Carbon and Its Compounds

CBSE : Class - X CHEMISTRY
Carbon &
4 It's Compounds
Chapter Outline
Bonding in Carbon : The Covalent Bond
Allotropes of Carbon
Versatile nature of Carbon Diamond
Organic Chemistry
Classification of Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbons and Functional Groups
Homologous Series
Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
Isomerism
Chemical Reaction of Carbon Compounds
Some Important Organic Compounds
Soaps & Detergents
Graphite
Fullerene
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MIND MAP
CARBON
Bonding in carbon Allotropy of Isomerism in Important carbon

& its compound carbon Carbon compounds compound
(Covalent bonding)
Nomenclature of
carbon compounds
Ethanol Acetic acid
Crystalline Non-Crystalline
nature or Amorphous Chain Position Functional
nature
Coal
Diamond Fullerene
Charcoal
Chemical reactions of carbon compound
Graphite Lamp black
Combustion
Oxidation
Addition
Substitution
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INTRODUCTION
Carbon is a very important non-metal. The name carbon is derived from the Latin word 'carbon'
which means 'coal'. This is because it is the main constituent of coal. Carbon is the major chemical of
most organic matter from fossil fuels to complex molecules (DNA and RNA) that control genetic
reproduction in organisms. The earth's crust has only 0.02 % carbon in the form of minerals (like
carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, coal and petroleum) and the atmosphere has 0.04 % carbon dioxide.
Inspite of this small amount of carbon available in nature, the importance of carbon seems to be
immense because carbon forms innumerable compounds by combining with other elements.
BONDING IN CARBON – THE COVALENT BOND

In the previous chapter, we have studied the properties of ionic compounds we saw that compounds
have high melting and boiling points and conduct electricity in solution or in the molten state. Further
all these properties were explained on the basis of nature of bonding in ionic compounds. Let us now
study the properties of some carbon compounds. Melting and boiling points of some carbon compounds
are given in Table.
Compound Melting Point (K) Boiling Point (K)

Acetic acid (CH3COOH) 290 391
Chloroform (CHCl3) 209 334
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) 156 351
Methane (CH4) 90 111
From the above data it is clear that the boiling and melting points of carbon compounds are very low.
This is due to the reason that the forces of attraction between the molecules of these compounds are
not strong. Since these compounds are largely non-conductors of electricity, we can conclude that the
bonding in these compounds does not give rise to any ions.
The atomic number of carbon is 6. So, its electronic configuration is : 6C K L (1s2, 2s2 2p2)
2 4
nd th
The configuration shows that carbon is an element of 2 period and 14 group, in the p-block.
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14th group in the periodic table is called the carbon family. Other members of this group are Si,
Ge, Sn, Pb.
Formation of Covalent Bond :

We know that the reactivity of elements is explained as their tendency to attain a completely filled
outer shell, i.e., attain noble gas configuration. Elements forming ionic compounds achieve this by
either gaining or losing electrons from the outermost shell. In case of carbon, it has four electrons in
its outermost shell and need to gain or lose four electrons to attain noble gas configuration. If it were
to gain or lose electrons :
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(i) It could gain four electrons forming C4– anion but it would be difficult for the nucleus with six
protons to hold on to ten electrons, i.e., four extra electrons.
(ii) It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation but it would require a large amount of energy to
remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding on the
just two electrons.
Thus, carbon can neither gain nor lose 4 electrons to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration. The
only way by which it can acquire the nearest noble gas configuration is by sharing of its valence
electrons with electrons of other carbon atoms or atoms of other element. Not just carbon, many other
elements also form molecules by sharing of valence electrons.
Concept of Covalent Bond :
Formation of covalent bond involves the sharing of electrons between the bonding atoms which may
be either same or different. Each atom contributes equal number of electrons for sharing. These
shared electrons form common pairs or shared pairs which belong to the outermost shells of both the
combining atoms. As a result, both the combining atoms acquire the stable configuration of the
nearest noble gas. Such bonds which are formed by mutual sharing of electrons between two atoms
are called covalent bonds. Thus, a chemical bond formed between two atoms by mutual sharing
of valence electrons between two atoms so that each atom acquires the stable electronic
configuration of the nearest noble gas is called a covalent bond and the compounds formed by
sharing of electrons are called covalent compounds.
Examples of formation of covalent bonds :
1. Formation of hydrogen (H2) molecules : The atomic number of hydrogen is 1. Hence, hydrogen has
one electron in its K-shell and thus requires one more electron to complete the K-shell,. So, two
hydrogen atoms share one electron each to form a molecule of hydrogen, H2. By doing so, each
hydrogen atom attains the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, helium, which has
two electrons in its K-shell. We can depict the formation of diatomic molecule of H2 using dots or
crosses to represent the valence electrons involved in sharing. Such structures of molecules are called
electron dot structures. The electrons dot structure of H2 molecule is shown in figure.
Shared electrons
or
Shared pair
H + H H H or H–H
Hydrogen atom Hydrogen atom Hydrogen molecule

Electron dot structure of Hydrogen (H2) molecule
The shared pair is said to constitute a single covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms and is
represented by a single line between the two hydrogen atoms.
Shared pairs are also called bond pairs since they bind the combining atoms together.
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2. Formation of chlorine (Cl2) molecule : The atomic number of chlorine is 17. So its electronic
configuration is : 17Cl = K L M (1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p5)
2 8 7
Thus, chlorine has 7 electrons in its valence shell, i.e., M-shell. Therefore, it needs one more electron
to complete the M-shell. So, two chlorine atoms share one electron each to form a diatomic molecule
of chlorine (Cl2). By doing so, each chlorine atom attains the stable electronic configuration of the
nearest noble gas, argon. The electron dot structure of chlorine molecule is shown in figure.
Shared pair
Cl + Cl Cl Cl or Cl – Cl
Chlorine atom Chlorine atom Chlorine molecule

Electron dot structure of chlorine (Cl2) molecule
The shared pair constitutes a single covalent bond between the two chlorine atoms and is represented
by a single line between the two chlorine atoms. The three pair of electrons on each chlorine atom
which were not involved in bond formation are called unshared pairs or lone pairs of electrons.
3. Formation of ammonia (NH3) molecule : The atomic number of nitrogen is 7. So, its electronic
configuration is : 7N = K L (1s2, 2s2 2p3)
2 5
Thus, nitrogen has 5 electrons in its valence shell, i.e., L-shell. Therefore, it needs three more
electrons to acquire the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, neon.
On the other hand, atomic number of hydrogen is 1. Therefore, its has one electron in the K-shell and
thus needs one more electron to acquire the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas,
helium.
In order to complete its octet, nitrogen shares three of its valence electrons, with one electron each of
three hydrogen atoms to form a molecule of ammonia. By doing so, each hydrogen atom completes
its duplet. The three shared pairs of electrons form three N–H, single covalent bonds. The electron dot
structure of ammonia is shown in figure. The pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom in NH3 molecule
which is not involved in bond formation is called the lone pair.
Lone pair
Shared pair
N + 3 ×H H × N × H or H – N – H
One N-atom Three H-atoms ×
H
H
Shared pair
Ammonia molecule
Electron dot structure of ammonia (NH3) molecule
4. Formation of methane (CH4) molecule : Methane is the simplest carbon compound. Its formula is
CH4. It is widely used as a fuel and is the major component of Bio-gas Compressed Natural Gas
(CNG).
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The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its electronic configuration is : 6C = K L (1s2, 2s2 2p2)
2 4
Thus, carbon has 4 electrons in the valence shell (i.e., L-shell) and hence, needs four more electrons
to complete its octet by acquiring the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, neon.
Thus, the valency of carbon is 4. In other words, carbon is tetravalent.
On the other hand, the atomic number of hydrogen is 1. In other words, hydrogen has one electron in
the K-shell (i.e., valence shell) and thus needs one more electron to complete its duplet by acquiring
the stable electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, helium.
In order to complete its octet, carbon shares its four valence electrons, with one electron each of four
hydrogen atoms to form a molecule of methane. By doing so, each hydrogen atom completes its
duplet. The four shared pairs of electrons form four C–H single covalent bonds. The electron dot
structure of methane molecule is shown in figure.
H Shared pair
× H
C + 4 ×H H × C × H or H–C–H
Four H-atoms × H
One C-atom Shared pair H Shared pair
Methane molecule
Electron dot structure of methane (CH4) molecule
5. Formation of oxygen (O2) molecule : The atomic number of oxygen is 8. So, its electronic
configuration is : 8O = K L (1s2, 2s2 2p4)
2 6
Thus, oxygen has 6 electrons in the L-shell (i.e., valence shell). Therefore, its needs two more
electrons to complete its octet. So each atom of oxygen shares two electrons with another atom of
oxygen to form a diatomic molecule of oxygen. By doing so, each oxygen atom acquires the stable
electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, neon. The two electrons contributed by each oxygen
atom give rise to two shared pairs of electrons. These two shared pairs of electrons constitute a double
bond between the two oxygen atoms which is represented by a double line. Further, since each
oxygen atom shares two electrons to form O2 molecule, therefore, the valency of oxygen is two. In
other words, oxygen is divalent.
The electron dot structure of oxygen molecule is shown in figure.
Two shared pairs
O + O O O or O = O
Oxygen atom Oxygen atom Oxygen molecule

Electron dot structure of oxygen (O2) molecule
6. Formation of nitrogen (N2) molecule : The atomic number of nitrogen is 7. So, its electronic
configuration is: 7N = K L (1s2, 2s2 2p3)
2 5
Thus, nitrogen has 5 electrons in the L-shell (i.e., valence shell). Therefore, it needs three more
electrons to complete its octet. By doing so, each nitrogen shares three electrons with another atom of
nitrogen to form a diatomic molecule of nitrogen. By doing so, each nitrogen atom acquires the stable
electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, neon.
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The three electrons contributed by each nitrogen atom give rise to three shared pair of electrons.
These three shared pairs of electrons constitute a triple bond between the two nitrogen atoms which is
represented by a triple line. One pair of electrons on each nitrogen atom in N2 molecule which is not
involved in bond formation is called the lone pair. Further since each nitrogen atom shares three
electrons to form a molecule of N2, therefore, the valency of nitrogen is three. In order words,
nitrogen is trivalent. The electron dot structure of a diatomic molecule of nitrogen is shown in figure.
Three shared pairs
N + N N N or N = N
Nitrogen atom Nitrogen atom Nitroen molecule

Electron dot structure of nitrogen (N2) molecule
Homoatomic and Heteroatomic Molecules :

Molecules which are made up of only one kind of atoms such as H2, Cl2, O2, N2, etc., are called
homoatomic molecules while those which are made up of more than one type of atoms such as CH4,
NH3, HCl, etc., are called heteroatomic molecules

Covalency : Covalency of an element may be defined as the number of electrons which an atom of
an element shares. In H2 molecules both the atoms share one electron each hence, have a covalency
of one. In O2 molecule both the atoms share two electrons and hence, have a covalency of two
while in nitrogen molecule both the atom share three electrons and hence, have a covalency of
three.
Properties of covalent compounds :

1. Physical State : Covalent compounds exist as gases, liquids or solids. For example, NH3, CH4, SO2,
etc, exist as gases, while H2O exist as liquid and C12H22O11, (C2H4)n exist as solids.
2. Melting and boiling points : Since, no ions are present in the covalent molecules, the attractive
forces in them are weak. Therefore, these compounds have usually low melting and boiling points.
3. Electrical conductivity : Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity. This means that covalent
compounds are bad conductor of electricity due to absence of free ions. For example, covalent
compounds like glucose, sugar, urea, alcohol and carbon tetrachloride, etc., do not conduct electricity
because they do not contain ions. Some polar covalent compounds like hydrogen chloride gas,
however, conduct electricity when dissolved in water since it dissociates into H+ (aq) and Cl– (aq)
ions and hence, it becomes a good conductor of electricity.
4. Nature of reactions : Covalent compounds generally undergo molecular reactions.
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5. Solubility : Covalent compounds are usually insoluble in water but they are soluble in organic
solvents. For example, naphthalene is insoluble in water but dissolves in organic solvents like ether.
Some of the covalent compounds like glucose, sugar and urea, etc., are however, soluble in water.
The polar covalent compounds like hydrogen chloride and ammonia are also soluble in water.
Difference in the properties of ionic and covalent compounds
S.No. Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds
1. These are formed by the transfer of one or more These are formed by mutual sharing of
electrons from one atom to the other. electrons between the bonded atoms.
2. These are formed between atoms of metals and non- These are formed between the atoms of non-
metals metals.
3. They are high melting and boiling points due to strong They have low melting and boiling points
forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions. because no ions are involved in their formation.
4. They are soluble in polar solvents like water but are They are generally insoluble in polar solvents
insoluble in organic solvents like alcohol, benzen, petrol, like water but are soluble in non-polar solvents
ether, chloroform, etc. like alcohol, benzene, petrol, ether, chloroform,
etc.
5. They do not conduct electricity in the solid state but do They do not contain ions and hence, are
so in the molten state or in their aqueous solution. generally bad conductors, of electricity.
6. They undergo ionic reactions which are very fast. They undergo molecular reactions which are
slow.
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
Allotropes : When an element is found in different forms having different physical properties but
almost similar chemical properties, the phenomenon is known as allotropy and different forms are
called allotropic forms of that element.
Elements such as carbon, oxygen, phosphorus and sulphur display allotropy.
Carbon exists in both crystalline and amorphous allotropic forms.
(A) Crystalline Allotropes of Carbon :
The crystalline varieties of carbon are diamond, graphite and fullerene.
1. Diamond :
(a) Structure of Diamond :
Diamond possesses a three dimensional network of carbon atoms joined together tertrahedrally
through strong covalent bonds. Each carbon atom is linked tetrahedrally to four neighbouring carbon
atoms extended in three dimensions such that each carbon atom lies at the centre of regular
tetrahedron with the vertices occupied by other carbon atoms. All C–C bonds are of equal lengths 154
pm (1.54 Å) with bond angle 109º 28'.
Structure of diamond
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(b) Properties of Diamond :
(i) It is the purest and densest form of carbon having density 3.51 g cm–3. It is insoluble in all
solvents.
(ii) It is the hardest naturally known substance. Due to the presence of very strong covalent bonds, the
network is very hard and diamond is extremely hard with a very high melting point (3843 K).
(iii) It is a bad conductor of electricity since all the valence electrons of each carbon atom are
involved in the formation of C–C bonds leaving no free and unpaired electron in the crystal.
(iv) Diamond is resistant to almost all acids, alkalis and salts. However, it reacts with fused
sodium carbonate. On strong heating with a mixture of potassium dichromatic and sulphuric
acid to 475 K, it slowly gets oxidized to carbon dioxide.
(v) It is transparent and possesses high refractive index (2.45) and therefore diamond is a precious
stone and used to jewelleries. The market value of a diamond depends upn its size and colour.
Blusih-white diamonds are more precious and costly than those having yellowish colour.
Black diamonds being the cheapest and not used in jewellery.
(c) Uses of Diamond :
(i) As a precious stone in jewellery.
(ii) Black diamond is used for cutting glass and for making rock drills.
(iii)In preparation of dies used for drawing very thin wires of metals like tungsten.
(iv) Most industrial diamonds are often used as an abrasive because there very hard.
(v) Surgeons used diamond knives for performing delicate operations.
2. Graphite :
(a) Structure of graphite :
Each carbon atom in graphite is covalently attached to three neighbouring carbon atoms lying in the same
plane giving rise to planar hexagonal rings. The C–C bond length in these rings is 142 pm (1.42 Å), and
are separated by a distance of 340 pm (3.4 Å). Due to weak Van der Walls' forces, the sheets are not
firmly attached and can slide over one another. This is why graphite is soft and possesses lubricating
properties.
Vander waal forces
Structure of graphite
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(b) Properties of Graphite :
(i) It is a dark grey substance with a metallic luster.
(ii) Graphite has density (2.25 g cm–1) due to large separation between the adjacent layers. It is
very soft, opaque and slippery to touch.
(iii) It leaves a black mark on paper and is used in lead pencils.
(iv) It is a good conductor of electricity due to unpaired electron left on each carbon atom.
(v) It is not attacked by dilute acids, alkalis and chlorine. A mixture of potassium dichromatie and
sulphuric acid oxidizes it slowly to carbon dioxide.
(c) Uses of Graphite :

