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ScienceDirect
Procedia Computer Science 00 (2023) 000–000
Procedia
Procedia Computer
Computer Science
Science 21500 (2023)
(2022) 000–000
413–421 www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

4th International Conference on Innovative Data Communication Technology and Application

4th International Conference on Innovative Data Communication Technology and Application
Enhancing
Enhancing the
the Security
Security of
of WPA2/PSK
WPA2/PSK Authentication
Authentication Protocol
Protocol in
in
Wi-Fi Networks
Wi-Fi Networks
Arikumar K Sa,∗, Deepak Kumar Ab , Sahaya Beni Prathibacc , Tamilarasi Kcc , Rajalakshmi
Arikumar K Sa,∗, Deepak Kumar Ab , Sahaya Beni Prathiba , Tamilarasi K , Rajalakshmi
Shenbaga Moorthydd , Mohamed Iqbal Maa
a
Shenbaga Moorthy , Mohamed Iqbal M
School of Computer Science and Engineering (SCOPE), VIT-AP University, Vijayawada-522237, India
a School
b of Computer Science and Engineering (SCOPE), VIT-AP University, Chennai-600119,
Vijayawada-522237, India
Computer Science and Engineering, St.Joseph’s Institute of Technology, India
c School bof
Computer Science
Computer and
Science Engineering,
and EngineeringSt.Joseph’s
(SCOPE), Institute of Technology,
Vellore Institute Chennai-600119,
of Technology, India India
Chennai-600127,
c School of Computer Science and Engineering (SCOPE), Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai-600127, India
d Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research Chennai-600116, India
d Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research Chennai-600116, India

Abstract
Abstract
In today’s world of wireless communication, the prime point of concentration lies on data security. This depends mainly on proper
In today’s world
authentication of of wireless
users communication,
who are the prime
intended to connect point
to the of concentration
network. with modern liesday
ontechnology,
data security.
theThis depends(password),
credentials mainly on proper
which
authentication of users
the legitimate user sendwho areaccess
to the intended to connect
points to the
for his/her network. with
authorization, canmodern dayand
be sniffed technology, the credentials
used to enter the system, (password),
compromising which
the
the legitimate
system user
security. send to the(Wireless
WPA2/PSK access points for his/her
Protected authorization, can
Access/Pre-Shared Key)behas
sniffed and used towhich
a vulnerability enter the system,
allows compromising
an attacker the
to perform
system security. WPA2/PSK (Wireless Protected Access/Pre-Shared Key) has a vulnerability which allows an attacker
Man-in-the-middle attack by capturing the handshake sent by the legitimate user for authentication. The captured handshake can be to perform
Man-in-the-middle attack by capturing
used to recover the password the handshake
using dictionary attack orsent
canbybethe legitimate
brute forced.user for authentication.
To overcome the short The captured
comings handshake
of the can be
current system,
used to recover
the proposed the password
method using dictionary
uses Frequency Hoppingattack or cantobesecure
Technique brute the
forced. To overcome
MIC(Message the short
Integrity comings
Code) beforeoftransmitting
the current system,
it. This
the proposed
method method
reduces uses Frequency
the possibility of bruteHopping Technique
forcing the password,to secure
even ifthe
theMIC(Message Integrity Code) before transmitting it. This
handshake is captured.
method reduces the possibility of brute forcing the password, even if the handshake is captured.
© 2023
© 2023 The
The Authors.
Authors. Published
Published by
by Elsevier
Elsevier B.V.
B.V.
© 2023
This is The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an
an open
open access
access article
article under
under the
the CC
CC BY-NC-ND
BY-NC-ND license
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
This is an open
Peer-review access
under article under
responsibility thescientific
of the CC BY-NC-ND license
committee (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
of the 4th International
International Conference on Innovative Data
Data Communication
Communication
Peer-review under
Technologies and responsibility of the scientific committee of the 4th International Conference on Innovative Data Communication
and Application
Application.
Technologies and Application.
Keywords: Hopping; Message Integrity Code; Four-Way Handshake process;
Keywords: Hopping; Message Integrity Code; Four-Way Handshake process;

