded.
The corresponding region of the brain was converted into a vast
mass of softened tissue.
The SYMPTOMS of the lodgment of an embolus in the brain may

closely resemble, or even be precisely the same as, those of
hemorrhage. Unless, however, an embolus makes a pause on its
journey, giving rise to a partial obstruction before there is a complete
one, or unless the obstruction is not absolute until after the formation
of a secondary thrombus, the attack may be absolutely sudden.
A thrombus, however, is slower in its formation, and may produce

gradually increasing anæmia of the region of brain supplied before it
is absolutely complete, with a gradually increasing paralysis and loss
of consciousness slowly approaching. Thus we may have the early
symptoms in the form of headache, vertigo, heaviness, and
drowsiness, peculiar sensations in the limbs about to be paralyzed or
in the head, delirium of various kinds, or hysterical manifestations.
Prévost and Cotard33 lay special stress upon the importance of
severe vertigo (étourdissement) as a prodrome or warning of
softening, especially in the aged. It is dependent upon anæmia of the
brain, and this, in its turn, upon atheroma of the arteries, and
sometimes at least upon feebleness of the circulation, both of these
being conditions likely to cause the deposit of a thrombus. As,
however, the thrombus does not necessarily result from these
conditions, and as the vertigo may arise from other sources, as
stated under the head of Cerebral Hemorrhage, it is to be looked
upon with special suspicion chiefly in those cases where other
symptoms might lead in the same direction, and when other causes
can be excluded.
33 Mémoires de la Soc. de Biol., 1865, p. 171.
The same authors also speak of less defined symptoms, like delirium
and stupor, occurring among the inhabitants of the Salpêtrière (old
women), with intervals of comparative health, as being premonitory.
It is possible, however, for the symptoms of thrombus to be

developed rapidly when, as in the case last described, the thrombus
begins to form in a place which does not entirely interrupt the
current, but afterward reached the mouth of a large vessel, which it
closes.
The loss of consciousness, coma, and all the phenomena of the

apoplectic attack, with the possible exception of early rigidity, may be
as fully developed from occlusion of the cerebral vessels as from
their rupture; but it must be said that it is more common to meet with
them in cases of large hemorrhage than with either embolism or
thrombosis.
The general functions are even less disturbed than with a

hemorrhage producing an equal extent of paralysis. The temperature
follows nearly the same course as in hemorrhage, except that the
initial fall, if present—which is not always the case—is said to be less
than with cerebral hemorrhage. To this succeeds a rapid rise, which,
even in cases which are to terminate fatally, gives place to a fall to
the neighborhood of normal, and another rise before death. These
are the statements of Bourneville. The rise is said not to be so high
as with hemorrhage.
The annexed chart is from a man (W. I. W.) who was in the hospital
with ill-defined nervous symptoms, and was suddenly attacked with
convulsions, vomiting, and unconsciousness. He had a small tumor
at the point of the right temporal lobe, and softening of the left corpus
striatum. The apoplectic symptoms occurred on the 15th—that is, as
will be seen by the chart, one day after the temperature began to
rise. The pulse and respiration show no characteristic changes.
FIG. 40.
It is much more common for the embolus or thrombus to give rise to
a set of symptoms less severe than a fully-developed apoplectic fit.
During such a fit—or, more clearly, as it is passing off—we find more
or less marked paralytic symptoms, but these are quite as frequently
present without the loss of consciousness. The patient states that he
waked up and found one side of his body helpless, or that he was
reading the paper when it fell from his hand, and upon trying to walk
found that he could not do so. Loss of speech may be an initial
symptom. It has been spoken of as premonitory, but it is probable
that it is in reality only the beginning, which, in some cases may go
no farther, but is usually succeeded by more extensive paralysis,
which makes its meaning unmistakable. These symptoms may be
hours or even days in developing, with occlusion as well as with
hemorrhage. Very slight attacks may occur which hardly excite
attention, and lesions are found after death in many cases to which
there is nothing in the history to correspond.
Improvement may begin very rapidly in some cases where the lesion
is small, a sufficient amount of collateral circulation being developed
to prevent the structure from being disorganized. In others a
specially favorable anastomosis may preserve even a larger area,
but in others still it is not easy to account on entirely anatomical
grounds for the amount of improvement which takes place.
From this point onward the history of hemorrhagic and of embolic

and thrombotic paralysis is essentially the same, and the description
of the principal phenomena and progress of hemiplegia will apply to
all.
SYMPTOMS AND PROGRESS OF HEMIPLEGIA DEPENDING ON CEREBRAL