Graphite is used -
(i) in making electrodes and carbon arcs.
(ii) as a lubricant for machines working at high temperature.
(iii)in the manufacture of lead pencils. The powered graphite is mixed with clay and pressed into
sticks. These sticks are used to make pencils.
(iv) for making shoe polish and paints.
(v) as a moderator in atomic reactors.
Table : Difference in the properties of diamond and graphite.
S.No. Diamond Graphite
1. Crystalline, transparent with extra brilliance. Crystalline, opaque and shiny substance.
2. Hardest form Soft having soapy touch.
3. Bad conductor of electricity. Good conductor of electricity.
4. High density (3.51 g/cm3 ) Low density (2.25 g/cm3 )
5. Colourless. Greyish white.
6. Tetrahedral structure Two dimensional layer structrure with
regular hexagonal sheets.
7. Less stable, more energy More stable, less energy.
8. Melting point is about 3527ºC Melting point is about 4027ºC
(3) Fullerenes :
(i) Fullerene or Buckminster fullerene of molecular formula C60 was discovered by H.W. Kroto, R.F.
Curl and R.E. Smalley in 1985. They are awarded Nobel prize in 1996 for the outstanding
discovery of fullerenes.
(ii) The name Buckminster fullerene was given to C60 in the honour of Robert Buckminster fuller
whose geodesic dome structure incorporated patterns of hexagons with sufficient pentagons to
give clusters. The structure of Buckminster fullerene (C60) is shown in figure. Its shape resembles
to that of a soccer ball (football). Fullerenes containing carbon clusters upto 600 carbon atoms
have been observed.
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The soccer ball structure of

Buckminster Fullerene (C60)

C60 molecules is made of 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons.
(iii)Fullerene is large spheroidal cage like molecules of carbon having formula C60.
(iv) Naturally fullerenes were discovered at the impact sites of ancient meteorites.
(v) Fullerenes are soluble in organic solvents and form coloured solutions. A solution of C60 in
toluene is purple, whereas that of C70 is orange red.
(B) Amorphous Forms of Carbon :
Carbon also exists in amorphous forms. Some amorphous forms of carbon are as follows :
1. Coal : Coal deposits found in almost all parts of the world are formed by the slow carbonization
of the vegetable matter deep buried in the layers of earth long-long ago. In coal deposits carbon is
in impure form and exists in several varieties such as peat (60% C), lignite (70% C), bituminous
coal (78% C). semibituminous (83% C) and anthracite (90% C).
Coal is extensively used as fuel in boilers, engines, furnaces and in manufacture of fuel gases and
synthetic petrol.

Destructive distillation of coal gives four products – coke, coal gas, coal tar and ammonical
liquor. Coke is a grayish black hard solid which contains about 80-95% carbon. It is mainly used
as a fuel and also as a reducing agent in metallurgical process.
2. Charcoal : Charcoal is a light, black residue, consisting of carbon and any remaining ash,
obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation
substances. It is of three types -
(i) Wood charcoal : Destructive distillation of wood gives a black, soft and porous solid wood
charcoal. It is capable of adsorbing colouring matter and odoriferous gases. It is used as a fuel
deodorant, decolourising matter and in gun powder.
(ii) Animal charcoal (Bone black) : Destructive distillation of animal bones gives animal
charcoal containing about 10 % carbon. It is a better adsorbent than wood charcoal and is
mainly used for decolourising organic substances and raw sugar solutions.
(iii)Sugar Charcoal : The purest form of charcoal. Sugar charcoal is obtained by heating
canesugar in the absence of air.
C12H22O11 12C + 11H2O
Sugar charcoal
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3. Lamp black (Soot) : Burning carbon rich substances such as tar, turpentine oil, kerosene,
petroleum etc., in limited supply of air gives velvety (soft and smooth) black powder (called lamp
black) containing about 89-99 % carbon. It is commonly used in making printing ink, black
paints, boot polishes and as a filler in the rubber industry.
Gas Carbon : During destructive distillation of coal some carbon present in smoke is condensed on
the inner walls of retort. The scrapped carbon taken out from the walls of retort called gas carbon. It
is a good conductor of electricity and is used for making electrodes.
VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

Many of the things we use in our day to day life are made up of carbon compounds. In fact, we
ourselves are made up of carbon compounds. The number of carbon compounds known today is
approximately three million. This number far exceeds the total number of compounds formed by all
other elements. Why is it that this property is seen in carbon and in no other element ? The nature of
the covalent bond enables carbon to form a large number of compounds. The four main characteristic
properties of carbon atom which lead to formation of a very large number of organic compounds are :
1. Catenation : The main reason as to why carbon forms a large number of organic compounds is
that carbon can combine with other carbon atoms to form straight or branched chains of varying
lengths or rings of different sizes as shown below :
C C C C C C C C C
C
Straight chain C C C
C C
Branched chain Three-membered ring Four-membered ring
C
C
C C
C C
C C
C C C
Five-membered ring Six-membered ring

This unique property of self-linking of carbon atoms through covalent bonds to form long straight
or branched chains and rings of different sizes is called catenation.
The property of catenation is probably due to (i) small size (ii) unique electronic configuration
and (iii) great strength of carbon-carbon bonds.
NO other element exhibits the property of catenation to the extent seen in carbon atoms. Silicon
forms compounds with hydrogen which have chains of upto seven or eight atoms, but these
compounds are very reactive. The carbon-carbon bond is very strong and hence, stable. This gives
us the large number of compounds with many carbon atoms linked to each other.
2. Tetra-valency of carbon : Carbon has a valency of four. Therefore, it is capable of bonding with
four other atoms. The bonds formed by carbon with other atoms are very strong and hence the
molecules are very stable. This further increases the number of carbon compounds.
3. Tendency to form multiple bonds : Due to small size, carbon also forms multiple (double and
triple) bonds with other carbon atoms, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen. This multiplicity of carbon-
carbon, carbon-oxygen and carbon-nitrogen bonds further increases the number of carbon
compounds.
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4. Isomerism : Another reason for huge number of carbon compounds is the phenomenon of
isomerism. Isomerism is defined as follows :
If a given molecular formula represents two or more structures having different properties, the
phenomenon is called isomerism and the different structure structures are called isomers. For example,
Isomers of Butane-C4H10 are :
CH3
|
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH3 , 1
CH3 2
CH 3 CH3
n Bu tan e Isobutane
( Bu tane ) ( 2 Methypropane)
Isomers of Pentane-C5H12 are :

CH3
|
1 2 3 4
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 CH 3 CH CH 2 CH 3
n Pentane Isopentane
( Pentane ) (2 Methybutane )
CH 3
|
and 1 2 3
CH 3 C CH 3
|
3CH
Neopentane
(2,2 Dimethylpropane)
Thus, the number of different structures with the same molecular formula further increases the
number of carbon compounds.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Two characteristic features of carbon i.e., tetravalency and catenation put together, give rise to a large
number of compounds. Many have the same non-carbon or group of atoms attached to different
carbon chains these compounds were initially extracted from natural substances and it was thought
that these carbon compounds or organic compounds could only be formed within a living system.
Thus these carbon compounds were named organic compounds and were defined as- 'Those
compounds of carbon that are directly or indirectly obtained from organism.'
Berzelius Hypothesis or Vital Force theory :
Organic compounds cannot be synthesized in the laboratory because they require the presence of a
mysterious force (called vital force) which exists only in living organisms.
Wohler's Synthesis :
In 1828, Friedrich Wohler synthesized urea (a well known organic compound) in the laboratory by
heating ammonium cyanate.
(NH4 ) SO4 + 2KCNO NH 4 CNO + K 2SO 4
Ammonium Potassium Ammonium Potassium
sulphate cyanate cyanate sulphate
O
Heat ||
NH 4 CNO Re arrangement NH 2 C NH 2
Ammonium
cyanate Urea

Urea is the first organic compound synthesized in the laboratory.
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MODERN DEFINITION OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

With the downfall of the Vital force theory, the word organic pertaining to life lost its significance.
An analysis of these compounds revealed that all them contain carbon as their essential constituents.
Therefore, the organic compounds were regarded as the carbon compounds. This definition was little
confusing because according to this, typical inorganic compounds like carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide and carbonates of certain metals should also be regarded as organic compounds.
However, a detailed investigation of the structure of the organic compounds revealed that almost all
of them essentially contain both carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons) and some of them also contain
the atoms of a few other elements such as nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, halogens, etc. These are
regarded as the derivatives of hydrocarbons since, they can be formed by replacing the hydrogen
atoms in the hydrocarbons by these atoms.
Thus :
Organic compounds are the hydrocarbons and their derivatives and the branch of chemistry that deals
with the study of these compounds in known as organic chemistry.

Oxides of carbon (like carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide), carbonates and hydrogen carbonate
salts are not considered to be organic compounds. This is because their properties are very
different from those of the common organic compounds.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

The organic compounds can broadly be classified as follows :
Organic (Carbon) Compounds
Open chain or Closed chain (Cyclic) or

Acyclic compounds Ring Compounds
Saturated Unsaturated
Homocyclic or Carbocylic Heterocyclic

Compounds Compounds
Alicyclic Aromatic Alicyclic Aromatic

Compounds Compounds Compounds Compounds
1. Open chain or Acyclic Compounds :
Compounds containing open chains of carbon atoms are referred to as open chain compounds or acyclic
compounds or aliphatic compounds. The carbon chains may be either straight or branched e.g.,
H
H C H
H H H H H H H H
H C H H C C H H C C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H H H H
(CH4 methane) (CH 3CH3, Ethane) (CH3CH2CH3, Propene) (CH3–CH –CH3, Isobutane)
CH3
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(a) Saturated compounds :
A saturated compound is a chemical compound that have a chain of carbon atoms linked together by
single bonds.
(b) Unsaturated compounds :
A unsaturated compound is a chemical compound that have a chain of carbon-carbon atoms linked
together by double or triple.
2. Closed Chain (Cyclic) or Ring Compounds :
The compounds containing closed rings of carbon atoms are referred to as cyclic or ring compounds.
These are further classified into following categories.
(a) Homocyclic or Carbocyclic Compounds :
When the ring is entirely made up of carbon atoms, the compound is said to be carbocyclic
compound. Carbocyclic compounds are of two types.
(i) Alicyclic compounds : These compounds contain a ring of three or more carbon atoms only
and possess properties almost similar to those of aliphatic compounds e.g.,
CH2
CH2 CH2 H2 C CH2

