#Explain Ionic, Covant and Metalic bonds with their characteristics.

Ionic bonds are electrostatic interactions between atoms that are held together by their attraction to each
other. In ionic bonds, one atom gives up an electron to another atom, which creates charged ions that are
attracted to each other. Ionic bonds are usually between a metal and a nonmetal. An example of an ionic bond
is between sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl).

A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share electrons. In a covalent bond, the electron pairs are shared
evenly between the atoms. Covalent bonds are usually between two nonmetals. An example of a covalent
bond is between hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O).

Metallic bonds are formed when atoms share electrons in a way that creates a “sea” of delocalized electrons.
The delocalized electrons allow the atoms to move freely around, which is why metals are usually solid at
room temperature (since the atoms can’t move around). Metallic bonds are usually between a metal and
another metal. An example of a metallic bond is between copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn).

Discuss each of the factors to differentiate iconic, covalent, and metallic bonds.

Occurrence

Ionic bonds occur between a metal and a nonmetal. Covalent bonds occur between two nonmetals. Metallic
bonds occur between metals.

Conductivity
Ionic bonds do not conduct electricity in the solid-state but they do in the liquid and molten state. Covalent
bonds do not conduct electricity in any state. Metallic bonds are good electrical conductors in all states.

Binding Energy
Ionic bonds have high binding energy. Covalent bonds have low to moderate binding energy. Metallic bonds
have low binding energy.

Bond
Covalent bonds are directional whereas covalent and metallic bonds are non-directional.

State of Presence
Ionic bonds are present in the solid, liquid, and gaseous states. Covalent bonds are present in all three states but
are strongest in the solid-state. Metallic bonds are present in all three states but are strongest in the solid-state.

Melting Point
Ionic bonds have high melting points. Covalent bonds have low to moderate melting points. Metallic bonds
have low melting points.
 Boiling Point
Ionic bonds have high boiling points. Covalent bonds have low to moderate boiling points. Metallic bonds
have low boiling points.

Ductility
Metallic bonds are ductile. Ionic and covalent bonds are not ductile.

Malleability
Metallic bonds are malleable. Ionic and covalent bonds are not malleable.

 Ionic crystals consist of alternating positively-charged cations and negatively-charged

anions. They are generally formed from a combination of Group 1 or 2 metals and
Group 16 or 17 nonmetals or nonmetallic polyatomic ions. Ionic crystals are hard and
brittle and have high melting points. They do not conduct electricity as solids, but do
conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution 1.
 Metallic crystals consist of metal cations surrounded by a “sea” of mobile valence
electrons. These electrons, also referred to as delocalized electrons, do not belong to
any one atom, but are capable of moving through the entire crystal. As a result, metals
are good conductors of electricity. The melting points of metallic crystals span a wide
range 1.
 Covalent network crystals are held together by a network of covalent bonds. They are
typically very hard and have high melting points. Examples of covalent network crystals
include diamond and silicon dioxide 1.
 Molecular crystals are made up of molecules, which are the smallest particles. They are
held together by intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole
interactions, and London dispersion forces. Molecular crystals are generally soft and
have low melting points. Examples of molecular crystals include ice and sugar 1

Main properties of covalent compounds:

 Most covalent compounds have relatively low melting points and boiling points
 Covalent compounds usually have lower enthalpies of fusion and vaporization than ionic
compounds.
 Covalent compounds tend to be more flammable than ionic compounds.
 When dissolved in water, they don't conduct electricity.

Metallic compounds are;

Strong
Ductile
Malleable
Conductive of heat and electricity

Main properties of Ionic compounds:

 They form crystals. Ionic compounds form crystal lattices rather than amorphous solids.
 They have higher enthalpies of fusion and vaporization than molecular compounds.
 They are hard.
 They are brittle.
 They have high melting points and also high boiling points.
 They conduct electricity but only when they are dissolved in water.

The secondary bonds or mixed bonds are of the following three

types:

(i) Van der Waals bonds (London forces/ Dispersion forces)

The attraction force between molecules due to self-induced temporary diploes
is called Van der Waals bond. Due to uneven electron distribution molecule
get slightly polarized. Thus a weak bond is formed.

(ii) Dipole attraction forces

Attraction forces among different polar molecules which have permanent
dipoles. The partially positive end attract to the partially negative end of the
other molecule.
(iii) Hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole attraction forces. These bonds are
formed when a Hydrogen atom and a high electronegative atom is present in
the dipole.

#Explain any types of bonding in solids.

Covalent bonding: This type of bonding forms network covalent solids, which are also called
simply “covalent solids”. In these solids, atoms are held together by a network of covalent bonds,
and hence can be regarded as a single, large molecule. Diamond, silicon, quartz, and graphite are
some examples of network covalent solids. They are characteristically brittle because the
directional nature of covalent bonds strongly resists the shearing motions associated with plastic
flow, and are, in effect, broken when shear occurs.

Ionic bonding: This type of bonding forms ionic solids. In these solids, atoms are held together
by ionic bonds, which are the result of transferring electrons from atoms with lower
electronegativity to atoms with higher electronegativity. Table salt (sodium chloride) is a classic
example of an ionic solid. Ionic solids are typically of intermediate strength and extremely
brittle.

