ELECTRIC CHARGES: PRODUCTION, TYPES, DISTRIBUTION, STORAGE AND USES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson students should be able to:

 Charging a body by friction, induction and contact

 Producing charges by rubbing two suitable materials against each other
 Making/Constructing simple Electroscope and state its uses
 Investigating the action of lightning conductor at a point
 Describing the Gold leaf Electroscope

ELECTROSTATICS/STATIC ELECTRICITY
Electrostatics is a branch of physics that deals with the phenomena and properties of
stationary or slow-moving electric charges.
PRODUCTION OF CHARGES
Some substances get charged when rubbed against other substances i.e.
nylon, plastic, paper etc. the charge acquired stays within the body i.e. it does
not move and therefore known as electrostatic charge or static electricity.
THE LAW OF CHARGES
The law of charges in summary states that “like charges repel, unlike charges
attract’’.
Just like in magnetism attraction is not a sure way of testing for charge but
repulsion because it will only occur if the bodies are similarly charged.
TYPES OF CHARGES
There are two types of charges i.e. negative and positive charges.
The negative charge consists of electrons which are mobile.
Charges, Atoms and Electrons
The atom is made up of a central part called the nucleus, containing positively
charged ions called protons and outwardly surrounded by negatively charged
electrons.
The nucleus also contains the particles called neutrons which are not charged.
When an atom is not charged the number of protons equals the number of
electrons.
When a material is rubbed with another i.e. acetate with silk, electrons are
transferred from one body to another.
The body accepting or receiving electrons becomes negatively charged while
the one donating or losing electrons becomes positively charged.
Protons and neutrons in the nucleus do not move.
The SI unit for charge is the Coulomb (Coul./C)
1 Coul. = charge on 6.25 × 10 1 8 electrons.
Charge on one electron = 1.60 × 10 - 1 9 Coul./C
1 Coul. = 1 Ampere second (As).
THE GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
This is a sensitive instrument for measuring charge.
It consists of a metal cap connected to a stem whose lower part is flattened
into a plate with a thin strip of aluminium foil attached to it.
The plate and the leaf are enclosed in a metal casing which is earthed. The
sides of the metal are made of glass to allow the leaf to be seen.

Other leaf electroscopes are made using gold strips and are referred to as
gold leaf electroscope.
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING AN ELECTROSCOPE
A. By Contact
The electroscope can be charged by sliding a charged body on the brass disc
of the instrument. Charge passes from the charged body to the disc and stem
of the instrument down to the bottom through this contact. The leaf is
observed to open when this happens. The leaf is repelled from the metal both
carry similar charges. The degree of divergence of the leaf indicates the
amount of charge acquired by the instrument. The leaf remains in this
divergence position even after the charging body has removed showing that a
charge has been acquired by the electroscope.

B. Charging by Induction
When a charged body is brought near the cap of the electroscope the leaf
diverges, and when removed it collapses.
When a negatively charged body is brought near the metal cap electrons are
repelled from the cap to the lower parts of the stem and the leaf.
This concentration of negative charges makes the leaf to diverge.
Similarly when a positively charged body comes near the metal cap the
electrons are attracted by the protons and move up the stem, leaving a high
concentration of positive charges which make the leaf to diverge.
If you touch the metal cap with your finger the leaf collapses showing that
the charges have been discharged through your body.
An uncharged body will always cause the leaf of a charged electroscope to
collapse regardless of the charge on the electroscope.
This shows that charge moves from the charged electroscope to the
uncharged body.
We have seen that when a charged body is brought near a leaf electroscope,
charges are transferred to the electroscope and the leaf diverges.
This method of transferring charge without actual contact is called induction.
Discharging the Electroscope
1. You can discharge the electroscope by ionising the air around it.
2. Disconnect the electroscope from the supply but keep the base earthed. Place the
disc in the top of the electroscope and charge it using a flying lead from the
positive terminal of the power supply via the safety resistor.
3. Light a match over the top of the disc. This will ionise the air and allow the
electroscope to discharge.
4. Charge the electroscope again and light a match to the side of the disc. To
discharge the electroscope, you will need to blow gently over the flame so that
the ions pass over the top of the disc.
5. The electroscope should discharge quickly to earth when the air above its disc is
ionised. If it is discharging too slowly, bring an earthed metal plate up close to the
disc of the electroscope.
 ACTIVITY
TO CONSTRUCT A SIMPLE ELECTROSCOPE
You can build your own electroscope by using simple things you can find around the
house, such as:
 a glass jar,
 2 little pieces of aluminium foil cut into small round shapes (and you need to put a whole
in one end of each foil);
 A copper wire (spiral one of the ends of the wire to make a large surface area);
 Some electrical tape,
 A plastic lid cut into a circle the same size as the jar opening (you can use the plastic lid
from any plastic container);
 A small plastic tube (you can use a straw) shoved through the plastic lid;
The components of the electroscope are shown below:

To assemble the electroscope, take the copper wire and slide it through the plastic tube
and make a little hook at the bottom end of the copper wire. Put the 2 pieces of foil on
the hook one after the other using the hole that you made on each of the pieces of foil.
The 2 pieces of foil should now be touching together at the end of the hook.

Take the plastic lid and put it on top of the jar and secure it with some electrical tape to
make sure the lid is firmly fixed on the top of the jar. When you’re done, you should have
something that looks like the home-made Electroscope shown below:

To test the Electroscope, use a small piece of vinyl and rub it for a few seconds with the
palm of your hand, then move this piece close to the copper wire edge. Watch how the
aluminium pieces spread apart!

Discussion: What is it that makes the aluminium pieces spread apart in this experiment?
A:The reason this works is because when you rub your hands against a piece of material
such as plastic or vinyl for example, electrons from your hands will get transferred to that
material which means that the piece will become more negative (or negatively charged)
and your hands will become more positive. When you move the vinyl piece closer to the
electroscope, this will cause the electrons that are on the piece of copper to move down
the tube and away from the piece of vinyl because similar charges repel each other.
When the electrons are pushed down the copper wire, they will be transferred down into
the hook and into the pieces of foil. At this stage, both pieces of aluminium foil have
become negatively charged and since negative charges repel negative charges, this
explains why the 2 aluminium pieces spread apart!
WAYS OF PRODUCING CHARGES
There are three methods of producing charges:
1. Friction
2. Contact
3. Induction
 CHARGING BY FRICTION

When insulating materials rub against each other, they may become
electrically charged. Electrons, which are negatively charged, may be ‘rubbed off’ one
material and on to the other. The material that gains electrons becomes negatively
charged. The material that loses electrons is left with a positive charge.
1. A rod covered in negative charges is placed next to a duster covered in positive charges
When a polythene rod is rubbed with a duster, the friction causes electrons to gain
energy. Electrons gain enough energy to leave the atom and ‘rub off’ onto the polythene
rod.
 the polythene rod has gained electrons, giving it a negative charge
 the duster has lost electrons, giving it a positive charge
If the rod is swapped for a different material such as acetate, electrons are rubbed off the
acetate and onto the duster.
 the acetate rod has lost electrons, giving it a positive charge
 the duster has gained electrons, giving it a negative charge
Both of the rods and the duster are made of insulating materials. Insulators prevent the
electrons from moving and the charge remains static. Conductors, on the other hand,
cannot hold the charge, as the electrons can move through them.

ELECTRICAL FORCES
A charged object will experience a non-contact force from another charged object. The
type of force will depend on the type of charge (positive or negative) on the two objects.
The properties of attraction and repulsion are often used to show that an object is
charged:
 a charged rod can pick up small pieces of paper
 a charged balloon can stick to the wall by attraction
 a charged rod can pull a stream of water towards it
EXAMPLE
If a negatively charged plastic rod is brought near to another negatively charged rod,
they will move apart as they repel each other.
If a positively charged rod is brought close to a negatively charged rod, they will pull
together as they attract each other.
The forces of attraction or repulsion are greater when the charged objects are closer.