1. Introduction
1. Introduction
During the initial stages of networking, wires are used predominantly to connect the computers irrespective of
During
their the initial
locations, whichstages of networking,
demands wiresout
the user to reach arefor
used predominantly
nodes to connect
which connects the computers
to the internet. irrespective
With the evolution of
of
their
wireless networks, the networking reached leaps and bounds as computing system became portable [1, evolution
locations, which demands the user to reach out for nodes which connects to the internet. With the of
2]. Wireless
wireless networks, the networking reached leaps and bounds as computing system became portable [1,
Networks is first brought into picture by the Wi-Fi Alliance Company through Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity). In order to 2]. Wireless
Networks
structurizeisthe
first brought
wireless into picture
networks, IEEE bystandard
the Wi-Fi Alliance
802.11 Company through
(WLAN-Wireless LocalWi-Fi
Area(Wireless
Network)Fidelity). In order
was created[3]. to
Due
structurize the wireless networks, IEEE standard 802.11 (WLAN-Wireless Local Area Network) was created[3]. Due

∗ Corresponding author.
∗ Corresponding
E-mail address:author.
ks.arikumar@vitap.ac.in
E-mail address: ks.arikumar@vitap.ac.in
1877-0509 © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
1877-0509
1877-0509 © 2023
© 2023 The Authors.
Thearticle
Authors. Published
Published by
by Elsevier B.V.
Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
This
This isan
is anopen
openaccess
access article
article under
under the the BY-NC-ND
CC CC BY-NC-ND licenselicense (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under
Peer-review underresponsibility of the
responsibility scientific
of the committee
scientific of the
committee 4ththe
of International Conference
4th International on Innovative
Conference Data Communication
on Innovative Technologies
Data Communication
Peer-review
and under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 4th International Conference on Innovative Data Communication Technologies
Application.
Technologies and Application
and Application.
10.1016/j.procs.2022.12.043
414 K S Arikumar et al. / Procedia Computer Science 215 (2022) 413–421
2 Arikumar / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2023) 000–000

to its affordability and high transmission throughputs WLAN was widely adapted. The Wireless Network is provided
by the Stations which has a physical connection to the Internet through cables. These Stations, also known as AP
(Access Point), provide the necessary network over a particular range [4,5].
The preliminary version of wireless networks was built with the motive of providing mobility to the users and
lacked the intent of providing security to the network from the attackers [6-8]]. Later Wi-Fi security protocols such as
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy), WPA (Wireless Protected Access) and WPA2 (Wireless Protected Access-2) were
proposed to ensure only legitimate users to connect to the network and creating a secure encrypted channel for the
data transmission[9,10]. Both WPA and WPA2 have personal or pre-shared key (WPA2/PSK) and enterprise (WPA2
Enterprise) versions [11]. While enterprise versions are used in industries and institutions, personal version found
its application in home routers and smartphones [12]. But WPA2/PSK has a vulnerability that allows an intruder to
crack the pass-phrase that test the legitimacy of the client. Our proposed work suggests a way to overcome the above
vulnerability with the help of frequency hopping technique. a box with the same font size as the rest of the paper. The
paragraphs continue from here and are only separated by headings, subheadings, images and formulae. The section
headings are arranged by numbers, bold and 10 pt. Here follows further instructions for authors.