H3C
H3C CH3 H3C CH2 H2 C CH2
Cyclopropane Cyclobutane CH2

Cyclohexane
(ii) Aromatic compounds: These compounds also possess one or more rings made up of carbon
atoms only and have are characteristic aroma (smell). The parent aromatic compound,
benzene, has a ring of six carbon atoms joined together by alternate single and double bonds.
In general, when the compound contains one or more benzene rings, its is said to be an
aromatic compounds e.g.,
H CH3
C C
H H H H
C C C C
C C C C
H H H H
C C
H H
Benzene Toluene
Aromatic compounds possess properties quite different from those of aliphatic compounds.
(b) Heterocyclic compounds : These are also cyclic compounds but the ring contains one or more atoms
other than those of carbon. The atoms usually present in ring are of nitrogen, oxygen or sulphur.
HYDROCARBONS AND FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
(A) Hydrocarbons :
The organic compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms only are called hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds. Other compounds derived from them are regarded
as the derivatives of their parent hydrocarbons. These compounds are obtained when one or more
hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon are replaced by active atoms or groups of atoms called functional
groups.
Hydrocarbons may have straight chains, branched chains or rings.
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1. Saturated hydrocarbons or Alkanes :
The hydrocarbons in which all the carbon atoms are linked together by single covalent bonds are
called saturated hydrocarbons.
The saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes. They can be represented by general formula CnH2n+2,
where n is an integer having values 1, 2, 3 …. etc. These are the parent hydrocarbons of all aliphatic
compounds. Some examples of alkanes are as follows.
CH 4 CH3 CH3 CH 3 CH 2 CH 3 CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3
( CH 4 , Methane ) ( C 2 H 6 , Ethane) ( C 3 H 8 Pr opane ) ( C 4 H10 Bu tan e )
Structure of ethane (C2H6) : In ethane (C2H6), the two carbon atoms are linked together by a single
bond leaving each carbon with three valencies unsatisfied. These valencies are satisfied by hydrogen
atoms to form an ethane molecule. Thus ethane has one C–C single bond and six
C–H single bonds as shown below.
H H
H H
× ×
H × C × C × H or H C C H
× × H H
H H
Structure of ethane
(× electron of carbon)
( electron of hydrogen)
Structure of propane (C3H8) :
In propane (C3H8), all the three carbon atoms are linked together by single bonds leaving three
valencies each on the first and third carbon atoms unsatisfied and two valencies on the second carbon
atom unsatisfied. These valencies are satisfied by hydrogen atoms as shown below.
H H H
× × ×
H × C × C × C H
× × ×
× × ×
H H H
Structure of ethane
or
H H H
H C C C H
H H H
Thus, a molecule of propane has two C–C and eight C–H single covalent bonds.
Structure of butane (C4H10) : In butane (C4H10), all the four carbon atoms are linked together by
single covalent bonds and the remaining valencies of each carbon are satisfied by hydrogen atoms as
shown below.
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H H H H
× × × ×
H × C × C × C × C H
× × × ×
× × × ×
H H H H
Structure of Butane
or
H H H H
H C C C C H
H H H H
Thus, a molecule of butane has three C–C and ten C–H single covalent bonds.
2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons :
The hydrocarbons which contain one or more double or triple bonds i.e. multiple bonds between
carbon atoms are called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
(a) Alkenes : Unsaturated hydrocarbons having only one carbon-carbon double bonds are called
alkenes. These can be represented by the general formula CnH2n where n is an integer having
value 2, 3 ….. etc.
Structure of ethene (ethylene, C2H4) :
In ethene (C2H4), the two carbon atoms share their two electrons each to form a C = C double
bond. Each carbon is now left with two electrons which it share with the electrons of two
hydrogen atoms to form two C–H single bonds as shown below.
H H
× ×
C ×× C
× ×
H H
Structure of Ethene or Ethylene

or
H H
C C
H H
Thus in C2H4, there is one C = C double bond and four C–H single bonds.
(b) Alkynes : The unsaturated hydrocarbons having only one carbon-carbon triple bond are called
alkynes. The can be represented by the general formula CnH2n–2 where n is an integer having
values 2, 3 ….. etc.
Structure of ethyne (acetylene, C2H2) : In ethylene (C2H2), the two carbon atoms share their
three electrons each to form a C C triple bond. Each carbon is thus left with one unshared
electron only which it shares with the electron of a hydrogen atom to form a
C–H single bond as shown below.
H × C C × H
Structure of Ethyne (Acetylene)

or
H–C C–H
Therefore in C2H2 there is one C C triple bond and two C–H single bonds
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Alkyl Groups :
When a hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane, the group obtained is called an alkyl group or
alkyl radical e.g. on removing a hydrogen atom from methane (CH4) the resultant left is CH3 – or
methyl group. In methane (CH4), all the four hydrogen atoms are identical. Therefore, removal of
any of the H-atom results in the formation of the same type of methyl group. Similarly in ethane
on removal of one H-atom gives only one ethyl group (i.e., CH3 – CH2 –) because all the six
hydrogen atoms present in it are of the same type. However in propane (CH3CH2CH3) two types
of alkyl groups are formed on removing H-atom e.g.,
CH3
CH and CH3CH2CH2
CH3 propyl group
Isopropyl group
An alkyl group, in general, is represented by R. Therefore, an alkane can also be written as RH.
(B)Functional Groups :
The chemical nature of an organic compound depends on the presence of a particular active atom or a
group of atoms which largely decides the mode of reactivity of a given compound. The formation of
an organic compound from parent hydrocarbon having functional group X can be shown as follows.
R X H
R X
Hydrocarbon X Organic compound
In the molecule R – X, R represents an alkyl group in aliphatic compounds, whereas in aromatic

compounds, R stands for a aryl group. The group X is called functional group and decides the
chemical nature of the compound. For example, the chemical behaviour of ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH)
and ethylamine (C2H5NH2) are altogether different although they contain the same alkyl group.
CH3 CH 2 – OH CH3 CH 2 – NH 4
Alkyl Functional Alkyl Functional
group group group group
On the other hand, the properties of ethyl alcohol are almost similar to those of propyl alcohol due
the presence of the same functional group, although they contain different alkyl groups.
CH2 CH 2 — OH
Ethyl alcohol
CH3 CH2 CH2 — OH

Pr opyl alcohol
Similarly propanol (CH3CH2CH2–OH), Propanal (CH3CH2CHO), Propanone (CH3COCH3),

Propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH) have altogether different nature on account of different functional
groups i.e., –OH, –CHO, CO and – COOH groups respectively.
Organic compounds have been divided into different families on the basis of functional groups
present. This makes the study of organic compounds much easier, otherwise it would have been a
Herculean task to study five million of organic compounds individually.
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Table : Some Important Functional Groups and Corresponding Families
Name of the
Functional Corresponding
Hetero atom Structure Functional Common Example
Group Family
Group
Halogen –X –X Halo Halogen CH3 –CH2 –Br
(Cl, Br, or I) Compounds (Ethyl bromide or
Bromoethane)
Oxygen –OH –O–H Hydroxyl Alcohols CH3 –CH2 –OH
(–ol) (Ethyl alcohol or Ethanol)
–O–R –O–R Alkoxy Ethers CH3 –CH2 –O–CH2 –CH3
(Diethyl ether or Ethoxy
ethane)
–CHO O aldehydic Aldehydes CH3 –CHO
C (–al)
H (Acetaldehyde or Ethanal)
ketonic Ketones CH3

CO C=O C=O
(–one) CH3
(Acetone or Propanone)
–COOH O Carboxylic Carboxylic CH3 –COOH
C (–oic acid) acids (Acetic acid or Ethanone acid)
OH
Nitrogen –NH2 H Amino Amines CH3 –CH2 –NH2
N (amine) (Ethylamine or Aminoethane)
H
–CONH2 O Amide Amides CH3 –CONH2
C (Acetamide or Ethanamide)
NH2
–CN –C N Nitrile Cyanides CH2 CN
(Methyl cyanide or Ethane
nitrile)
–NO2 O Nitro Nitro C2 H5 –NO2
N compounds (Nitroethane)
O
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
The members of a family of organic compounds possess similar or almost similar chemical
properties. Their molecular formulae can be given by a general molecular formula e.g. CnH2n+1OH
represents alcohol family i.e., if n = 1 CH3OH is methyl alcohol, n = 2 C2H5OH is ethyl alcohol.
The members of a family arranged in the order of increasing molar mass gives homologous series.
The various members of a particular homologous series are called homologues.
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Homologous Series of Alkanes (CnH2n+2)
Value Molecular Molar IUPAC
Strcutural Formula
of n formula Mass Name
1. CH4 CH4 16 Methane
2. C2 H6 CH3 –CH3 30 Ethane
3. C3 H8 CH3 –CH2 –CH3 44 Propane
4. C4 H10 CH3 –CH2 –CH2 –CH3 58 Butane
5. C5 H12 CH3 –CH2 –CH2 –CH3 72 Pentane
Characteristics of Homologous Series :

The characteristics of a homologous series are as follows :
(i) All the members of a homologous series are represented by the same molecular formula. For
example, all the members of alkane, alkene and alkyne series can be represented by the general
formula CnH2n+2, CnH2n and CnH2n–2 respectively where n may have the value 1, 2, 3, …. For
alkanes and n = 2, 3, 4, …. For alkenes and alkynes.
(ii) The two successive members of a homologous series differ by –CH2 group in their molecular
formulae.
(iii)The molecular mass of a compound in the series differs by 14 amu (CH2 = 12 + 2 × 1 = 14) from
that of its nearest neighbour.
(iv) All the members of a series have the same functional group.
(v) The physical properties such as density, melting point, boiling points, solubility, etc., of the members of
a homologous series show almost regular variation in ascending or descending the series.
(vi) Homologues show similar chemical properties.
(vii) The members of a homologous series can be prepared by almost similar methods known as
general methods of preparation.
NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
What is nomenclature, Need for nomenclature
Trivial Names :
Initially organic compounds were named on the basis of the source from which they were obtained :
(i) Wood spirit for CH3OH – obtained by destructive distillation of wood.
(Methyl alcohol)
(ii) Urea for NH2CONH2 – Obtained from urine
(iii)Acetic acid for CH3COOH – obtained from acetum-vinegar
(iv) Oxalic acid for H2C2O4 – obtained from oxalis plant
(v) Formic acid for HCOOH – obtained for red ants.
This system of naming the organic compounds was called trivial system and the names thus derived
were called trivial names. However the number of organic compounds increased tremendously
towards the end of nineteenth century and the trivial system could not serve the purpose.
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Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary carbon atoms :
(i) C atom attached with one carbon atom is primary C atom or 1º carbon atom.
(ii) C atom attached with two carbon atoms is secondary C atom or 2º carbon atom.
(iii)C atom attached with three carbon atoms is tertiary C atom or 3º carbon atom.
(iv) C atom attached with four carbon atoms is quaternary C atom or 4º carbon atom.
1º
CH 3
1º 2º 3º 2º
| 1º
4º
C H 3 – C H 2 – C H C H2 – C CH 3
| |
1º CH 3 1º CH
3
Primary, Secondary and Tertiary H-atoms :

(i) H-atoms attached on 1ºC atom are primary H-atoms or 1ºH.
(ii) H-atoms attached on 2ºC atom are secondary H-atoms or 2ºH.
(iii)H-atoms attached on 3ºC atom are tertiary H-atoms or 3ºH.
3º
CH 3 – CH 2 – C H CH 3
1º 2º | 1º
CH3
1º
Reactivity order of primary, secondary and tertiary H-atoms :

Relative reactivity order : 3ºH > 2ºH > 1ºH
CH3CH2CH3 + Cl2 hv CH 3CHClCH 3 + CH 3CH 2CH 2Cl
More yield Less yield
IUPAC Name :
In 1969, IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) convention led out the
following rules to name organic compounds. In 1993, on the basis of recommendations of IUPAC,
some changes were also made at basic level which have also been incorporated.
(A) General Rules for IUPAC Nomenclature :
According to the IUPAC system, the name of an organic compound, in general, has the following
three parts :
(i) Word root (ii) Suffix (iii) Prefix
1. Word root :
The word root, a basic unit of the name represents the number of carbon atoms in the parent chain
Parent chain is the longest possible continuous chain of carbon atoms containing maximum possible
functional groups and multiple bonds present in the molecules. For organic compounds containing
parent chains upto four carbon atoms (C1 – C4) special word roots are used, while for compounds
containing parent chains having more than four carbon atoms Greek number roots are used.
Table : Word Roots for Carbon Chains
Chain Word Chain Word
Length root length root
C1 Meth– C6 Hex–
C2 Eth– C7 Hept–
C3 Prop– C8 Oct–
C4 But– C9 Non–
C5 Pent– C10 Dec–
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2. Suffix :
The suffix in word roots are added to show the main functional group (principal group). The multiple
bonds present in the given compound are indicated by adding specific suffixes to the word root. The
two types of suffix are used for this purpose.
(i) Primary suffix : The suffix used to represent the multiple bonds i.e. saturation or unsaturation of
carbon atoms present in the parent chain is called a primary suffix.
Table : Primary Suffixes
Nature of carbon chain Primary suffix General name