CHARGING BY CONDUCTION (OR CONTACT)

The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing it in contact with another
charged object is called charging by conduction.

A charged object has unequal number of negative (electrons) and positive charges
(protons). Hence, when a charged object is brought in contact with the uncharged
conductor, the electrons get transferred from charged object to the conductor.

Consider an uncharged metal rod A kept on an insulating stand and a negatively charged
conductor B as shown in below figure (1).

If we touch the uncharged conductor A with the negatively charged conductor B,

transfer of electrons from charged conductor to uncharged conductor takes place.
Hence, uncharged conductor gains extra electrons and charged conductor loses
electrons. Thus, uncharged conductor A becomes negatively charged by gaining of extra
electrons.

Similarly, uncharged conductor becomes positively charged if it is brought in contact

with positively charged conductor.
CHARGING BY INDUCTION

The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing another charged object near
to it, but not touching it, is called charging by induction.

Consider an uncharged metal sphere and negatively charged plastic rod as shown in
below figure (1). If we bring the negatively charged plastic rod near to uncharged sphere
as shown in below fig (2), charge separation occurs.

The positive charges in the sphere get attracted towards the plastic rod and move to one
end of the sphere that is closer to the plastic rod. Similarly, negative charges get repelled
from the plastic rod and move to another end of the sphere that is farther away from the
plastic rod. Thus, the charges in the sphere rearrange themselves in a way that all the
positive charges are nearer to the plastic rod and all the negative charges are farther
away from it.

If this sphere is connected to a ground through the wire as shown in fig (3), free
electrons of the sphere at farther end flow to the ground. Thus, the sphere becomes
positively charged by induction. If the plastic rod is removed as shown in fig (4) all the
positive charges spread uniformly in the sphere.

Conductors and Insulators

Conductors are those substances which allow easy passage of a charge.
Examples of conductors are almost all metals, damp air, graphite, acids, salt
solutions, the Earth and the Human body.
Insulators are materials that do not allow electrons to pass through them
easily.
Examples of insulators are plastic, polythene, Bakelite, ebonite, paper, dry
hair, silk oils glass sulphur and wood
A charged electroscope can be used to classify objects into conductors and
insulators.

Experiment: Arranging objects into conductors and insulators

Procedure
1. Charge an electroscope by rubbing it with fur until its leaf diverges.
2. Obtain a number of materials like aluminium, paper, copper, iron, cloth,
glass, wood etc.
3. Hold these items in your hand in turns and touch the charged
electroscopes’ metal cap with it.
4. Record your results in the table shown below:
To determine the type and magnitude of charge on a body using an
electroscope

ILLUSTRATION: Charging Two Bodies Simultaneously

Q: Given a positively charged glass rod and two metal spheres mounted on
insulating stands, describe with the aid of diagrams how one sphere may be
charged negatively and the other positively. (WAEC)
Solution
The two insulated metal spheres A and B are placed together so that they touch each other as
shown below:

A positively charged rod is brought near to A and as a result, a negative charge is induced on A
and a positive charge on B.
Still keeping the charged rod in position, sphere B is moved a short distance away from A. The
charged rod is now removed while A and B are tested for charge. It will be observed that sphere
A is negatively charged while B is positively charged
This process is called induction of charge and happens instantly.

Q: A metal sphere is kept on an insulating stand. A negatively charged rod is brought near it, and
then the sphere is earthed as shown. On removing the earthing, and taking the negatively
charged rod away, what will be the nature of charge on the sphere? Give reason for your answer.