HEMORRHAGE OR OCCLUSION OF THE CEREBRAL VESSELS.—The cerebral
cortex represents the centres for many of the higher nervous
functions, spread out in such a way that they may be more or less
separately affected, while the corpora striata and internal capsules
are the regions where the various conductors are crowded together,
so that embolism, when affecting small vessels and limited areas of
the cortex, more frequently gives rise to narrowly-defined groups of
symptoms than hemorrhage, which, taking place oftener in the
central ganglia, is able to cut off the communication from large
masses of cerebral tissue at once. This is a general remark, tending
to explain why aphasia, for instance, is often spoken of as especially
a symptom of embolism, while it is in reality common to all the
lesions that affect the proper locality.
The motor paralysis, more or less complete, which has been

described under the head of Hemorrhage continues indefinitely. It
may disappear rapidly, so that motion begins to return in a day or
two, and goes on to complete recovery in a short time. On the other
hand, it may be months before the flexion of a finger or a toe gives
the slightest token of the will resuming its control. The face often
recovers its symmetry before the limbs are fully restored, but the leg
may be used in locomotion before the complete recovery from
paralysis, since the tone of the muscles is sufficient to keep the knee
straight enough for support, as if the leg were all in one piece, while
it is swung around at each step by the pelvic muscles. We may meet
with all degrees of recovery—from that which is absolutely complete
and comparatively rare, through the case where a little want of play
upon one side of the face, a little thickness of speech, a feeble or
awkward grasp of the hand, betrays what has happened, or that of
the man so often seen in the streets with a mournful or stolid face,
the arm in a sling or dangling straight down by the side, and
swinging one leg awkwardly around, to the helpless paralytic lifted in
and out of his chair or lying almost motionless in bed, and living only
to be fed and be kept clean.
Involuntary movements may take place in limbs entirely incapable of

voluntary ones, and may occur under conditions of excitement or
with other involuntary movements, such as gaping. On the other
hand, the patient often moves the well hand while making utterly
ineffectual attempts on the paralyzed side. Involuntary twitching of
the feet may be annoying. Reflex movements, especially of the feet,
are often exaggerated, and in fact the twitching just spoken of is
often excited by some trifling, perhaps unperceived, irritation. A
touch with the point of a penknife upon the sole of the foot may call
out a movement which the patient is utterly incapable of executing by
the force of the will, and the appearance of volition is often increased
by the grimace or exclamation of pain or annoyance.
Epileptiform attacks may be a sequence of hemiplegia, occurring at

irregular intervals, and not of great severity. Sometimes the patient
seems depressed or less talkative for a day or two previously, and
relieved after the fit has occurred, as in true epilepsy.
Comparatively little attention has been given to the condition of

sensation in hemiplegia. In the more complete apoplectic stupor it is
apparently abolished, like nearly all the functions above those of
respiration and circulation, but it often happens when the patient is
unable or unwilling to make any voluntary response to the voice, and
lies apparently perfectly indifferent, that any moderate irritation like a
pinch will bring out evidence of sensation. It is often stated that in
hemiplegia the sensation is not at all affected; and this is probably
true of many cases, but a more attentive examination will often
disclose a decided diminution on the affected side. Broadbent, who
has tested with pricking, touch, the compasses, and hot substances,
says that it is frequently diminished, and often greatly so, and not
only in the limbs, but in the face, chest, and abdomen. Tripier34 says
that a lesion of the larger part of the fronto-parietal region determines
at the same time a paralysis of motion and a diminution of sensibility;
and one may conclude that this region holds under its dependence
sensitive as well as motor phenomena intimately connected with
each other. The zone called motor, of which the limits are difficult to
fix, may with more reason be called sensori-motor.
34 Revue mensuelle de Méd. et Chir., 1880, p. 18.
Anæsthesia probably in most instances disappears more rapidly