Saturated (C–C) –ane Alkane
Unsaturated, having one
–ene Alkene
double boind (C=C)
Unsaturated, having one triple
–yne Alkyne
bond (C C)
If the parent carbon chain contains more than one double or triple bonds, their number is indicated by
numerical prefixes such as di (for two), tri (for three), tetra (for four) etc.
E.g. CH3 – CH=CH2 Propene
CH2 = CH – CH = CH2 Butadiene
(ii) Secondary suffix : Secondary suffix represents the nature of principal functional group present in
the compound.
Table : Secondary Suffixes of Some Common Functional Groups
Organic General Functional Seconary IUPAC name word
Compounds formula group suffix root + p-suffix + s-suffix
Alcohol R–OH –OH –ol Alkanol
Aldehyde R–CHO –CHO –al Alkanal
Ketone R–CO–R C O –one Alkanone
Carboxylic
R–COOH –COOH –oic acid Alkanoic acid
acid
Acid chloride RCOCl –COCl –oyl chloride Alkanoyl chloride
Amide RCONH2 –CONH2 –amide Alkanmide
Ester RCOOR –COOR –oate Alkanoate
Nitrile RCN –CN –nitrile Alkane nitrile
Amine RNH2 –NH2 –amine Alkanamine
Thiol RSH –SH –thiol Alkanethiol
A secondary suffix is added to the primary suffix according to the following convention.
(i) If the secondary suffix begins with a vowel, the terminal 'e' of the primary suffix is dropped while
adding secondary suffix to the primary suffix.
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(ii) If the secondary suffix begins with a consonant, the terminal 'e' of the primary suffix is retained
while adding secondary suffix to the primary suffix i.e. alkane nitrile and alkane thiol.
(iii)The terminal 'e' of primary suffix is also retained if some numerical prefixed like di, tri, etc., are
used before the secondary suffix.
(iv) In case of more than one double (=) bonds are present, only 'ne, is replaced by diene, diyne and so
on …. e.g. IUPAC name of CH2 = CH – CH = CH2 is Buta-1,3-diene.
Table : IUPAC Rules for Addition of Primary and Secondary Suffix in parent hydrocarbon.
IUPAC nadm
Word Secondary
Compound Primary suffix (Word roto +
root suffix
P. suffix + S, suffix)
CH3CH2OH Eth– –ane [Rule (i)] –ol Ethanol
CH3CH2COOH Prop– –ane [Rule (i)] –oic acid Propanoic acid
CH3CN Eth– –ane [Rule (ii)] –nitrile Ethanenitrile
HOCH 2CH2OH Eth– –ane [Rule (ii)] –diol Ethanediol
CH3CH2CH2SH Prop– –ane [Rule (iii)] –thiol Propanethiol
CH3CH=CH=CH 2 But– –ene [Rule (iii)] – Buta-1,2-diene
3. Prefix :
The alkyl groups and functional groups other than the principal functional group are regarded as
substituents or side chain. Their presence is indicated by writing suitable prefixes before the word
root.
Table : Some Alkyl Groups and Their Prefixes
Parent alkane Alkyl group Common name Prefix used in IUPAC name
CH4
CH3– Methyl Methyl
(Methane)
CH3–CH3
CH3–CH2– Ethyl Ethyl
(Ethane)
Table : Some Substituents and their Prefixes

Substituent Prefix
–Cl Chloro–
–Br Bromo–
–I Iodo–
–F Fluoro–
–NO Nitroso–
–NO2 Nitro–
–OR Alkoxy–
Therefore in writing the complete IUPAC name of a compound following points should be obeyed.
(i) The arrangement of the different parts of the name is as follows.
Prefix (es) + Word root + Primary suffix + Secondary suffix
(ii) Prefixes are arranged in alphabetical order and are separated by hyphen (–).
(iii) The position of prefixes, double bond, triple bond, or functional group is represented by putting a
suitable Arabic numeral immediately before them.
(iv) In case of cyclic compounds, the prefix cyclo is written immediately before the word root.
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Example :
CH3
4 3 2 1
CH3–CH–CH2–CH2OH
3 methyl ....but .... … an * ..........1.......... – ol
(Pr efix ) ( Word root ) ( P .suffix ) ( Position of (S.suffix )
Functional group )
i.e. IUPAC name of the given compound is 3-methybutan-1- ol
Where, * = if the secondary suffix start with a vowel then terminal 'e' of primary suffix is omitted.
(B) Nomenclature Of Open Chain Hydrocarbons :
(a) Straight Chain Alkanes :
The straight chain alkanes are named including the number of carbon atoms present in them. The names
of such compounds end with –ane. Thus, the name of a straight chain alkane consists only two parts-
word root and primary suffix. Thus CH4, C2H6, C3H8 are called Methane, Ethane and Propane
respectively.
(b) Alkanes and their substituents :
In a branched chain alkane, all carbon atoms are not present in the straight chain. Some of the
carbon atoms are presents in side chains at one or more positions. The side chains i.e., alkyl
groups are expressed as prefixes in the IUPAC name of the compound.
(i) Longest chain rule :
The longest continuous chain of carbon atoms is selected as the parent hydrocarbon. The
compound is then named as a derivative of the parent hydrocarbon.
Example.
1 2 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6 7
C H3 C H C H2 C H2 C H2 C H 3 ( wrong ); C H3 CH CH2 C H2 C H2 C H 3 ( right );
| |
2
CH 2 CH 2
| |
CH 3 1
CH 3
If more than one set of longest possible chain are possible then the selected longest chain which
should have maximum number of side chain
(ii) Lowest number rule :
The selected chain is numbered in terms of arabic numbers from one end to other.
1 2 3 4 right
e.g., C H 3 – C H 2 – C H 2 – C H 3
4 3 2 1 wrong
Lowest number is assigned to the first side chain (alkyl group) or substitutent (–Cl, Br, –I, –NO2).
2 1
right 4 3 4 3 2 1 right
e.g., C H 3 – C H 2 – CH CH3 C H 3 – C H 2 – CH CH3
wrong 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 wrong
CH3 Cl
If two different substituents are at the same position from opposite ends, lowest number is given
in order of their alphabets.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 wrong
e.g., C H3 – C H 2 – CH CH2 CH CH2 CH3
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 right
CH3 C2H5
(methyl) (ethyl)
1 2 3 4 wrong
e.g., C H3 CH CH CH3
4 3 2 1 right
Cl Br
(chloro) (bromo)
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If more than two substituents and side chains are present, the sum of their numbers should be
lowest at the first preference, irrespective of the nature of side chain or substitutents,
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5
4 3 2 1 H3C– HC CH2 CH3 H3C– HC CH CH2 CH3
H3 C – C CH CH3
Cl I CH3 Cl
Cl Br 2-Chloro-3-iodobutane 3-Chloro-2-methylpentane
2-Bromo-3-chlorobutane
If more than one similar alkyl chains or substituents are present names are suitably modified by
putting di, tri, …. terms. While arranging the substituents alphabetically, these prefixes di, tri etc.
are not considered.
1 2 3 4
C H 3 –CH CH CH3 i.e., 2,3-Dimethylbutane
CH3 CH3
If more than one similar alkyl groups. Or substituents are present, at same position, their no. is
also repeated.
CH3
1 3
C H 3 –2 CH CH3 i.e., 2,2-Di methylpropane
CH3
(c) Alkenes, Alkyes and their derivatives :

(i) Select the longest possible carbon chain having maximum member of unsaturated carbon
atoms or maximum number of double or triple bonds, even if prior rules are violated.
C–C–C –C–C–C
C
6 with the unsaturated C atom or no double bond. (wrong).

5 with two unsaturated C atom or one double bond. (right).
4 with two unsaturated C atom or one double bond. (wrong)
(ii) If double and triple bonds are at the same position from either ends, lowest number is assigned
to the double bond.
5 4 3 2 1
C C – C –C =C
(iii)In case of unsaturation suffix name of unsaturation is used with hydrocarbon name, i.e.,
In case of double (=) bond 'ane' of hydrocarbon is replaced by 'ene' and
Triple bond ( ) bond 'ane' of hydrocarbon is replaced by 'yne'
(iv) In case of more than one multiple bond of the same kind prefixes like di, tri etc. are used with
the suffix.
CH3–CH=C=CH2 Buta-1,2-diene
If double and triple bonds are present in a compound (i.e., two suffix are to be used for
compound containing both the unsaturation), it is named as Alkenyne.
(d) For Functional groups :
(i) Select the longest possible carbon chain having maximum number of functional groups even if
prior rules are violated, e.g.,
C–C–C–C– C– C– OH
OH OH
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(ii) The carbon atom of functional group is to be included in deciding the longest carbon chain
C–C–CN 3C atom chain
C–C–C–CHO 4C atom chain

(iii) Lowest number is assigned to functional group even if prior rules are violated.
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
1 2 3 4 5
| | |
CH 3 CH 3 OH
(iv) The order for numbering a carbon chain, thus, follows the order :
(a) Functional group
(b) Unsaturation
(c) Substituents and side chains (or alkyl groups)
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
C C C C C C C Lowest number to OH gp.
|
OH
1 2 3 4 3 6 7
C C C C C C C OH at equidistant from two
| ends and thus, Next lowest
OH number to unsaturated
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
|
OH
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
| |
OH OH
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
C C C C C C C OH at equidistant from two
| | ends and thus, next lowest
CH 3 OH number to alkyl group.
Table : Functional groups, their prefixes and suffixes
Functional group Prefix name Suffix name
–COOH carboxy –oic acid
–SO3 H sulpho –sulphonic acid
–COOR alkoxy carbonyl–oate
–COX halo carbonyl –oyl halide
–CN cyano –nitrile
–CONH2 carbamoyl –amide
–NC isocyano –isonitrilic
–CHO aldo or formo –al
CO keto or oxo –one
–OH hydroxy –ol
–SH mercapto –thiol
–NH2 amino –thiol
–OR alkoxy …\
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(v) If more than one kind of functional groups are present, the functional group placed above, i.e.,
principal functional group decides suffix name and the others placed below decide prefix name.
CH 3 C COOH CH 3 C CH 2OH CH3 C CHO
|| || ||
O O O
2 ketopropanoic acid 1 hydroxypropan 2 one 2 ketopropanal
(vi) The last 'e' of primary suffix is replaced by the suffix name of functional group.
ISOMERISM
Two or more organic compounds having same molecular formula but different properties are known
as isomers and the phenomenon as isomerism. Berzelius used the term first time, i.e., In Greek, iso-
same or equal, meros-apart e.g.,
Molecular formula : C3H7Cl ;
Isomers : CH3CH2CH2Cl and CH3CHClCH3
ISOMERISM
Structural Stereoisomerism
Isomerism
Chain Functional Tautomerism Geometrical Optical

group
Position Metamerism
Isomerism is broadly classified into two types.
Table : Types of Isomerism
Structural isomerism Stereoisomerism
Two or more organic compounds having Two or more organic compounds having same molecular
same molecular formula but different formula as well as same structure formula but different
structural formula are known as spatial arrangement of atoms or groups (i.e., having
structural isomers and the phenomenon different configuration) are known as stereoisomers and
as structural isomerism. the phenomenon as stereoisomerism.
E.g., CH3CH2CH2Cl and CH3CHClCH3 CH3 C H CH3 C H
|| ||
E.g. and
CH3 C H H C CH 3
Cis(but 2 ene) Trans( but 2 ene)
Types of structural isomerism :

1. Chain or nuclear or skeleton Isomerism : Two or more organic compounds having same
molecular formula but different structure formula due to different nature of alkyl chain are known
as chain isomers and the phenomenon as chain isomerism.
C4H10 : (i) CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3
Bu tan e
(ii) (CH ) CHCH

3 2
Isobu tan e or 2 methylpropane
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2. Position isomerism : Two or more organic compounds having same molecular formula but
different structure formula due to different positions of substituents, alkyl groups, unsaturation or
functional groups in carbon chain are known as position isomers and the phenomenon as position
isomerism.
(i) But-1-ene and But-2-ene have the same molecular formula, C4H8 and are position isomers
because they have different positions of double bond as shown below.
C4H8 : CH 2 CH CH 2 CH 3 and CH 3 – CH CH CH 3
But 1 ene But 2 ene
(ii) Similarly, Propan-1-ol and Propan-2-ol have the same molecular formula but possess –OH groups
at different positions. Therefore, they are also position isomers.
C3H8O : CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 OH and CH 3 CH CH 3
Pr opan 1 ol
|
OH
Pr opan 2 ol
(iii)CH3CH2CH2Cl (1-chloropropane) and CH3CHClCH3(2-chloropropane).

CH3
CH3
(iv) (m-xylene or 1,3-dimethylbenzene) and (p-xylene or 1,4-dimethylbenzene)
CH3 CH3
3. Functional Isomerism :
Two or more organic compounds having same molecular formula but different structure formula
due to different nature of functional groups are known as functional isomers and the phenomenon
as functional isomerism.
(i) Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and methoxymethane (dimethyl ether) both have the same molecular
formula, C2H6O but contain different functional groups. Ethanol contains –OH group and belongs
to the alcohol family, whereas methoxymetahne contains –O– group and belongs to the ether
family.
C2H6O : CH3 CH2 OH and CH 3 O CH3
Ethanol Methoxymethane
(ethyl alcohol) ( dimethyl ether)
(ii) Proapanal and Propan-2-one possess the same molecular formula, C3H6O and are functional
isomers because the functional groups present in them are different. The former contains as
H
|
aldehydic (– C =O) group while the letter possesses a ketonic group ( C = O ).
H O
|
C3H6O : CH3– CH 2 C O and ||
Pr opanal
CH 3 C CH 3
Pr opan 2 one
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Common IUPAC Functional

Molecular Formula
name name group
1. Alcohol and ethers
CH3 CH2 OH Ethyl alcohol Ethanol –OH
CH3 OCH3 Dimethyl ether Methoxymethane –O–
2. Acids and esters
CH3 COOH Acetic acid Ethanoic acid –COOH
HCOOHCH3 Methyl formate Methyl methanoate –COOR
3. Aldehydes and ketones
CH3 CH2 CHO Propyl aldehyde Propanal –CHO
CH3 COCH3 Acetone Propanaone C=O
CH2 =CHCH2 OH Allyl alcohol Prop-2-enol –ene and – ol
4. Cyanides and isocyanides
CH3 CN Methyl cyanide Ethane nitrile –CN
CH3 NC Methyl isocyanide Methane isonitrile –NC
5. Diene and yne
CH2 =CH–CH=CH2 – Buta-1,3-diene diene
CH3 –CH C=CH3 – But-2-yne yne
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