Metallic bonding: This type of bonding forms metallic solids. In these solids, atoms are held
together by a high density of shared, delocalized electrons, resulting in metallic bonding. Copper
and aluminum are some examples of metallic solids.

Weak intermolecular bonding: This type of bonding forms molecular solids, which are
sometimes anomalously called “covalent solids”. These solids are held together by weak
intermolecular forces, and typical members of this class have distinctive electron distributions,
thermodynamic, electronic, and mechanical properties. Examples of molecular solids include ice
and solid carbon dioxide.

#Calculate the work done in stretching a uniform metal wire (area of cross -
section 10-6m2 and length 1.5 m) through 4x10-3m. The Young’s modulus for
the wire is 2 x 1011N/m2.
#Explain Stress-Strain Curve.

In Figure, we can see that in the region between O and A, the curve is linear.

Hence, Hooke’s Law obeys in this region. In the region from A to B, the stress and strain
are not proportional. However, if we remove the load, the body returns to its original
dimension. The point B in the curve is the Yield Point or the elastic limit and the
corresponding stress is the Yield Strength (Sy) of the material.

Once the load is increased further, the stress starting exceeding the Yield Strength. This
means that the strain increases rapidly even for a small change in the stress. This is shown
in the region from B to D in the curve. If the load is removed at, say a point C between B
and D, the body does not regain its original dimension. Hence, even when the stress is zero,
the strain is not zero and the deformation is called plastic deformation. Further, the point
D is the ultimate tensile strength (Su) of the material. Hence, if any additional strain is
produced beyond this point, a fracture can occur (point E).

If, The ultimate strength and fracture points are close to each other (points D and E), then
the material is brittle. The ultimate strength and fracture points are far apart (points D
and E), then the material is ductile.

The diffraction of a crystal of Barium with X-rays of wavelength 2.29angstroms

gives a first order reflection at 27.8∘. What is the distance between the diffracting
planes (In angstroms)? (Sin 27.8 = 0.4561)
2d Sinθ=nλ
d=nλ2Sinθ=1×2.292×0.4561=2.51 langstroms
#Derive an expression for Inter-Planar spacing of (hkl) planes of a cubic structure.
#Derive an expression for a spherically symmetric charge distribution.
#How does resistance of a conductor vary with temperature?

Oi sheet

# Define them

Magnetic field is defined as The region around a magnet in which the force of attraction or repulsion
produced by the magnet can be detected is magnetic field.
Magnetic permeability is referred to as the ratio of magnetic intensity to magnetic induction. Magnetic
permeability is denoted by μ and is the scalar quantity. Permeability of Medium is used to measure the
resistance of the material to the magnetic field and the degree to which the magnetic field can actually
penetrate through the material. In case the material has a larger magnetic permeability, the
conductivity will be higher.

Here is the formula of magnetic permeability –

Magnetic permeability (μ) = B/H

Here, H = magnetising field and B = magnetic intensity.

The Intensity of Magnetization (IoM) is defined as the change in the magnetic moment per
unit volume of a magnetic field. The following is the formula for the Intensity of
Magnetization: I =M/ V. Magnetic moment, M = m x. Volume, V= A x.

Magnetic susceptibility is an electromagnetic characteristic of a material that indicates how strongly it is

magnetised. When a magnetic field induces magnetisation in a material, the magnetic susceptibility, a
dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetisation, is measured. The magnitude of
M is comparable to the applied field in the following statement:

Xm = M/H

XM: magnetic susceptibility

M: magnetisation

H: applied magnetising field intensity

A magnetic susceptibility ratio does not have a unit because it is the ratio of two quantities expressed in the
same units. Magnetic susceptibility is affected by material and temperature characteristics.
Ceramics and polymers are two important classes of materials with distinct properties
and applications.
Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials that are typically made by heating
natural clay minerals at high temperatures. They are known for their high melting points,
hardness, and brittleness. Ceramics are used in a wide range of applications, including
construction, electronics, and transportation. For example, cordierite, a type of ceramic,
is used as a substrate and support for catalysts in catalytic converters in
automobiles1. Ceramics are also used in the aerospace industry to enhance fuel
efficiency and reduce structural weight1.
Polymers, on the other hand, are organic materials made up of long chains of repeating
units. They are known for their flexibility, low density, and ease of processing. Polymers
are used in a wide range of applications, including packaging, textiles, and medical
devices. For example, polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) are used in the production of
membranes due to their low cost, easy processing, and tunability in pore
configurations2. Polymers are also used in the preparation of ceramic materials3.

In a dielectric, the displacement vector D, the polarisation vector P and

the electric field vector E are related by the expression:
Derive an expression for energy stored in a capacitor. In which form energy is
stored?

Let us consider a capacitor of capacitance C and potential difference V between the

plates.

Let the charge on one plate be +q and -q on the other.

Suppose the capacitor is being charged gradually.

Now,at any stage the charge on capacitor is q.