Solution
A rod is brought close to the sphere, the free electron in the sphere move away due to deficit
of electrons. The process of change distribution stops when the net force on the free electron
inside the metal is less.
When we connect the sphere to the ground electron will flow to the ground while the charge
will remain on the sphere. So final charge on the sphere will be positive.
Q: A balloon is negatively charged by rubbing and then clings to a wall. Does this mean that
the wall is positively charged? Why does the balloon eventually fall?
Solution
No, it does not necessarily mean that the wall was initially positively charged. The molecules
in the wall can be polarized due to the negative charges on the balloon and can attract the
negatively charged balloon.
The excess electrons (negative charges) in the balloon will be slowly discharged through the
wall (since it is not a perfect insulator) and as the balloon becomes neutral, it will fall.
Distribution of Charges on Conductors
Proof Plane
It consists of a small metal disc with an insulating handle. It is used to transfer a small
sample of charge from the surface of charged body to the cap of gold leaf electroscope.
Hollow conductor When the proof plane is placed on the outside surface of a charged
hollow conductor mounted on an insulating stand, and then transferred to the cap of an
uncharged gold leaf electroscope, the leaf diverges as shown in (a). This proves that
charge was present on the outside of the surface. When the proof plane is placed on the
inside of a charged hollow conductor and then transferred to the cap of an uncharged
gold leaf electroscope, the leaf does not diverge as in (b). Therefore, no charge resides
inside a hollow charged conductor but charge resides only on the outside of the hollow
conductor.

Action of Points: Lightning Conductors

Charge concentrates at sharp points. This creates a very strong electrostatic field at
charged points which ionizes the surrounding air molecules producing positive and
negative ions. Ions which are of the same charge as that on the sharp points are repelled
away forming an electric wind which may blow a candle flame as shown in the diagram
below and ions of opposite charge are collected to the points.
Therefore, a charged sharp point acts as;
 Spray off’ of its own charge in form of an electric wind.
 Collector of unlike charges.
 The spray off and collecting of charges by the points is known as corona discharge
(action of points). Application of action of points (corona discharge)
 Used in a lightening conductor
 Used in electrostatics generators
 Electrostatic photocopying machines
 Air crafts are discharged after landing before passengers are allowed to disembark. Air
crafts get electrified but charge remains on the outer surface.
LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS
The Lightening conductor: A lightening conductor is used to protect buildings from
damage once struck by lightning by providing a path for electrons to flow easily through
it. A lightening conductor is made up of a thick copper strip. The lower end of the strip is
attached to a metal plate that is buried deep in the ground. The other with pointed
spikes is held high above the highest point of the building.

If a negatively charged cloud approaches the lightening conductor, it induces positive

charge on the spikes of the conductor and a negative charge on the plate buried in the
ground. The negative charge on the pate is dissipated into the ground. At the same time,
the high charge density on the spikes ionizes the air molecules. The negative ions are
attracted towards the spikes and become discharged by giving up their electrons. The
electrons are safely conducted to the earth through a copper strip. The positive ions are
repelled towards the negatively charged cloud to form a space charge. The positive
space charge may not be sufficient to completely neutralize the cloud. Any excess charge
on the cloud will be conducted away harmlessly by the lightening conductor which
projects above the highest part of a building.
Precautions taken to avoid being struck by lightning:
 Avoid taking shelter under isolated trees when it is raining.
 Avoid umbrellas especially in open places (they increase your height)
 Avoid external antenna during rain.
 Avoid being the highest point in an open locality like a football field during a
thunderstorm.
Uses of the Electroscope
1. To detect the presence of charge on a body.
2. To test the quantity of charge on a charge body.
3. To test for insulation properties of a material.
4. To test the sign of charge on a charged body.
Applications of Electrostatic Charges
1. Electrostatic precipitator – they are used in chimneys to reduce pollution by
attracting pollutants through electric ionization which then traps them by use
of plates (wire mesh). Finger printing and photocopying uses the same
principle.
2. Spray painting– as air cruises above the paint droplets acquire similar
charges therefore spread out finely due to repulsion. Little paint is then used.
Dangers of Electrostatics
As liquid flows through a pipe its molecules get charged due to rubbing
against inner surface.
If the liquid is flammable then this can cause sparks and explode.
The same happens to fuels carried in plastic cans therefore it is advisable to
carry fuel in metallic cans to leak out the continuously produced charges.
Storage of Charges: The Electrophorus
The electrophorus is a device for transferring and storing charges. It produces electric
charges by electrostatic induction. Another device for the storage of electric charges is
the capacitor. It consists simply of a circular metal disc or plate fitted with an insulating
handle and another flat disc made of an insulating material such as ebonite or polythene
tile.