Combustion or oxidation in air :
The burning of a compound in the excess of oxygen or air is called combustion. It is always
exothermic process and releases energy in the form of heat and light. Combustion reactions are infact
the oxidation reactions. E.g.,
C + O2 CO2 + Heat
All allotropic forms of carbon burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide, liberating heat and light.
Carbon compounds being combustible evolve a large amount of heat and light. This is why carbon
and several carbon compounds are used as fuels.
Saturated hydrocarbons burn with a blue, non-sooty flame due to low percentage of carbon in them
and the entire carbon present in them gets completely oxidized during combustion. Higher alkanes
also burn with a blue non-sooty flame and thus are used as fuels. e.g.,
CH 4 ( g ) + 2O 2 ( g ) CO2(g) + 2H2O( ) + Heat and Light

Methane Oxygen (from air )
2C 2 H 6 (g ) + 7O2(g) 4CO2 (g) + 6H2O ( ) + Heat and Light

Ethane
C 3 H 6 (g ) + 5O2(g) 3CO2 + 4H2O( ) + Heat and Light

Pr opane
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Unsaturated hydrocarbons burn in air with a yellow and sooty flame with lots of black smoke, due to
higher percentage carbon in them. During the process of combustion, the entire carbon present in them
is not completely oxidized and the flame contains smoke due to the presence of unburnt carbon. i.e.,
C 2 H 4 (g ) + 3O 2 (g) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O ( ) + Heat and Light

Ethene Oxygen (from air )
2C 6 H 6 ( g ) + 15O2 (g) 12CO2(g) + 6H2O (l) + Heat and Light

Benzene
Disadvantages of incomplete combustion of fuel :
(i) Fuel on burning under insufficient supply of oxygen leads to unburnt carbon in the form of black
soot causing air pollution as well as block chimneys in factories.
(ii) The black soot so formed blackens the bottom of cooking utensils.
(iii)Formation of highly dangerous and poisonous carbon monoxide.
(iv) Leading to less heat generation.
Formation of coal and petroleum :
Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels formed from remains of plants and animals which has
undergone many of biological and geological processes over millions of years. It is believed that
coal is formed by the burial of different types of plants that lived millions of yeas ago into the
earth on account of natural disturbances like earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. These underwent
slow combustion under pressure between the layers of earth due to high temperature prevailing
inside and changed into coal. Other carbon forms as oil and gas have been formed in the same
way from the remains of dead plants and animals. The bodies of plants and animals sank in the
sea bed and got covered by silt. Bacteria turned them into oil and gas under the high pressure of
sea water. In due course of time, the slit slowly changed into porous rock. The oil and gas seeped
into the pores of the rock and got trapped there. The natural oil and gas thus came into existence.
Oxidation :
Oxidation is a process in which oxygen is added to a substance. The substances which add oxygen to
other substances are called oxidizing agents. There are many oxidizing agents such as alkaline
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), nitric acid (HNO3), acidified potassium dichromate used in organic
chemistry. Some common reactions of oxidation are -
CH 2 CH 2
(i) CH 2 CH 2 +H2O+(O) Alakline kMnO 4
| |
Ethene
OH OH
Ethylene glycol
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COOH
(ii) CH CH + 4(O) Akaline KMnO 4
|
Ethyne
COOH
Oxalic acid
Alkaline KMnNO4 , Heat

(iii) CH3CH 2OH( ) + (O) CH 2COOH( ) + H2O ( )
Ethyl alcohol Nascent oxygen or acidified K 2Cr2O7 , Heat Acetic acid
( From the oxidising agent ) (a carboxylic acid)
Alkaline KMnO4 or
(iv) CH 3CHO CH3COOH
Ethanal Acidified K 2Cr2O7 Ethanoic acid
Alkaline KMnO4 or acidified K2Cr2O7 provides oxygen to ethyl alcohol and are known as oxidizing
agents.
Addition Reactions :
The unsaturated molecules containing a double bond or triple bond show reactions in which they add
molecules across the multiple bonds. These are called addition reactions.
Addition reactions (e.g., addition of hydrogen, addition of chlorine, addition of HCl etc.) are the
characteristic reactions of unsaturated compounds. During addition reaction cleavage of one of the
bond (double bond or triple bond) takes place and an attacking species adds to the molecule of an
unsaturated compound at the site of its double or triple bond.
(a) Addition of hydrogen on unsaturated hydrocarbons :
Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst palladium or nickel. A

catalyst is the substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction providing a new pathway for
reaction without being used up in the reaction. e.g.,
H H
H H
Nickel catalyst
C=C + H2 H C C H
H H
Ethene
H H
(unsaturated) Ethane
(Saturated)
H H
Nickel catalyst
H–C C–H + 2H2 H C C H
Ethyne or Acetylene
(unsaturated) H H
Ethane
(Saturated)
In the first reaction, the molecule of ethene adds one H-atom on each carbon by cleavage of the
double bond. Thus, a hydrogen molecule is added at the site of the double bond and ethene (an
unsaturated hydrocarbon) changes to ethane (a saturated hydrocarbon). In the second reaction, the
ethyne molecule adds two hydrogen molecules at the site of triple bond to form ethane.
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The addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated compound to obtain a saturated compound is called
hydrogenation and is largely used in the preparation of margarine (Vegetable Ghee or Vanaspati
Ghee) from edible vegetable oils.
Hydrogenation of Oils :
Vegetable oils such as groundnut oil, soyabean oil, cotton seed oil, (liquids at room temperature)
etc., are unsaturated organic compounds having many double bonds between the carbon atoms in
their molecules.
Hydrogenation of vegetable oils is carried out by heating them with hydrogen in the presence of
nickel as catalyst. In this process, double bonds present in the oil change into single bonds due to
addition of hydrogen at their sites and the oil gets solidified as semi solid mass into a saturated
fat called Vanspati Ghee.
Edible oil H 2 Nickel Vanaspati Ghee
unsaturated oil Heat (saturated fat)
( Liquid at room temp.) (solid at room temp.)
However saturated fats thus obtained by the hydrogenation of edible oils are not good for our
health. Animal fats such as butter, butter oil, desi ghee etc., are also said to be harmful for health.
Therefore, we should prefer to use those edible oils which are least saturated and contain a higher
proportion of unsaturated fatty acids.
(b) Addition of Cl2 and Br2 on unsaturated hydrocarbon :
The addition of Cl2 and Br2 takes place in the same manner, but the addition of Br2 on unsaturated
hydrocarbons is a test for unsaturation in molecule. 5 % Br2 – water, a brown solution is used in
addition reaction and the colour of Br2 – water disappears.
CH2 = CH2 + (Br2 - water) CCl CH2Br – CH2Br 4
H2C = CH2 + Cl2 CH2Cl – CH2Cl

Similarly on addition of Br2 – water to cooking oil, the colour of Br2 – water disappears. This
confirms that oils contain unsaturated molecules or compounds. On the other hand butter does not
decolorizes Br2 – water showing saturation nature.
(D) Substitution Reactions :
The reactions involving replacement of an atom or group of atoms present in a compound by
some other atom or group without bringing any change in the structure of the compound, are
called substitution reactions.
Saturated hydrocarbons are less reactive and remain inert for most of the reagents. However, they
undergo substitution reaction under specific sets of conditions.
Substitution reactions involving replacement of one or more H-atoms of an alkane with chlorine
in the presence of sunlight are also referred to as chlorination. An alkane on treating with chlorine
in the presence of sunlight shows replacement of all the hydrogen atoms present in the alkane
molecule one by one by chlorine atoms. The reaction is very fast. e.g.,
H H Cl Cl Cl
Cl2 Cl2 Cl2 Cl2
H C H Sunlight
H C Cl Sunlight
H C Cl Sunlight
H C Cl Sunlight
Cl C Cl
(–HCl) (–HCl) (–HCl) (–HCl)
H H H Cl Cl
Chloromethane Dichloromethane Trichloromethane Tetrachloromethane
(methyl chloride) (chloroform) (carbon tetrachloride)
Chlorination of methane, therefore gives a mixture of chloromethane, dichloromethane,

trichloromethane and tetrachloromethane to give a large number of products.
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SOME IMPORTANT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

(A) Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol), C2H5OH
It belongs to alcoholic family of organic compounds.
(a) Manufacture of Ethanol :
(i) By Hydration (hydrolsis) of Ethene : Ethene (ethylene) on reacting with concentrated
sulphuric acid at 353 K, gives ethyl hydrogensulphate. Ethyl hydrogensulphate thus obtained
is then hydrolysed with boiling water or steam to obtain ethyl alcohol.
CH2CH2 + H2SO4 353 K CH3CH 2HSO4
Ethene 30 atm Ethyl hydrogensulphate
(ethylene)
CH3CH 2 HSO 4 + H 2 O CH3CH2OH H2SO4

Ethyl hydrogen sulphate ( boiling) Ethanol(ethyl alcohol)
(ii) By Fermentation : The slow decomposition of large, complex molecules of certain organic
compounds into simpler ones by the catalytic activity of enzymes is known as fermentation.
Enzymes are complex biological, nitrogeneous, macromolecules (proteins). These act as catalyst
during biological reactions and are selective and hydrolytic in nature. The optimum temperature
for most of the enzymes is 25º–35ºC. Enzymes are colloidal in nature and pH susceptible.
Preparation of ethanol (ethyl alcohol) from carbohydrates is the oldest known fermentation process.
Even today, fermentation of carbohydrates is one of the most widely used method for the industrial
preparation of ethyl alcohol. The carbohydrates generally used for this purpose are sugars (present in
molasses, grapes, beets etc.) or starch (present in barley, potatoes, rice etc.).
Ethanol form sugars (molasses) : Molasses obtained from sugar industry is a dark coloured thick syrupy
liquid and contains unrecovered sugars about 60 %. The extraction of left sugars from molasses is not
profitable. Therefore, it is largely used for the manufacture of ethanol by fermentation.
The molasses is diluted with water to bring down the concentration of sugars to about 10 %. Some dified
with a small amount of sulphuric acid to check the growth of unwanted bacteria. Excess of acid hampers
the growth of enzymes needed for fermentation. Now, yeast (enzymes) is added to this solution and the
temperature is maintained at about 30ºC for a few days. Arrangements are made for proper aeration. The
enzymes invertase and zymase present in the yeast convert the sugars into ethyl alcohol.
C12 H12O11 + H2O Invertase
C6 H12O 6 + C6 H12O 6
Sucrose Glu cose Fructose
C6H12O6 Zymase
2C2 H 5OH + 2CO2
Ethanol
(b) Physical Properties of Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol):

(i) Ethyl alcohol is a colourless liquid having boiling point 351.3 K.
(ii) It possesses characteristic smell and a burning taste.
(iii)It is miscible in water in all proportions. The mixing of ethanol with water is followed by the
evolution of heat and mixture shows contraction in volume., It forces a constant boiling
(azeotrpic) mixture with water (95.6 % alcohol + 4.4 % water) which boils at 351.15 K.
(iv) It has a stimulant effect followed by depressant and anesthetic action on the central nervous system.
(v) It is a good solvent for fats, oils, paints, etc. and for several inorganic substances like NaOH,
KOH, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.
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(c) Chemical Properties of Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol) :
The chemical properties of ethanol are mainly due to alcoholic (–OH group) group.
(i) Reaction with sodium : Ethanol reacts with sodium (or potassium) to form ethoxide liberating
hydrogen gas. This is a test for alcoholic group.
2C2 H5OH + 2Na 2C2 H5ONa + H2
Ethanol Sod. ethoxide
( ethyl alcohol)
Experiment : A small piece of sodium metal is added into 100% pure ethanol (absolute alcohol)
taken in a dry test tube. Rapid effervescence due to evolution of a gas are noticed. On bringing a
burning splinter near the mouth of test tube the gas coming out of the test tube burns with a "pop"
sound. This indicates that the gas evolved is hydrogen.
(ii) Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid (dehydration) : Ethanol on heating with excess of
concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K eliminates a water molecule showing dehydration (removal
of water molecule) to form ethene. Concentrated sulphuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent.
CH 3CH 2OH conc. H 2SO 4
CH 2 CH 2 H 2O
Ethanol 443 K Ethene
(ethyl alcohol) (dehydration ) (ethylene)

In excess of ethanol at 140ºC ether is formed.
H 2SO 4
CH3CH2 OH H OH2CCH3 140 ºC
CH3CH2OCH2CH3
(iii)Reaction with ethanoic acid (esterification) : Ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in the presence of
conc. Sulphuric acid to form ethyl ethanoate, (an ester) having fruity smell. This is an other test
for alcoholic group in molecule. The reaction is called esterification as it is characterized by the
formation of an ester.
C2H5O H HO OCCH3 + conc. H 2 SO 4
CH3COOC 2H 5 + H2O
Ethanoic acid Ethyl ethanate
(acetic acid) (ethyl acetate)
(iv) Reaction with halogen acids : It reacts with HCl or HBr in presence of anhydrous ZnCl2 to give
corresponding alkyl halides immediately. For example,
C 2H 5OH +HCl Anhyd. ZnCl 2
Heat
C 2H 5Cl + H2O
Ethanol Chlomethane
(ethyl alcohol) (ethyl chloride)
Anhyd. ZnCl 2
C 2H 5OH + HBr Heat
C H Br + H2O
2 5
Ethanol Bromoethane
(ethyl alcohol) (ethyl bromide)
(v) Combustion : It readily burns in air or oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.
C2H 5OH 3O2 2CO2 3H2O
Ethanol
(ethyl alcohol)
Ethanol burns with a blue non-sooty flame and liberates lots of heat and is therefore used as a fuel
in spirit lamps. It is a clean fuel as on burning, it gives only carbon dioxide and water which do
not cause much pollution. The fossil fuels such as coal, petrol, etc. produce several harmful gases
on burning which give rise to serious pollution problems.
(vi) Oxidation : Oxidising agents such as acidified potassium dischromate oxidise ethanol to ethanal
which further undergoes oxidation to form ethanoic acid.
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CH2CH 2OH +[O] K 2 Cr2 O 7 H 2 SO 4
CH3CHO + H2O
Ethanol Ethanal
(ethyl alcohol)
CH3CHO + [O] K 2 Cr2 O 7 H 2 SO 4