2. Related Works

To counter the threats that exploits this vulnerability, many alternative solutions were provided. These solutions
include using encryption algorithm such as RSA to secure the authentication and data traffic between the AP and the
client, usage of QR codes instead of pass-phrase for authentication [13]. But while encrypting the traffic between the
AP and the client which is already encrypted creates an overhead to the system, which causes a considerable delay
in authentication as well as in the communication that follows. This delay provides additional time for the hackers to
crack the encryption [14]. While using QR code for authentication the client becomes vulnerable to attacks such as
phishing, malicious code installation if the client tries to connect to the AP, by scanning a malicious QR code. This
attack is possible because of the fact that QR code is only machine readable. Until the scan is complete the user has
zero possibility of understanding of what the QR code convey[15]. In the development of security protocol, equal
importance must be given to all devices that are involved and the data that they transmit or receive, which the above
method fails to satisfy. In this paper, we suggest an alternative approach for client to securely authenticate itself to the
network using a technique called frequency hopping that significantly reduces the possibility of Man-In-The-Middle
attack [16,17].

3. WPA2/PSK Architecture

WPA2 uses the counter Mode Block Chaining Message Authentication Protocol (CCMP), based Advanced En-
cryption Standard (AES) algorithm for device authentication and data encryption which is stronger than RC4 and
TKIP combined. In the personal version, the client is authenticated by the AP using a pass-phrase of length 8-63. The
client needs exactly the same password to authenticate himself/ herself to the network[18].
If the client intends to connect to a Wi-Fi, it must follow the upcoming procedure. Firstly, the AP(Access Point)
sends beacon frames over a range which is identified by the stations(clients). Becaon frame is one of the control
frame in IEEE 802.11[19]. It consists of details of the network and it is transmitted between particular time interval.
They used to tell the presence of the netwrok connectivity and to synchronise the members of the service set. Once
the client receives beacon frames from the AP, it sends Probe Request to the AP through the SSID(Service Set ID)
present in the AP’s beacon frame[20]. Then, the AP responds back by transmitting Probe Respond to the client. The
client, after successful response dispatches Open Authentication Request(differs from secure Authentication) to the
AP. After receiving the request, the AP authenticates the client by sending Open Authentication Respond. The client,
which has the intention to connect to the Wi-Fi network, sends Association Request to AP which in turn responds
with Association Respond message, in the event of successful Association and Authentication. This process, which
involves transmission of frames, happens in a very short time. Fig. 1, picturizes the above Association Authentication
process. Following the above procedure, a four-way handshake begins, which contributes to the authentication of the
client. The Four-Way handshake process is explained briefly in the following section.
 Arikumar / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2023) 000–000 3
K S Arikumar et al. / Procedia Computer Science 215 (2022) 413–421 415

Access
Station point
1. Probe request

2. Probe response

3. Open System
Authentication request

4. Open System
Authentication response

5. Association request

6. Association response

7. Data

Fig. 1. Authentication and Association

4. Keys to be understood

1. MSK(Master Session key)

The master session is the first key which is generated either from 802.1X/EAP or derived from PSK authentica-
tion.
2. PMK(Pairwise Master Key)
PMK is used to generate PTK. PMK resides on all stations as in AP and client devices, so we do not need to
share this information. We use this information to create PTK which are used for uni-cast data encryption.
3. GMK(Group Master Key)
Group master key is used in a 4-way handshake to create GTK.
4. PTK(Pairwise Master Key)
PTK is used to encrypt all uni-cast traffic between client station and access point. WEP shared key authentication
uses the RC4 symmetric stream cipher to encrypt data. Access point and client has a unique PTK. To get PTK both
AP and client needs the following information. PTK = PRF(PMK, ANonce, SNonce, MAC(AA), MAC(SA))
5. GTK(Group Temporal Key)
GTK is used to encrypt all broadcast and multicast traffic. A random value, assigned by the broadcast/multicast
source, which is used to protect broadcast/multicast data. GTK is derived from GMK.
6. ANonce & SNonce
ANonce is a random number generated by Access Point (AP) whereas, SNonce is a random number generated
by supplicant.
416 K S Arikumar et al. / Procedia Computer Science 215 (2022) 413–421
4 Arikumar / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2023) 000–000

5. Four-Way Handshake Process

The Four-way handshake is a process of exchanging 4 messages between an authenticator (access point) and the
supplicant(client device) to generate encryption keys which can provide encryption to the actual data to be sent [21].
Fig. 2, show the representation of four-way handshake process.