Therefore, the potential difference = qC

Small amount of work doe in giving n additional charge dq to the capacitor is

dW= qC∗dq

Total work done in giving a charge Q to the capacitor is

W=∫dW

W= ∫Q0QCdq

W = Q2 C

Energy = E
E= Q22C = CV22 = QV2
The energy is stored in the form of potential energy.
 Torroid Vs Solenoid
A solenoid is a cylindrical-shaped electromagnetic coil that generates a magnetic field outside of
it when an electric current flows through it. The wire is wound in the form of a helix with a very
little gap between any two turns, and the wires are enameled, rendering them insulated from each
other. The magnetic field generated inside a finite solenoid is uniform in nature and is along the
axis of the solenoid. The field at the exterior at any point immediately to the solenoid is very
weak and the field lines cannot be seen near the close vicinity 1.

A toroid is a circular (doughnut) shaped electromagnetic coil that produces a magnetic field
within itself. It is shaped like a solenoid bent into a circular shape such as to close itself into a
loop-like structure. The toroid is a hollow circular ring with many turns of enameled wire,
closely wound with negligible spacing between any two turns. The magnetic field inside the
toroid, along with the circular turn, is constant in magnitude and its direction inside the toroid is
clockwise as per the right-hand thumb rule for circular loops. The magnetic field due to a toroid
can be given as,

where N is the number of turns of the toroid coil, I is the amount of current flowing, and r is the radius
of the toroid

Magnetic Susceptibility

Magnetic susceptibility is an electromagnetic characteristic of a material that indicates how strongly it

is magnetised. When a magnetic field induces magnetisation in a material, the magnetic
susceptibility, a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetisation, is
measured. The magnitude of M is comparable to the applied field in the following statement:

Magnetic susceptibility formula:

Xm = M/H

XM: magnetic susceptibility

M: magnetisation

H: applied magnetising field intensity

Magnetic Permeability
Magnetic permeability is a property of a magnetic material which supports the
formation of a magnetic field. It is defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction to
the magnetic intensity and is denoted by the symbol μ

Magnetic Permeability (μ) = B/H

B = magnetic intensity

H = magnetising field

Diamagnetic Materials:
When subjected to an external magnetic field, diamagnetic materials show a
modest magnetic reaction. A characteristic of this reaction is the development of
induced magnetic fields that compete with the applied field and produce a
repulsive force. Diamagnetic materials are, in other words, pulled away from the
magnetic field. The majority of organic molecules, copper, silver, and water are
examples of diamagnetic materials.

Paramagnetic Materials:
The attraction of paramagnetic materials to an external magnetic field is weaker
than that of diamagnetic materials. These substances have a net magnetic
moment because their atomic or molecular orbitals contain unpaired electrons.
A net magnetization is produced when a magnetic field is applied because the
magnetic moments line up with the field.
Elements like oxygen, aluminum, and titanium that have one or more unpaired
electrons frequently exhibit paramagnetic behavior.
Ferromagnetic Materials:
The strongest magnetic characteristics among the three groups are seen in
ferromagnetic materials. These materials have the capacity to become
permanently magnetized, maintaining their magnetic properties even when the
external magnetic field is removed. Ferromagnetism is frequently seen in alloys
made of iron, nickel, and cobalt.

Hysteresis is characterised as a lag of magnetic flux density (B) behind the magnetic field
strength (H). All ferromagnetic materials exhibit the phenomena of hysteresis.

Hysteresis Loop

The hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the magnetic flux density and the
magnetizing field strength. The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux
coming out from the ferromagnetic substance while changing the external magnetizing
field.
Looking at the graph, if B is measured for various values of H and if the results are
plotted in graphic forms, then the graph will show a hysteresis loop.

 The magnetic flux density (B) is increased when the magnetic field strength (H) is increased
from 0 (zero).
 With an increase in the magnetic field, there is an increase in the value of magnetism, and it
finally reaches point A, which is called the saturation point where B is constant.
 With a decrease in the value of the magnetic field, there is a decrease in the value of the
magnetism. But if B and H are equal to zero, when a substance or material retains some
amount of magnetism, it is called retentivity or residual magnetism.
 When there is a decrease in the magnetic field towards the negative side, magnetism also
decreases. At point C, the substance is completely demagnetized.
 The force required to remove the retentivity of the material is known as Coercive force (C).
 In the opposite direction, the cycle is continued where the saturation point is D, the retentivity
point is E, and the coercive force is F.
 Due to the forward and opposite direction process, the cycle is complete, and this cycle is
called the hysteresis loop.
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

When the nucleus of an atom splits into lighter nuclei Nuclear fusion is a reaction through which two or
through a nuclear reaction, the process is termed more light nuclei collide with each other to form a
nuclear fission. heavier nucleus.

When each atom splits, a tremendous amount of The energy released during nuclear fusion is
energy is released several times greater than the energy released
during nuclear fission.

Fission reactions do not occur in nature naturally Fusion reactions occur in stars and the sun

Comparatively, less energy is needed to split an atom High energy is needed to fuse two or more atoms
in a fission reaction together in a fusion reaction

Atomic bomb works on the principle of nuclear fission Hydrogen bomb works on the principle of nuclear
fusion.