CH3COOH
Ethanoic acid
(acetic acid)
(vii) Reduction : On reduction with hydroiodic acid in presence of red phosphorus, it gives ethane.
C2H5OH HI Re d P
C2 H 6 + H2O
Ethyl alcohol Ethane
(d) Uses of Ethanol :

(i) in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages.
(ii) as a fuel for spirit lamps and stoves.
(iii)as a solvent for paints, varnishes, lacquers, dyes, cosmetics, perfumes, drugs, tinctures etc.
(iv) as a starting material for the manufacture of ether, chloroform, iodoform, acetaldehyde, acetic
acid etc.
(v) as a substitute of petrol.
(vi) as a preservative for biological specimens.
(vii) as an antifreeze for automobile liquid in thermometers and spirit level.
(e) Commercial forms of Ethanol :
1. Rectified spirit : Rectified spirit is the commercial form of ethanol obtained by the fractional
distillation of wash obtained during the manufacture of ethyl alcohol by fermentation. It is
usually referred to as industrial alcohol. It contains about 95.57 % ethyl alcohol, rest being
water.
2. Absolute alcohol : It is 100 % pure ethanol obtained by azeotropic distillation of rectified
spirit using benzene. In azeotropic distillation, rectified spirit is mixed with a suitable quantity
of benzene and the mixture is subjected to fractional distillation. The third and the last fraction
obtained at 79.1ºC is absolute alcohol i.e., 100 % ethanol.
3. Methylated spirit or denatured alcohol : Alcoholic beverages contain ethyl alcohol.
Therefore, the manufacture and sale of ethyl alcohol is controlled by the government and
heavy excise duty is levied on alcoholic beverages. The alcohol used for various other
industrial purposes is however duty free and is sold much cheaper. Therefore, in order to
prevent the misuse of cheaper industrial alcohol for drinking purposes, the industrial alcohol is
made unfit for drinking by the addition some poisonous substances to it.
Industrial alcohol is usually made poisonous by the addition of poisonous substances like
methyl alcohol, pyridine and some colouring matter. Such a sample of alcohol is called
methylated spirit or denatured alcohol. It is poisonous and unfit for drinking.
This process is known as denaturation and alcohol is known as denatured spirit.
4. Power alcohol : The alcohol used for the generation of power is called power alcohol (a
mixture of petrol and alcohol in the ratio of 4 : 1 and little benzene). Since alcohol does not
mix with petrol, a third solvent such as benzene, ether or tetrahydronapthalene (tetralin) is also
added as a cosolvent. Power alcohol can be used as a substitute for petrol and can meet the
everyday increasing demand of gasoline all over the world.
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(f) Harmful Effects of Alcohols :
All alcoholic beverages (e.g., Rum, whisky, wine, beer, etc.) contains ethyl alcohol as an essential
constituent. People who consume alcoholic beverages everyday become alcohol adduct.
Toxicity of alcohols :
Ethyl alcohol < isopropyl alcohol < methyl alcohol
When taken in small dose, ethanol acts as a stimulant and provides extra energy to the body. But
if used in excess it develops damaging effect in human body e.g. acidity to slow down metabolic
processes, a depressant and anaesthetic action on the central nervous system. This leads to lack of
coordination, mental confusion, drowsiness, lowering of sense of discrimination and finally
unconsciousness. Heavy drinking may even lead to death. One should not consume alcohol due to
very harmful effects on human body.
(g) Analytical Test for –OH group :
1. Action of Na : Evolution of H2 gas with effervescence. A good test for primary alcoholic
groups.
2. Action of PCl5 : Pass PCl5 to alcohol, warm the solution; outcome of HCl indicates the
presence of –OH group.
Ceric ammonium nitrate test : Addition of few drops of ceric ammonium nitrate (yellow
colour) to alcohol gives red colour.
(B) Ethanoic Acid (Acetic Acid) CH3COOH
Ethanoic acid commonly known as acetic acid is the main constituent of vinegar and is known since
ancient times. Vinegar widely used as a preservative in pickles, contains 5-8 % of acetic acid solution
in water. Ethanoic acid belongs to the carboxylic acid family of organic compounds and has – COOH
group.
(a) Manufacture of Ethanoic Acid (Acetic Acid) :
(i) From acetylene (ethylene) : Acetylene on bubbling through a dilute solution (42 %) of sulphuric
acid containing about 1% mercuric sulphate as catalyst at 333 K, gives acetaldehyde.
Acetaldehyde on oxidation by air in the presence of manganese acetate as catalyst yields acetic
acid.
HC CH + H2O Dil. H SO 1% HgSO CH3CHO
2 4 4
Ethylne Ethanal
(acetylene) (acetaldehyde)
2 CH3CHO +O2 ( CH 3 COO ) 2 Mn

2CH3COOH
Ethanal Ethanoic acid
(acetaldehyde) (acetic acid)
This is one of the cheapest methods and gives a very good yield (about 97 %) of acetic acid.
Acetylene used in the method is obtained by treating calcium carbide with water.
(ii) From ethanol : Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) vapours on passing over copper catalyst at 573 K gives
ethanal (acetaldehyde), which on further oxidation by air in the presence of manganese acetate
yields ethanoic acid.
Cu
CH3CH2OH CH3CHO + H2
373 K
2CH3CHO + O 2 (CH3 COO) 2 Mn

2CH3COOH
( Air )
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(iii)Quick vinegar process : Fermented liquors obtained by the fermentation of sugars or starch
contain about 12-15% ethanol. The ethanol present in the fermented liquors is oxidsed by air in
the presence of the enzyme bacterium acetii to give vinegar having 4-7% acetic acid. The process
requires 8-10 days for completion and the maximum concentration of acetic acid that can be
obtained by this method is about 10%.
(iv) From methanol : Now-a-days ethanoic acid is manufactured by passing carbon monoxide in
methanol in presence of I2-Rh catalyst.
I 2 Rh
CH 3OH + CO CH 3COOH
methanol Catalyst ethanoic acid
(b) Physical Properties of Ethanoic acid (Acetic Acid) :

(i) Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid (b. pt 391 K) with a pungent vinegar odour and sour in
taste.
(ii) On cooling pure acid below 290 K, it forms ice-like crystals usually called glacial acetic acid
(glacial : ice like).
(iii)It is miscible with water, alcohol and ether in all proportions. It dissolves in water with the
evolution of heat and showing contraction in volume of mixture.
(iv) It is corrosive in nature and produces blisters on the skin.
(v) It dissolves sulphur, iodine and many organic compounds.
(c) Chemical Properties of Ethanoic Acid (Acetic Acid) :
The chemical properties of ethanoic acid are mainly due to the presence of carboxyl
(–COOH) group i.e. functional group present in all carboxylic acids.
(i) Acidic nature : Ethanoic acid shows acidic nature as it turns a blue litmus paper red.
Ethanoic acid is a much weaker acid than hydrochloric acid. All carboxylic acids (organic
acids) are much weaker acids than the mineral acids (e.g., HCl, H2SO4, etc.)
The mineral acids like HCl are completely ionized and furnish a large number of H+ ions in
solution. On the other hand, carboxylic acids such as CH3COOH being covalent in nature are
weakly dissociated in solution and furnish only a few H+ ions. This is why carboxylic acids
are much weaker acids as compared to the mineral acids.
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl–
CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO– + H+
(ii) Reaction with sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogencarbonates : Ethanoic acid reacts
with sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogencarbonate to yield a salt, effervescence of carbon
dioxide and water.
2CH3COOH + Na 2 CO 3 2CH3COONa + CO 2 + H 2 O
Ethanoic acid Sodium Sodium ethanoate Carbon Water
(acetic acid) carbonate (Sodium acetate) dioxide
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COONa + CO 2 + H 2 O

Ethanoic acid Sodium Sodium ethanoate Carbon Water
(acetic acid) hydrogencarbonate (sodium acetate) dioxide
The evolution of carbon dioxide in the reaction of ethanoic acid with sodium carbonate or sodium
hydrogencarboate is used as identification test for carboxylic group (acidic group).
Experiment : Put a little sodium hydrogen carbonate in a boiling tube and set up the apparatus as
shown in figure. Now add 2 mL of dilute ethanoic acid through the thistle funnel. Brisk
effervescence due to evolution of gas is noticed. On passing the gas in freshly prepared limewater
through the delivery tube, the limewater turns milky. Since carbon dioxide turns limewater milky,
it may be concluded that the gas evolved is carbon dioxide.
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Thistle funnel
Delivery tube
Cork
Boiling tube Carbon

Dioxide gas
Dilute Limewater
ethanoic
acid
Sodium
Hydrogen
carbonate
Reaction of ethanoic acid with sodium carbonate
Similar observation can be made by taking sodium carbonate in place of sodium hydrogencarbonate.
(iii)Reaction with a base (Neutralisation reaction) : Ethanoic acid with alcohols in the presence an
acid (conc. H2SO4) forms salt and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H 2 O
Ethanoic acid Sodium Sodium ethanoate Water
(acetic acid) hydroxide (sodium acetate)
(iv) Reaction with alcohol (Esterification) : Reaction of ethanoic acid with alcohol in the presence
an acid (conc. H2SO4 a dehydrating agent) to form ester is called esterification reaction.
O O
|| ||
CH3 C OH + CH 3CH 2OH
conc . H 2 SO 4
CH 3 C O CH 2 CH 3 H 2O
Ethanol Ethyl ethanoate
Ethanoic aicd (ethyl alcohol)
(acetic acid) (ethyl acetate)
(An ester )
Experiment : 1 mL of ethanol (absolute alcohol) and 1 mL of glacial acetic acid are taken in a
test tube. Now few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid are added to the mixture and the test tube
is warmed in a water bath as shown in figure. After sufficient warming, the test tube is taken out
of water and on smelling it indicates the presence of an ester in the resulting mixture.

All esters are sweet-smelling substances and are used in making perfumes and as flavouring
agents. The esterification reaction can also be used to identify carboxylic acid.
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(d) Uses of Ethanoic Acid :
(i) as a laboratory reagent and as a solvent for carrying out reactions.
(ii) as vinegar.
(iii)in medicine as a local irritant.
(iv) in the manufacture of various dyes, plastics, rayons, silk and perfumes.
(v) as a coagulating agent in rubber industry.
(vi) in the manufacture of acetates, acetone and esters.
(e) Test for Ethanoic Acid :
Ethanoic acid (acetic acid) gives following test :
(i) Its aqueous solution turns blue litmus red.
(ii) Its aqueous solution gives effervescence with sodium hydrogen carbonate.
(iii)Ferric chloride gives a wine-red colour with neutral solution of acetic acid.
(iv) On heating with ethyl alcohol and a small amount of sulphuric acid, a fruity smell due to
formation of ethyl acetate is noticed.
(f) Hydrolysis of Ester :
(i) Acidic hydrolysis : An ester on heating with water in the presence of a mineral acid under
goes hydrolysis to form the parent carboxylic acid and alcohol e.g. ethyl ethanoate on heating
with water in the presence of an acid gives ethanoic acid and ethanol back. The reaction is
reversible in nature.
H+
CH 3COOC 2 H 5 +H2O CH3COOH + C 2H 5OH
Ethyl Ethanoate Ethanoic acid Ethanol
(ethyl acetate) (acetic acid) (ethyl alcohol)
Thus, acidic hydrolysis of an ester is the reverse of the esterification process.

(ii) Alkaline hydrolysis (Saponification) : Hydrolysis of ester carried out in the presence of an alkali
such as sodium hydroxide, gives sodium salt of the parent acid and the parent alcohol.
CH3COOC 2H 5 + NaOH CH3COONa + C 2H 5OH
ethyl ethanoate Sodium Sodium ethanoate Ethaol
(ethyl acetate) (hydroxide) (sodium acetate) (ethyl alcohol)
The alkaline hydrolysis of esters is known as saponification and is used in the preparation of soaps.
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
Surfactants are the substances which possess surface activity i.e., these reduce the surface tension of
water. Soaps and detergents are the substances which possess surface activity as well as detergency
(cleansing action). The term detergent was originated from Latin word (detergere-to wipe clean).
Soaps and synthetic detergents are commonly used cleaning agents and improve the cleansing
properties of water by easily removing oily dirt present on clothes or skin.
Detergents are of three types :
(i) Anionic detergents
(ii) Cationic detergents
(iii)Nonionic detergents
(A) Soaps :
Soaps are anionic class of detergents. The commonly used soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of
higher fatty acids such as palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, etc.
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Preparation of Soaps :
The soaps are usually prepared by saponification of oils and fats i.e. the hydrolysis of an oil or fat
with an alkali (sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide). Oils and fats are glyceryl esters of fatty
acids and are mixed glycerins.
Sodium soaps are prepared by heating an oil or a gas with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution.
O
CH2–O–C–C17H35
O CH2OH
H C–O–C–C17H35 + 3NaOH 3C17H35COONa + CHOH
O Sodium stearate (soap)
CH2OH
CH2–O–C–C17H35 Glycerol
(or Glycerine)
Glyceryl ester of Steric Acid (fat)
(B) Cleasing Action of Soaps :