M1(Message1): Access point sends EAPOL message with ANonce (random number) to the device to generate
PTK. Don’t forget client device knows AP’s MAC because its connected to it. It has PMK, SNonce and its own MAC
address. Once it receives ANonce from access point it has all the inputs to create the PTK.
PTK = PRF(PMK, ANonce, SNonce, MAC(AA), MAC(SA))

M2(Message2) : Once the device has created its PTK it sends out SNonce which is needed by the access point to
generate PTK as well. The device sends EAPOL to AP message2 with MIC (Message Integrity Code) to make sure
when the access point can verify whether this message corrupted or modified. Once SNonce received by the AP it can
generate PTK as well for uni-cast traffic encryption. After generating PTK, the AP generates MIC for the PTK . Then
it compares the MIC that it received from the device and the MIC that it has generated. If both the MIC are proven
same, the authentication continues. It is the confirmation that the client has used the pass-phrase that AP expects. If
the MICs are different , then the authentication fails and the connection is terminated.

M3(Message3) : EAPOL message 3 is sent from AP to client device containing GTK. AP creates GTK without
the involvement of the client from GMK.

M4(Message4) : Fourth and last EAPOL message will be sent from the client to AP just to confirm that keys have
been installed.

Access point Supplicant

Initial Process Beacon Frames

Association Stage Authentication and Association

Generate PMK and Generate PMK and

ANonce SNonce
M1:EAPOL(ANonce)
Generate PTK and
Send MIC
Handshake
Four-way

M2:EAPOL(SNonce,MIC)
Generate PTK and MIC
Compare with Clients
MIC
M3: EAPOL(Encrypted GTK)

M4:EAPOL(MIC)
Install PTK Install GTK and PTK
Acknowledgement

Fig. 2. Four Way Handshake process

 K S Arikumar et al. / Procedia Computer Science 215 (2022) 413–421 417
Arikumar / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2023) 000–000 5

6. Vulnerabilities

When the client tries to connect to the wireless network that uses WPA2/PSK authentication, there is a possibility
that an attacker can eavesdrop the fourway handshake. By capturing the handshake, the attacker is able to retrieve
the ANonce, SNonce and MIC (Message Integrity Code). With the above collected information following attacks are
possible.
Dictionary attack. With the knowledge of above four-way handshake it is possible to brute force,the pass-phrase, used
for authentication. when the pass-phrase is revealed we can label the wireless network as authentication compromised
network. This allows the non-legitimate users to connect to the wireless network.
Denial of Service(DoS). In current Wi-Fi architecture , when a user wants to leave the network, it sends a deauthenti-
cation or disassociation packet, that states that the client no longer needs the service of the wireless network. Similarly
if an AP wants to disassociate itself from a client it may send a disassociation packet. The problem with this archi-
tecture is, there is no verification procedure to check the sender’s legitimacy. This vulnerability allows the attacker to
send fake deauthentication packets that results in denial of service.

7. Proposed Work

With the aim of enhancing the security of WPA2/PSK protocol, the most commonly preferred technique by Wi-Fi
to transmit radio signals over multiple frequency channels, termed as Frequency Hopping, has been adopted in our
design. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) is a procedure for transmitting radio wave signals by speedily
switching/hopping a carrier between multiple frequency channels using a pseudorandom sequence generated by a
Pseudo Random Number Generator (PRNG). A pseudorandom sequence is probably a random sequence, but it differs
in such a way that it’s been generated by a deterministic algorithm whose output is based on several mathematical
formulas. Although this sequence is not purely random, it has the effect of randomness. The underlying framework in
Frequency Hopping is Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CMSA) which is based on multiplexing. CSMA helps hosts to
decide when to send packets on a shared network segment and how to detect collisions if they occur. Being provided
with a pseudorandom sequence, the determined frequency channel is being identified by both the transmitter and the
receiver. The 2.4 GHz ISM band used by Wi-Fi 802.11 is been cleaved into 14 channels. Each channel is divaricated by
5 MHz but has a bandwidth of 22 MHz (Spread Spectrum). So based on the pseudorandom sequence, the transmitter
dispatches the signals through a particular channel’s frequency range to the receiver. Table.1, shows the 14 channels
along with their upper and lower frequencies.