The ebonite disc is given a negative charge. The metal disc is then placed over the
ebonite disc. There are only a few contact points between the two discs; hence no
charges flow between them. Positive and negative charges are given to the metal disc by
electrostatic induction. The metal disc now touched with the finger, the negative charges
flow away through the body to the earth, and the metal disc is left with only the positive
charges. These charges are then stored in the disc when the handle is lifted from the
ebonite. The amount of charge stored can be built up by repeating the above process.
EVALUATION

1. Fill in the gap in the following:

A. When an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, the rod acquires a …………….. charge

B. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod acquires a ………………... charge.

C. When two similarly charged rods A and B are brought together they …………… each
other

D. When an electron is transferred to a neutral rod, the rod becomes ……….. charged.

E. When a neutral rod loses an electron, it becomes ………………. charged.

2. Electrophorus and capacitor can store charges A. true B. false C. cannot say

D. none of the above

3. When an ebonite rod is rub with fur, the fur becomes A. positively charge

B. negatively charge C. neutral D. none of the above

4. The ebonite rod in the above question becomes

A. positively charge B. negatively charge C. neutral D. none of the above

5. Like charges

A. attract B. repel C. disappear D. evaporate

6. Charges are unusually concentrated at places where the surface is ………….

A. straight B. sharply curved C. oval in shape D. none of the above

7. ……………… is a device used to detect charge?

A. Electrophorus B. Capacitor C. Electroscope D. Inductor

8. A lighting conductor is used to protect a building from lighting damage.

A. true B. false C. cannot say D. none of the above

9. …………… is the sensitive part of an electroscope

A. The casing B. The cap C. The gold leaf D. The brass rod

10. The casing of an electroscope is earthed so as to screen the leaf from outside
interference A. positively charge B. negatively charge C. neutral D. none of the above
11. Capacitor is a device that …………. charges A. produces B. emits C. store D. none of
the above

12. A short chain is usually attached to the back of a petrol tanker trailing behind it to
ensure that the:

A. petrol tanker is balanced on the road

B. heat generated by friction in the engine can be conducted to the earth

C. charges generated by friction in the tanker is conducted to the earth

D. tanker moves slowly as the chain touches the road surface

E. chain produces sound for the resonance of the tanker’s engine

A building can be adequately protected from lightning by:

A. using asbestos for the roof of the house

B. planting trees around the house

C. fixing a long copper strip from the ground along the outside wall to a sharp vertical
spike

D. fixing a long wooden pole with sharp spikes to the outside wall

E. fixing a long ebonite rod with sharp spikes to the outside wall

When charging an insulated conductor by induction, the following steps are usually
taken:

I. Bring a charged body near to the conductor

II. Remove the charged body
III. Touch the conductor with a finger
IV. Remove the finger

What is the correct sequence in this activity?

A. I, II,III, IV
B. I, III, IV, II
C. I, IV, III, II
D. I, III, II, IV
E. III, IV, I, II

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. List and explain three (3) ways of producing electric charges (Support your
answers with well labelled diagrams)
2. If a negatively-charged rod is brought near the cap of an electroscope whose leaf
is already charged, what will happen to the leaf if it is charged?
a. Positively
b. negatively
3. What is the cause of lightning? With the aid of a diagram, describe the action of a
lightning conductor.
4. With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe the structure of a gold-leaf
electroscope, and explain how one could be charged. Negatively. Explain how a
gold-leaf electroscope could be used to investigate the distribution of charges
over the surface of an isolated conductor shaped like a pear.
5. Mention four (4) uses of electroscope and describe experiments to show two of
them.

6a. Describe and explain what happens when an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur.

b. With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe the structure of the electrophorus.
What is it used for?