Soaps are widely used as cleansing agents. The cleansing action of a soap is mainly due to its ability
to emulsify the greasy or oil dirt through micelle formation. The mechanism of micelle formation in
soap solution and the cleansing action of soaps are described below.
1. Micelle formation in soap solution : A soap can be represented as RCOONa, where R represents
a long chain alkyl group. When dissolved in water soap ionises to give RCOO– ion. The RCOO–
ion possesses two parts-long hydrocarbon chain R (tail) and the polar group –COO– as shown in
figure. The hydrocarbon tail R being non polar and is hydrophobic i.e., water repelling whereas
the –COO– group being polar is hydrophilic i.e., water loving. Therefore RCOO– ion orients itself
in such a way that –COO– end dips in water and the hydrocarbon tail R orients away from water.
The –COO– group of different RCOO– ions tends to stay far away from one another due to the
like charges whereas the R-groups try to approach each other to form a bunch. This leads to the
formation of a micelle as shown in figure.
RCOONa H O RCOO– + Na+ 2
Thus, a soap micelle is a negatively charged colloid particle in which the negatively charged
–COO– groups present at the surface whereas the hydrocarbon chains point towards the centre.
The –COO– groups present at the surface of the micelle get surrounded by Na+ ions which tend to
drag the micelle in the bulk of the solution. A micelle may contain as many as 100 molecules or
more. The minimum concentration of soap at which it forms micelle may contain as many as 100
molecules or more. The minimum concentration of soap at which it forms micelle is called critical
micelle concentration or CMC.
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The cleansing action of soaps : Water is not capable of wetting oily or greasy substances.
However, the hydrocarbon residue R of the soap anion (RCOO–) can do so. When dirty cloth due
to the deposition (hydrophobic) of RCOO– ion dissolves the non polar impurities of oily or greasy
dirt and encapsulate it in cleaning action of soap is shown in figure.
(C) Limitation of Soaps as Cleansing Agents in Hard Water :
No doubt the soaps are capable of removing greasy dirt from a dirty article and are therefore, widely
used as cleansing agents. Their cleansing action with soft water is good but not with hard water.
The commonly used soaps are the sodium and potassium salt of higher fatty acids. They are
soluble in water to give 100 % ionization. The RCOO– ions so formed shows micellization and
give good lather in solution.
Hard water contains Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions. When a sodium or potassium soap is added to hard
water, it gets converted into a insoluble calcium or magnesium soap.
O
||
2RCOONa + Ca 2 ( R C O ) 2 Ca 2 2 Na
( From hard water ) Calcium soap
( insoluble in water )
O O
|| ||
2R C O Na + Mg 2 ( R C O ) 2 Mg 2 2 Na
Sodium soap ( From hard water) Magnesium soap
( so luble in water) ( inso luble in water )
The conversion of soluble sodium or potassium soaps into insoluble calcium or magnesium soaps
in the presence of hard water, the common soaps are unable to form micelles till all the Ca2+ and
Mg2+ ions are removed by using excessive amount of soap. Therefore neither they produce lather
with hard water nor they remove greasy material from cloth. The calcium and magnesium soaps
thus produced, appear on the surface as insoluble sticky grey scum, resulting in decolorisation and
hardening of fabrics. This is why the commonly used sodium and potassium soaps cannot be used
as cleaning agents with hard water.
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(D) Synthetic Detergents (Syndets) :
Now a days, the term detergent is mainly used to denote synthetic detergents or syndets.
The most commonly used synthetic detergents are either anonic such as sodium salts of long chain
alkyl substituted benzene sulphonic acids or sodium salts of sulphuric acid ester of long chain
aliphatic alcohols or cationic detergents as alkyl ammonium halides.
– + –+
C12H25 SO3 Na , C12H25 – O – SO2 – ONa
Sodium p-dodecyl Sodium lauryl
benzenesulphonate sulphate
Detergent vs. Soaps :

Synthetic detergents are better cleaning agents than soaps due to the following reasons.
(i) Detergents can be used both in soft as well as in hard water as their calcium and magnesium salts
are water soluble. On the other hand, soaps form insoluble salts with calcium and magnesium ions
and cannot be used in hard water.
(ii) The aqueous solutions of detergents are usually neutral. Therefore, they do not damage delicate
fabrics and can be used for washing almost all types of fabrics. On the other hand, aqueous
solutions of soap are alkaline and damage delicate fabrics. Therefore, soaps cannot be used for
washing delicate fabrics.
Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable and Pollution :
The detergents having great deal of branching in the hydrocarbon tail are not biodegradable and cause
pollution in rivers and waterways. The presence of side chains in the hydrocarbon tail prevents
bacteria from attacking and breaking the chain. This results in slow degradation of detergent
molecules leading to their accumulation in water.
Efforts are being made of minimize the branching in the detergent molecule in order to make them
biodegradable easily. Since unbranched chains are more easily attacked by the bacteria, the detergents
having no branching or minimum branching are easily biodegraded and pollution is prevented.
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CARBON & IT'S COMPOUNDS : WORKSHEET - 1

Single Choice Correct Questions
1. Covalent compounds are / have generally –
(1) poor conductors of electricity (2) less strong bonds
(3) high intermolecular forces (4) high melting and boiling points
2. A covalent compound :
(1) Have definite geometry
(2) Have strong bond
(3) Are poor conductors of electricity and have low melting and boiling points
(4) Are electrolytes
3. A molecule of ethane (C2H6) contains –
(1) 4 covalent bonds (2) 5 Covalent bonds
(3) 6 Covalent bonds (4) 7 Covalent bonds
4. Diamond is the hardest substance because –
(1) It has a rigid three-dimensional structure
(2) It has no free electrons
(3) It has hexagonal layers of carbon rings over each other
(4) It has a two-dimensional structure
5. The allotropic form of carbon, which is used as a lubricant is –
(1) graphite (2) diamond (3) charcoal (4) coal
6. Buckminster fullerene is an allotropic form of -
(1) Phosphorus (2) Sulphur (3) Carbon (4) Tin
7. Nitrogen molecule involves formation of -
(1) Single covalent bond (2) Double covalent bond
(3) Triple covalent bond (4) Ionic bond
8. Number of free electron(s) in each carbon atom in graphite is /are -
(1) Two (2) Four (3) One (4) Three
9. Catenation is -
(1) formation of double bond between carbon atoms
(2) linking of carbon atoms with atoms of other elements
(3) indefinite linking of carbon atoms
(4) the formation of four covalent bonds by a carbon atom
10. Compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen only are called
(1) Alkanes (2) Alkenes (3) Alkynes (4) Hydrocarbons
11. Which of the following are unsaturated hydrocarbons?
(1) C2H2 (2) C2H6 (3) C2H4 (4) Both 1 & 3
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12. Which of the following statements are correct-
(1) Carbon is a non-metal
(2) The electronic configuration of carbon is 1s2, 2s2 2p2
(3) The valency of carbon is 4
(4) All of these
13. Which formula represents saturated hydrocarbon?
(1) C2H2 (2) C2H4 (3) C3H6 (4) C3H8
14. Homologous series is a series of compounds in which –
(1) The same functional group substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon chain
(2) Formulae of successive compounds differ by a –CH3 unit
(3) Representation is possible by any formula
(4) Is collection of compounds with different functional groups
15. The two consecutive members of a homologous series differ by –
(1) CH group (2) 14 u (3) functional group (4) CH3 group
16. Functional group in an organic compound -
(1) is an atom or group of atoms bonded to carbon in a unique manner
(2) Present in the compound
(3) Present in the container
(4) Makes no difference to the compound
17. Chemical properties of an organic compound (carbon compound) depend on –
(1) The functional group (2) Constituent elements
(3) Number of hydrogen atoms (4) Number of carbon atoms
18. Saturated carbon compounds –
(1) have the carbon atoms linked together with a single covalent bond
(2) are normally not very reactive
(3) are also called alkenes
(4) Are not very useful
19. The hydrocarbons having the general formula of CnH2n-2 are known as –
(1) alkanes (2) Alkenes (3) Alkynes (4) Cycloalkanes
20. Functional group in an organic compound –
(1) is an atom or group of atoms bonded to carbon in a unique manner
(2) is always at the terminals
(3) always stays away when the reaction takes place
(4) makes no difference to the compound
21. Alcohols are compounds containing –
(1) - OH group attached to carbon atom (2) - CO- group attached to carbon atom
(3) - CHO group attached to carbon atom (4) - COOH group attached to carbon atom
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22. Occurrence of organic compounds having same molecular formula but different structures is
called –
(1) Catenation (2) Allotropy (3) Isomerism (4) Isotopes
H H H
| | |
23. The IUPAC name of the compound H C C C C OH is -
| | | ||
H H H O
(1) Butanol (2) Butanone
(3) Butanoic acid (4) Butanal
24. The total number of structural isomers possible for the hydrocarbon pentane (C5H12) is –
(1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5
25. The next higher homologue of propane is
(1) C4H10 (2) C3H4 (3) C2H6 (4) C5H12
H H H H
| | | |
26. The IUPAC name of the compound H C C C C H is –
| | | |
H OH H H
(1) 1-Propanol (2) 2- Pentanol (3) Butan-2-ol (4) Propan-2-ol
27. The IUPAC name of CH3 C CH2 CH3 is –
||
O
(1) Propanone (2) Pentanone (3) Butanone (4) Hexanone
28. The molecular formula of benzene is –
(1) C6H6 (2) C6H10 (3) C6H12 (4) C6H14
29. The IUPAC name of given compound is
CH3 CH CH 2 CH3
|
Cl
(1) chloro butane (2) 2-chloro butane (3) Propane (4) 2-chloro Propane
30. The organic compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures are known
as–
(1) isobars (2) isomers (3) allotropes (4) isotopes
31. The IUPAC name of CH 3 CH C CH is -
|
CH 3
(1) 2-methyl-2-butyne (2) 2-methyl-3-butyne
(3) 3-methyl butyne (4) 2-methyl-3-butyne
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32. Esterification is the name given to –
(1) reaction of an alcohol with a carboxylic acid in the presence of sulphuric acid
(2) formation of a new substance
(3) a type of addition reaction
(4) a type of rearrangement reaction
33. A hydrocarbon in which the carbon atoms are connected by single bonds only is called –
(1) unsaturated (2) saturated (3) benzenoid (4) non-benzenoid
34. The reaction of acetic acid with NaHCO3 results in the evolution of –
(1) Carbon monoxide (2) Hydrogen
(3) Carbon dioxide (4) Methane
35. The substance which is added to ethanol (used in industry for manufacturing various products) to
make it unfit for drinking is –
(1) Vinegar (2) sodium chloride (3) Methanol (4) Ester
36. The oxidation of CH3CH2CHO produces -
COOH
(1) CH3COOH (2) CH3CH2COOH (3) CH3COCH3 (4) CH2
COOH
37. The conversion of ethanol into ethanoic acid is –
(1) a displacement reaction (2) a reduction reaction
(3) an oxidation reaction (4) a decomposition reaction
38. The mixture used in car radiators in cold countries contains –
(1) alcohol and benzene (2) sodium chloride and water
(3) alcohol and water (4) sodium chloride and alcohol
39. The compound which can turn blue litmus solution into red is –
(1) CH3CH2OH (2) CH3CHO (3) CH3COCH3 (4) CH3COOH
40. Substitution reactions are those reactions in which –
(1) saturated hydrocarbons replace the cations of an inorganic compound
(2) one type of atoms or a group of atoms takes the place of another
(3) alkyl group replaces the anion of an inorganic compound
(4) alkyl group replaces the cation of an inorganic compound
41. In esterification reaction, concentrated sulphuric acid acts as a –
(1) dehydrating agent (2) hydrating agent
(3) reducing agent (4) hydrolysing agent
42. The number of chain isomers in pentane is
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
43. The IUPAC name of CH3CH2CH = CH2 is
(1) butene (2) isobutene (3) butene-2 (4) 3- methy1propene
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44. In acetylene, the two carbon atoms are joined by a
(1) single bond (2) double bond (3) triple bond (4) ionic bond
45. Give IUPAC name for the following compound
CH3
CH3 – C – CH2 – CH3
CH3
(1) 2, 3 –Dimethyl butane (2) 3, 3 – Dimethylbutane
(3) 3, 2 – Dimethyl butane (4) 2, 2 – Dimethyl butane
46. Which of the following is an aldehydic functional group ?
O O
(1) — C C— (2) — C — H (3) — C — OH (4) — OH
CH2CHO
47. The IUPAC name of is -
CH3
(1) propanal (2) propanol
(3) propanoic aldehyde (4) 2-methylethanal.
Al2 O3
48. The 'product' in the reaction CH3CH2OH 'product' + H2O is -
350 º C
(1) alkane (2) alkene (3) alkyne (4) none of these