than motor paralysis, which accounts for its being frequently
overlooked. The more common location of lesions causing motor
paralysis—i.e. the corpus striatum and the motor portion of the
cortex—is one not likely, unless extensive, to concern sensation; but
there are cases where a very complete hemianæsthesia, including
the special senses, may be found; and when, in such cases, the
motor paralysis is slight, a picture is presented almost identical with
that of hysterical hemianæsthesia with great diminution or abolition
of the special senses, hearing, taste, smell, with concentric
diminution of the field of vision and of the color-field, or complete
color-blindness on the affected side.
A man aged thirty-five while at work suddenly felt a prickling

sensation upon his left side, and became unconscious. The
bystanders say he was convulsed. On returning to consciousness
after three hours he had lost his speech, which, however, was rapidly
recovered, and his left side was not so strong as his right, though
there was no distinct history of paralysis. Two or three days
afterward it was noticed that sensation was much diminished upon
the left side, two sharp points of the æsthesiometer being felt as one
at two inches on the forearm and three-quarters of an inch on the
tongue. He could feel the touch of a spoon, but could not tell whether
it was cold or hot. Odors were not recognized upon the left side of
the nose, except faintly ammonia and chloroform, and a watch was
heard on that side only when in contact with the ear. The field of
vision was much diminished and color-blindness was almost
complete. A few days later the field of vision had increased, and
there was color-sense, the field of perception for the different colors
being arranged almost exactly as laid down by Charcot, vision for
red being largest, but not so large as for simple perception of
objects; those for blue, green, and yellow nearly the same and
smaller; and that for violet limited to a small space in the centre of
the field.
Less regular forms of anæsthesia may be met with, as well as

hyperæsthesia. These are said to be especially connected with
various lesions of the pons.35 A case is recorded36 of complete
hemianæsthesia in a man, coming on like a blow. There was no loss
of motor power; the face was symmetrical, sight and hearing
unimpaired. Taste was lost and smell doubtful. There was aortic and
mitral disease. Hughlings-Jackson speaks of a man who
experienced a severe apoplectiform attack which it was thought
would be fatal in a few hours. He recovered, however, with almost
complete loss of hearing.
35 Conty, Centralblatt f. d. Med. Wiss., 1878, 571.
36 Med. Times and Gaz., 1871, i. 246.
Neuralgic pains of long continuance are not infrequent

accompaniments of hemiplegia, and may be lasting even after nearly
complete recovery from the paralysis. A peculiar restlessness, a
constant desire for change of position, has been referred to
derangement of the muscle-sense. It is sometimes very distressing,
and causes much annoyance to attendants as well as to the sufferer,
as the patient is no sooner placed in one position, no matter how
comfortable, than he desires to change it.
The mental condition seldom fails to suffer more or less in cases of

hemiplegia, but the limits are very wide between a slight emotional
excitability on the one hand and almost dementia on the other. This
is, of course, applicable to cases where the lesion is a single or
limited one, and not where a hemorrhage or thrombus is merely a
part of a general vascular degenerative change with chronic
meningitis or atrophy of the brain, where the mental decay can
hardly be called the result of any single lesion. In cases of aphasia
the mental condition is harder to make out, from the peculiar inability
to communicate ideas if present. It is very safe to say, however, that
many such patients possess much greater intelligence than would
appear to a casual observer, and yet the apathy with which they
often bear the deprivation of speech and consequent isolation
speaks more strongly in favor of some blunting of the perceptions
than of Christian resignation. A patient whose general appearance is
that of tolerable comfort is likely to cry when attention is called to the
helpless condition of the hand. It is probable that memory suffers in
such cases, if not the reasoning faculties.
Trousseau cites the case of Lordat, who became aphasic, and after
recovery described his own case. The learned professor claims to
have been in full possession of his faculties, and to have arranged a
lecture with the divisions and subdivisions of the subject, and all this
without the thought of a single word passing through his mind.
Trousseau ventures to doubt the possibility of carrying on
complicated mental processes without words, and thinks Lordat may
have overestimated the precision of his mental processes. It appears
in confirmation of this view that after his attack he always read his
lectures, whereas before he had been distinguished as an
extempore speaker.
McCready, in an excellent article in the New York Journal of