Table 1. Channels and their upper and lower frequencies.

Channel Number Lower Frequency (MHz) Center Frequency(MHz) Upper Frequency (MHz)

1 2401 2412 2423

2 2406 2417 2428
3 2411 2422 2433
4 2416 2427 2438
5 2421 2432 2443
6 2426 2437 2448
7 2431 2442 2453
8 2436 2447 2458
9 2441 2452 2463
10 2446 2457 2468
11 2451 2462 2473
12 2456 2467 2478
13 2461 2472 2483
14 2473 2484 2495

During the Four-Way Handshake process, the AP (Access point) transmits ANonce to the supplicant which in turn
generates PTK (Pair Temporal Key) and MIC (Message Integrity Code), and directs it back to the Access point. In the
418 K S Arikumar et al. / Procedia Computer Science 215 (2022) 413–421
6 Arikumar / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2023) 000–000

event of this transmission, an attacker can perform a man-in-the middle attack utilizing the MIC. This security flunk
in the WPA2/PSK Authentication protocol has been minimized in our following proposed work.
Herewith, we yield a design using the novel technique known as Frequency Hopping. A 12-bit pseudorandom
sequence is being imparted along with the ANonce from the AP to the supplicant in an encrypted form. The first 4 bits
represents the channel number, whereas the remaining 8 bits determines the frequency in the corresponding channel.
This 8 bit ranges from 0 to 255. Since each channel has spaced 5 MHz from each other (except the last channel), this
5 MHz channel is further split up into 256 different frequencies with an approximated spacing of 20 KHz from each
other. Fig. 3, represents the divarication of frequencies.

Fig. 3. Frequency Divarication

The supplicant decrypts the pseudorandom sequence to identify at which frequency the message has to be dis-
patched back to the AP in the Handshaking process. For example, if the 12 bit represents 0001 00001100, then the
first four bits represent Channel 1 and the 8 bits determines 12th frequency (2401.234 MHz). The supplicant transmits
SNonce and MIC at the determined frequency to the AP. Likewise the 14 channels’ frequencies are also established
in the same procedure. In case of interference at the desired frequency, the supplicant retransmits the message. Fig.
4, depicts the transmission of SNonce and MIC through Frequemcy Hopping. After this process, the third and fourth
message in the Four-Way Handshaking process, are transmitted and authenticated only to legitimate users. This pro-
posed design, therefore minimizes the chances of man-in-the-middle attack, since the recognition of pseudorandom
sequence is a time consuming process. As the attacker cannot discern the exact frequency at which the second message
is transmitted to the AP by the supplicant, this ensures security towards the attack and thus enhances the security of
the WPA2/PSK Authentication protocol. The following algorithms 1 & 2 explains the context in detail.

Algorithm 1 Client
Client
1: SendConnectRequest(server)
2: B, ANonce, SMAC = receive ( )
3: C = Decrypt(pass, B[0:4])
4: F = Decrypt(pass, B[4:12])
5: S = Encrypt(CMAC, SMAC, ANonce, SNonce, password)
6: P = createPacket(S, SNonce, MIC)
7: Send(SMAC, C, F, P)
8: WaitForACK()
 Arikumar / Procedia
K S Arikumar Computer
et al. Science
/ Procedia 00 (2023)
Computer 000–000
Science 215 (2022) 413–421 7
419

Access point Supplicant

ANonce
Encrypt EAPOL(ANonce,PRS)
Pseudo Random 12 bit PRS
Sequence Generator
Generate PTK
and Send
SNonce & MIC