49. When NaHCO3 reacts with acetic acid, a gas evolves. This gas turns –
(1) lime water milky (2) pure water milky
(3) zinc sulphate solution green (4) acidified K2Cr2O7 solution green
50. Which of the following statements regarding graphite is not correct ?
(1) Graphite is a black and soft crystalline substance
(2) Graphite is manufactured by heating coke at 3000 oC.
(3) Graphite is a bad conductor of heat and electricity.
(4) Graphite possesses a metallic lusture and soapy touch.
Multiple Choice Correct Questions
51. Which of the compounds is/are an organic acid?
H3 — C — OH CH3 CCH3 HCOH CH3 CHOH
(1) (2) (3) (4)
O O O CH3
52. Which of the following is / are unsaturated hydrocarbon -
(1) ethene (2) butene (3) butane (4) ethyne
53. Etherification is the reaction between …………….. and ………………. .
(1) alcohol (2) aldehyde (3) ketone (4) carboxylic acid
54. Which of the following are allotropes of carbon -
(1) glass (2) diamond (3) graphite (4) fullerene
55. Which of the following are functional groups -
(1) ester (2) alcohol (3) alkane (4) alkene
56. Butanone contains -
(1) 6 hydrogen (2) 7 hydrogen (3) 1 oxygen (4) 4 carbon
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Statement Type Questions
57. Read the given statement and mark the correct option.
Statement-1 : Graphite is good conductor of electricity.
Statement-2 : Because of presence of free electron.
(1) Both statement 1 and 2 are true and statement 2 is the correct explanation of statement 1.
(2) Both statement 1 and 2 are true but statement 2 is not the correct explanation of statement 1.
(3) Statement 1 is true but statement 2 is false.
(4) Both statements 1 and 2 are false.
Statement-1 : Diamond is poor conductor of electricity.
Statement-2 : All four valencies of each carbon atom in diamond are satisfied.
Statement-1 : Homologous member are differ molecular formula by –CH2 group.
Statement-2 : CH4 and C3H6 are homologous members.
Statement-1 : Isomers have same molecular formula but different structural formula.
Statement-2 : They have different physical and chemical properties.
61. Paragraph # 1
Soaps and detergents have cleansing property. They are capable of remaining dirt from clothes
and make washing of clothes a lot easier false. Difference ends of soap molecules have different
properties one which dissolves in water, other which do not.
(i). Orientation which is formed by soap molecules around dirt is called -
(1) rhombohedral (2) micelles (3) random (4) none of these
(ii). Which ions make usage of soap in hard water difficult -
(1) Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions (2) Na+ and Li+ ions
(3) Na+ and K+ ions (4) Al+3 and Cr+ ions
(iii). End which surround dirt particles is -
(1) hydrophilic end (2) hydrophobic end
(3) holophobic end (4) none of these
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62. Paragraph # 2
Carbon has the ability to form multiple bond with same atom. Carbon compound having only
single bonds in it are called saturated hydrocarbon while hydrocarbons having double (or triple)
bond in addition with single bond are called unsaturated hydrocarbon.
(i). Which of the following is unsaturated hydrocarbon -
(1) propane (2) cyclopropane (3) benzene (4) carbontetrafluoride
(ii). The ability of carbon atom to form long chains is -
(1) isomerism (2) resonance (3) tautomerism (4) catenation
(iii). Carbon can form long chains because -
(1) small size (2) higher bond strength
(3) none of these (4) both (1) and (2)
63. Fill in the Blanks
(i). Coal and petroleum are called …………………. fuels.
(ii). Fullerenes are allotropes of ………………. .
(iii). Reason for the large number of organic compounds is the …………………….. property of carbon
and its ……………….. .
(iv). NH3 molecule has ……………………. Unshared pair of electrons whereas H2O molecule
has …………………. unshared pair of electrons.
(v). CH3OH, C2H5OH and C3H7OH are …………. .
(vi). Hydrogenation of oils is done in the presence of ………………….. catalyst.
(vii). Cooking oil decolorises the red colour of ………………… .
(viii). Alkaline KMnO4 and acidified dichromate are ………………. .
(ix). ………………….. can be used in hard water for washing.
(x). Soap forms ……………………… with hard water.
64. True or False

(i). Carbon always forms covalent compounds.
(ii). In graphite, each carbon atom is linked to 4 other carbon atoms.
(iii). Inorganic compounds can not be converted into organic compound.
(iv). Pentane, 2-methyl butane and 2, 2-dimethyl propane are isomers.
(v). The functional groups OH, CHO and COOH are monovalent.
(vi). Gaseous fuels do not produce flame on burning.
(vii). Hydrolysis of esters is called saponification.
(viii). Hard water contains Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.
(ix). Detergents do not produce lather (foam) in hard water.
(x). Cleansing action of soaps and detergents is due to the formation of micelle.
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65. Column Matching Questions
(i).
Column-I Column-II
(A) CH3OH + CH3COOH H (P) Saponification
CH3COOCH3 + H2O
(B) C2H4 + H2 Ni CH3–CH3 (Q) Substitution reaction
(C) CH + Cl Sunlight
CH3Cl + HCl (R) Hydrogenation
4 2
(D) CH3COOH + NaOH (S) Esterification

CH3COONa + H2O
Heat
(E) Oil + NaOH Soap (T) Neutralisation reaction
+ Glycerol
Ni
(F) Oil + Hydrogen (U) Addition reaction
Vanaspati ghee
(ii).
Column-I Column-II
(A) Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions (P) Non-biodegradable
(B) Micelle (Q) Esters
(C) Soap (R) Sodium salts of long chain fatty acids
(D) Detergent (S) Detergent
(E) Can be used for washing in hard (T) Concentrated soap solution
water
(F) Can not be used in hard water (U) Biodegradable
(G) Sweet smelling liquid (V) Hard water
Column-I Column-II
(A) Plants and animals (P) Graphite
(B) Tetravalent (Q) Catenation
(C) Self-combination (R) Saturated cyclic hydrocarbon
(D) Fullerene (S) Carbon compounds
(E) Good conductor of electricity (T) Allotrope of carbon
(F) Cyclohexane (U) Carbon
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(iv).
Column-I Column-II
(A) Alkenes and alkynes (P) Seven covalent bonds
(B) C2H5– (Q) Isomers
(C) CH3–CH3 (R) Alkyl group
(D) C6H6 (S) Homologoue
(E) Pentane and isopentane (T) Unsaturated hydrocarbons
(F) CH3OH and C2H5OH (U) Unsaturated cyclic compound
(v).
Column-I Column-II
(A) C=O (P) Ethanal
(B) CH3–CHO (Q) Fossil fuels
(C) HCOOH (R) Ketone
(D) Coal and petroleum (S) controlled combustion
(E) Saturated hydrocarbons (T) Formic acid
(F) Oxidation (U) Non-sooty flame
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CARBON & IT'S COMPOUNDS : WORKSHEET-2

Very Short Answer Type Questions
1. Write the formula of two homologous of propane (C3H8).

2. Give the general name of the class of compounds having the general formula CnH2n–2.
3. Give the general formula of alkane.
4. Write the formulae of Butanoic acid.
5. Give two examples of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
6. Write the IUPAC name of the compound CH3COOH.
7. Complete the reaction CH3COOH + NaHCO3
8. Give the names of the following functional group.
– CHO, > CO
9. Name the functional groups present in the following compounds.
(i) CH3CH2CH2COOH (ii) CH3CH2CH2OH
10. What are hydrocarbons?
Short Answer Type Questions

11. Write the general formulae of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
12. An organic compound ‘X’ is a constituent of wine and beer. This compound on oxidation forms
another organic compound ‘Y’ which is a constituent of vinegar. Identify the compounds ‘X’ and
‘Y’. Write the chemical equation of the reaction that takes place to form the compound ‘Y’.
13. What are alkynes ?
14. Write the structural formulae of the isomers of n-butane.
15. What is homologous series ? State three characteristics of homologous series.
16. Give an example of each
(i) a straight chain hydrocarbon
(ii) branched chain hydrocarbon, and
(iii) ring chain hydrocarbon
17. What is alcohol ? Write the molecular formula condensed formula and structural formula of ethyl
alcohol. What is its IUPAC name?
18. How does ethanoic acid react with
(i) Sodium metal
(ii) Sodium hydrogen carbonate
(iii) Soda lime
19. Complete the following reactions :
(i) CH3CH2OH Alc.KMnO 4
(ii) C2H5OH + Na
(iii) CH3CH2OH + O2
20. Write the molecular formulae and names of lower and higher homologous of C4H6.
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Long Answer Type Questions
21. Which properties of carbon make it a versatile element. Discuss its bonding in saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
22. Define structural isomerism. Draw the structural formula of all the isomers of butane and pentane.
23. What is an unsaturated hydrocarbon? Name one such hydrocarbon. Give its molecular and
structural formula.
24. With the help of a labelled diagram and required chemical equation, describe the formation of
ester.
25. Give differences between diamond and graphite.
HOTS & Value Based Questions

26. A variety of molecules are known which are exclusively made up of carbon atoms. Among these
are diamond, graphite, fullerene and carbon nanotubes. They have quite different physical
properties since they differ in the way their atoms are connected to one another.
Now answer the following questions.
(i) Why is diamond hard and graphite soft ?
(ii) Why does C60 fullerene look like a bucky ball ?
(iii) What makes carbon nanotubes around 100 times stronger than steel ?
27. Vegetable oils such as soya bean oil, groundnut oil, sunflower oil, cotton seed oil, etc. develop
unpleasant smell and taste when kept for a long time a hot and humid weather. Therefore, these
oils are hydrogenated in presence of nickel as catalyst to form vegetable ghee. However,
vegetable ghee contains saturated carbon chains which are not good for health as advised by the
doctors.
Now answer the following questions :
(i) What is hydrogenation ? What changes occur during hydrogenation of vegetable oils ?
(ii) What type of health problem is caused by consumption of saturated fats and how can this
problem be checked ?
28. Write chemical equations to represent what happens when :
(a) Ethanol burns in air.
(b) Ethanol reacts with sodium metal.
(c) Ethanol is heated with alkaline KMnO4.
(d) Ethanol is heated with ethanoic acid in presence of few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid.
(e) Ethanol is heated at 443 K with excess concentrated H2SO4.
29. Name an element, other than carbon, which exhibits the property of catenation upto seven or eight
atoms ? Are these compounds stable ?
30. Two compounds 'X' and 'Y' have the same molecular formula, C3H6O. Write their structures and
name the functional groups present in them. Also give their IUPAC name ?
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ANSWER KEY
WORKSHEET – 1
1.(1) 2.(3) 3.(4) 4.(1) 5.(1) 6.(3) 7.(3)
8.(3) 9.(3) 10.(4) 11.(4) 12.(4) 13.(4) 14.(1)
15.(2) 16.(1) 17.(1) 18.(1) 19.(3) 20.(1) 21.(1)
22.(3) 23.(3) 24.(2) 25.(1) 26.(3) 27.(3) 28.(1)
29.(2) 30.(2) 31.(3) 32.(1) 33.(2) 34.(3) 35.(3)
36.(2) 37.(3) 38.(3) 39.(4) 40.(2) 41.(1) 42.(3)
43.(1) 44.(3) 45.(4) 46.(2) 47.(1) 48.(2) 49.(1)
50.(3) 51.(1,3) 52.(1,2,4) 53.(1,4) 54.(2,3,4) 55.(1,2,4) 56.(3,4)
57.(1) 58.(1) 59.(3) 60.(1)
61. (i).(2) (ii).(1) (iii).(2)
62. (i).(3) (ii).(4) (iii).(4)
63. (i). fossil (ii). carbon (iii). catenation, tetravalency (iv). one, two (v). homologue
(vi). nickel (vii). bromine water (viii). oxidizing agent (ix). detergents (x). scum
64.(i). true (ii). false (iii). false (iv). true (v). true (vi). false
(vii). false (viii). true (ix). false (x). true
65.
(i). A S; B U; C Q; D T; E P; F R
(ii). A V; B T; C U; D P; E S; F R; G Q
(iii). A S; B U; C Q; D T; E P; F R
(iv). A T; B R; C P; D U; E Q; F S
(v). A R; B P; C T; D Q; E U; F S
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Carbon and Its Compounds

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Carbon and Its Compounds

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CBSE : Class - X CHEMISTRY

Bonding in carbon Allotropy of Isomerism in Important carbon

BONDING IN CARBON – THE COVALENT BOND

Compound Melting Point (K) Boiling Point (K)

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Formation of Covalent Bond :

Hydrogen atom Hydrogen atom Hydrogen molecule

Chlorine atom Chlorine atom Chlorine molecule

Oxygen atom Oxygen atom Oxygen molecule

Nitrogen atom Nitrogen atom Nitroen molecule

Homoatomic and Heteroatomic Molecules :

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Properties of covalent compounds :

(c) Uses of Graphite :

The soccer ball structure of

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VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

Five-membered ring Six-membered ring

Isomers of Pentane-C5H12 are :

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MODERN DEFINITION OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

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CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Open chain or Closed chain (Cyclic) or

Homocyclic or Carbocylic Heterocyclic

Alicyclic Aromatic Alicyclic Aromatic

CH2 CH2 H2 C CH2

H3C CH3 H3C CH2 H2 C CH2

Cyclopropane Cyclobutane CH2

Structure of Ethene or Ethylene

Structure of Ethyne (Acetylene)

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In the molecule R – X, R represents an alkyl group in aliphatic compounds, whereas in aromatic

CH3 CH2 CH2 — OH

Similarly propanol (CH3CH2CH2–OH), Propanal (CH3CH2CHO), Propanone (CH3COCH3),

ketonic Ketones CH3

The various members of a particular homologous series are called homologues.

Characteristics of Homologous Series :

(ii) Urea for NH2CONH2 – Obtained from urine

(iii)Acetic acid for CH3COOH – obtained from acetum-vinegar

(iv) Oxalic acid for H2C2O4 – obtained from oxalis plant

(v) Formic acid for HCOOH – obtained for red ants.

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Primary, Secondary and Tertiary H-atoms :

Reactivity order of primary, secondary and tertiary H-atoms :

Nature of carbon chain Primary suffix General name

Ketone R–CO–R C O –one Alkanone

Table : Some Substituents and their Prefixes

(c) Alkenes, Alkyes and their derivatives :

6 with the unsaturated C atom or no double bond. (wrong).

C–C–C–CHO 4C atom chain

Chain Functional Tautomerism Geometrical Optical

Types of structural isomerism :

(ii) (CH ) CHCH

(iii)CH3CH2CH2Cl (1-chloropropane) and CH3CHClCH3(2-chloropropane).

Common IUPAC Functional

CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

CH 4 ( g ) + 2O 2 ( g ) CO2(g) + 2H2O( ) + Heat and Light

2C 2 H 6 (g ) + 7O2(g) 4CO2 (g) + 6H2O ( ) + Heat and Light

C 3 H 6 (g ) + 5O2(g) 3CO2 + 4H2O( ) + Heat and Light

C 2 H 4 (g ) + 3O 2 (g) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O ( ) + Heat and Light