Medicine (September, 1857), discusses this subject at length, and
details a number of cases where it was evident that paralytics and
aphasics (who, however, he did not know by that name, nor the
special lesion connected with their condition) possessed not only
ordinary intelligence, but excellent business judgment and ability. He
says that the confusion of mind and difficulty in pursuing a train of
thought of which apoplectics are apt to complain is, to a great extent,
the mere result of diminished nervous energy—that they
comprehend well and judge correctly. It is fair to say that while the
mind is almost certainly impaired, it is not necessarily in exact
proportion to the severity of other symptoms, aphasia included. The
memory, either special or general, is most apt to be impaired.
The testamentary capacity of a person who has had an apoplectic fit

or who is paralyzed at the time of making a will may be called in
question. The only general remark to be made is that these facts
alone are not sufficient to prove incapacity; neither should the
presence of aphasia or agraphia do so without further evidence of
want of comprehension of the meaning of language used by others;
so that if, for instance, a person were seized with hemiplegia and
aphasia between the drawing up of a will and its signature, it should
not be invalidated unless there be further evidence to show that the
testator was incapable of understanding it when read over to him. In
cases of word-blindness, a patient, like one described by Magnan,
may be able to draw up a will with full comprehension of what he is
doing, and yet be unable to read it understandingly. Inability to
signify intelligibly assent or dissent would, of course, entirely
disqualify one from signing a will.
It is seldom that a paralytic attack fails to leave its mark, though

perhaps slight, for years, if not for the remainder of life. An extreme
ease of shedding tears is a very common symptom, and sometimes
laughter comes on very slight provocation.
Among the most interesting groups of phenomena connected with

hemiplegia, and sometimes the sole representative of this condition
—that is, existing alone without any motor paralysis—is that
embracing the means of communicating with the outer world by
means of language spoken or written. Corresponding to, and usually

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Test Bank for SOC 2014 3rd Edition Jon Witt 0077443195

1. Which of the following is true of sociology?

2. The scientific method

4. Defining a sociological problem involves

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 1

Bloom’s Level: Comprehension

6. Which of the following best describes theories?

A. racial discrimination complaints to the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission

Bloom’s Level: Comprehension

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 2

Bloom’s Level: Knowledge

12. Which of the following can serve as a variable in a study?

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 3

Topic: variables; causation

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 4

23 Valid research measures

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 5

B. are always independent, rather than dependent, variables.

25. A research measure that provides consistent results is considered

27. Which of the following is true about a research design?

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 6

A. ethics of the study.

30. In order to provide information that is useful, open-ended survey questions

31. The results of an interview may be influenced by

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 7

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 8

39. The initial obstacle participant observers encounter is

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 9

43. Sociologists performing research

45. Which of the following is true about Devah Pager’s research?

46. Secondary analysis includes a variety of research techniques that

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 10

48. Sociologists consider secondary analysis to be

49. An inherent problem in using secondary sources of data is that

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 11

Bloom’s Level: Knowledge

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 12

C. widely accepted beliefs

57. Joyce Ladner’s The Death of White Sociology called attention to

58. Which of the following is true about Shulamit Reinharz?

59. Feminist sociologists

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 13

64. If x is correlated with y, then by definition, x must be the cause of y.

65. If x causes y, then by definition, x must be correlated with y.

Witt, SOC, 2014e TB-2 | 14

Among the more significant and immediate symptoms are to be

Reference is had in these statements chiefly to the ordinary form of

OCCLUSION OF THE CEREBRAL ARTERIES may take place from several

A cerebral artery may be occluded from the presence of a plug of

When the plug has been transported from elsewhere it is embolus.30

It is probable that a thrombus forming at one point in a cerebral

In the blood-current the embolus may give rise to no symptoms

The posterior communicating arteries are two small vessels which

Small hemorrhages may, however, take place around the edges of

The microscope shows gradually increasing fatty degeneration,

In a few instances the thrombi have become perforated through the

The region involved in softening depends upon the artery which is