Accept
packets only Encrypt SNonce & MIC
at desired Frequency
frequency Selector(2.4 GHz
band)
EAPOL(SNonce,MIC) 8 bits Decrypt 12 bit PRS

Send SNonce & First 4 bits

MIC in selected
frequency
Channel
Channel freequency
Selector

Fig. 4. Transmission of SNonce and MIC through Frequency Hopping

The client algorithm describes the following context. Firstly, the client requests the connection from the server and
waits for its response. Secondly, the SNonce is been generated by the client. After this process, the ANonce along
with the pseudorandom sequence(B) sent by the Access Point is been received and then decrypted. The first four bits
of the sequence are stored in C and the remaining 8 bits are stored in F. The client, after decryption, encrypts the
Anonce, SNonce, passphrase along with CMAC(Client Media Access Control) SMAC(Server Media Access Control)
and stores this encrypted message in S. After the encrpytion, the client creates a packet which contains the encrypted
information(S) and transmits it back to the Access Point at the desired frequency. Then the client waits for the ac-
knowledgement from the server.

Algorithm 2 Server
Server
1: CMAC = ReceiveConnectRequest()
2: PRS = RandomNumberGenerate(12)
3: E = Encrypt(ANonce, PRS)
4: Send(CMAC, E)
5: C, F = FindChannel&(PRS)
6: S = WaitForReply(C, F)
7: if S == Encrypt(CMAC, SMAC, ANonce, SNonce, pass) then
8: Send ACK()
9: end if

The server algorithm describes the following context. Here, the server responds for the client’s connection request
and associates with it. After proper connection with the client, the server sends ANonce and PRS(Pseudo Random
Sequence) to the client. The server, at the mean time, finds the channel and frequency at which the client dispatches
the message and holds back. Once the server receives the M2(Message 2) from the client, it extracts the MIC from the
 420 K S Arikumar et al. / Procedia Computer Science 215 (2022) 413–421
8 Arikumar / Procedia Computer Science 00 (2023) 000–000

message and then compares it with its generated MIC. If they are equal, then the server sends acknowledgement(ACK)
message to the client. The remaining messages are transmitted as usual by the existing four-way handshaking process.

8. Evaluation

In the Four-Way Handshake process, the second message (M2) is transmitted from supplicant to the AP at a desired
frequency using the pseudorandom sequence, the attacker finds it strenuous to decrypt the pseudorandom sequence
which has been dispatched from the AP to the supplicant. Consider the time taken by the supplicant to decrypt the
pseudorandom sequence is T1. The time taken to determine the desired frequency and channel is T2. The time taken
to transmit the SNonce and MIC to the AP over the pinpoint frequency is T3. So predominantly, the attacker should
endeavor to decrypt the pseudorandom sequence in the time less than T1 + T2 + T3, which is impractical. Since
the sequence has the effect of randomness, it’s obviously a back-breaking task for an attacker to find out the exact
sequence. Also, in case of offline dictionary attack, it’s been an arduous procedure to predict the exact pseudorandom
sequence generated. Albeit the attacker detects the sequence, the second message would have been sent to the AP at
the time the attacker realizes the sequence. So, the attacker cannot perform man-in-the-middle or dictionary attack
which enhances/strengthens the security of WPA2/PSK authentication protocol.

9. Conclusion

In this paper we apply the frequency hopping technique to defend the wireless networks from brute force attack,
offline and online dictionary attack by denying the complete capturing of the four-way handshake by the attackers.
Being employed as a patch to the WPA2/PSK protocol this method can be deployed easily to the existing devices
with just a firmware updation. Though the proposed method ensures only authentic users to connect to a wireless
network, it can be modified to protect the wireless network from DOS attacks, which poses a greater threat to IOT
devices that uses WPA2/PSK as their underlying security protocol. Since over 2.3 billion currently uses WPA2/PSK,
the development of its security is proven to be necessary.

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