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Essentials of Sociology 12Th Edition Henslin Test Bank Full Chapter PDF
Essentials of Sociology 12Th Edition Henslin Test Bank Full Chapter PDF
Essentials of Sociology 12Th Edition Henslin Test Bank Full Chapter PDF
Multiple-Choice Questions
TB_Q6.1.1
_____ is the violation of norms.
a. Negative sanction
b. Deviance
c. Social control
d. Stigma
Answer: b. Deviance
Learning Objective: LO 6.1 Summarize the relativity of deviance, the need for norms, and the
types of sanctions; contrast sociobiological, psychological, and sociological explanations
of deviance.
Topic/Concept: What Is Deviance?
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
TB_Q6.1.2
Answer: a. Crime
Learning Objective: LO 6.1 Summarize the relativity of deviance, the need for norms, and the
types of sanctions; contrast sociobiological, psychological, and sociological explanations
of deviance.
Topic/Concept: What Is Deviance?
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
TB_Q6.1.3
_____ refers to blemishes that discredit a person’s claim to a "normal" identity.
a. Crime
b. Norm
c. Deviance
d. Stigma
Answer: d. Stigma
Learning Objective: LO 6.1 Summarize the relativity of deviance, the need for norms, and the
types of sanctions; contrast sociobiological, psychological, and sociological explanations
of deviance.
Topic/Concept: What Is Deviance?
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
TB_Q6.1.4
A group’s _____, or customary social arrangements, is brought about by norms.
a. social order
b. deviance
c. crime
d. stigma
TB_Q6.1.5
Because deviance undermines predictability, a system of _____ was developed to enforce the
norms.
a. street crime
b. sociology
c. social control
d. assumption reinforcement
TB_Q6.1.6
Ted gave a talk to his high school class that was laced with humor and understanding and
showed that he really grasped the important points in the history of the French Revolution, which
was what his history class was studying. When he was finished, Ted was praised by his teacher
as well as by several classmates. The praise was an example of a
a. norm.
b. positive sanction.
c. stigmatization.
d. negative sanction.
TB_Q6.1.7
The motorcycle policeman appeared out of nowhere and pulled Teresa over for speeding. He was
friendly and businesslike as he stood by Teresa’s open window and issued her a $250 ticket. This
is an example of a
a. negative sanction.
b. neutral sanction.
c. positive sanction.
d. street crime.
TB_Q6.1.8
There are a variety of ways to approach deviance. _____ look for answers within individuals,
such as a possible genetic predisposition to deviance.
a. All sociologists
b. Conflict theorists
c. Sociobiologists
d. Psychologists
Answer: c. Sociobiologists
Learning Objective: LO 6.1 Summarize the relativity of deviance, the need for norms, and the
types of sanctions; contrast sociobiological, psychological, and sociological explanations
of deviance.
Topic/Concept: What Is Deviance?
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
TB_Q6.1.9
Street crime refers to acts such as
a. embezzlement.
b. identity theft.
c. mugging, rape, and robbery.
d. a corporation hiding large sums of money to avoid paying taxes.
TB_Q6.1.10
Psychologists look at _____ as a possible cause of deviance.
a. factors outside the individual
b. social influences that recruit people to break norms
c. personality disorders
d. genes
TB_Q6.2.11
Edward Sutherland used the term _____ to indicate that people who associate with some groups
learn an excess of definitions of deviance, increasing the likelihood that they will become
deviant.
a. control theory
b. labeling theory
c. shaming
d. differential association
TB_Q6.2.12
About _____ of all those in prison have a father, mother, brother, sister, or spouse who has also
served time in prison.
a. one-ninth
b. one-fourth
c. one-half
d. two-thirds
Answer: c. one-half
Learning Objective: LO 6.2 Apply the symbolic interactionist perspective to deviance by
explaining differential association, control, and labeling.
Topic/Concept: The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
TB_Q6.2.13
Killing is _____ in mainstream society; but for members of the Mafia, when certain of their
norms are broken that threaten a person’s honor, _____ would be a deviant act.
a. deviant; not killing
b. deviant; killing
c. frowned upon; killing
d. not deviant; killing
TB_Q6.2.14
In families living in dangerous neighborhoods, parents want to move because they feel that if
their kids have delinquent friends, they are likely to become delinquent, too. Sociological
research _____ this belief.
a. rejects
b. supports
c. has not addressed
d. is mixed in its findings on
Answer: b. supports
Learning Objective: LO 6.2 Apply the symbolic interactionist perspective to deviance by
explaining differential association, control, and labeling.
Topic/Concept: The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
TB_Q6.2.15
Symbolic interactionists stress that we
a. are prisoners of socialization.
b. in effect, are pawns in the hands of others.
c. help to produce our own orientation to life.
d. are predestined to think and act as our groups dictate.
TB_Q6.2.16
In control theory, how many control systems are in place to work against our tendencies to
deviate?
a. None
b. One
c. Two
d. Six
Answer: c. Two
Learning Objective: LO 6.2 Apply the symbolic interactionist perspective to deviance by
explaining differential association, control, and labeling.
Topic/Concept: The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
TB_Q6.2.17
The _____ our bonds are with society, the _____ our inner controls are.
a. weaker; more effective
b. weaker; less relevant
c. stronger; more effective
d. stronger; less effective
TB_Q6.2.18
_____ states that the labels people are given affect their own and others’ perceptions of them,
thus channeling their behavior into either deviance or conformity.
a. Deviance theory
b. Control theory
c. Labeling theory
d. Neutralization
TB_Q6.2.19
Techniques of _____ are ways of thinking or rationalizing that help people deflect, or neutralize,
society’s norms.
a. neutralization
b. the cyber age
c. control theory
d. degradation
Answer: a neutralization
Learning Objective: LO 6.2 Apply the symbolic interactionist perspective to deviance by
explaining differential association, control, and labeling.
Topic/Concept: The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
TB_Q6.2.20
Shaming is
a. illegal.
b. a relic dating to colonial times.
c. starting to make a comeback.
d. a form of neutralization.
TB_Q6.2.21
In a(n) _____, an individual is called to account before the group, witnesses denounce the
person, the offender is pronounced guilty, and the offender is then stripped of the identity of
being a group member.
a. example of labeling theory
b. degradation ceremony
c. example of differential association theory
d. illegal type of self-control
TB_Q6.2.22
_____ attempt(s) to neutralize the moral demands of society.
a. None of us
b. Very few people
c. Only deviates
d. All of us
Answer: d. All of us
Learning Objective: LO 6.2 Apply the symbolic interactionist perspective to deviance by
explaining differential association, control, and labeling.
Topic/Concept: The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Analyze It
TB_Q6.2.23
Outlaw bikers _____ a deviant identity.
a. reject
b. deny
c. neutralize
d. revel in
Answer: d. revel in
Learning Objective: LO 6.2 Apply the symbolic interactionist perspective to deviance by
explaining differential association, control, and labeling.
Topic/Concept: The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Apply What You Know
TB_Q6.2.24
When judges assign youthful offenders to social workers and counselors, rather than sending
them to reform school or jail, they are using diversion, which testifies to the power of
a. labeling theory.
b. neutralization.
c. shaming.
d. degradation ceremonies.
TB_Q6.3.25
How does deviance clarify moral boundaries and affirm norms?
a. By following the tenets of strain theory
b. Punishment of a deviating group member helps make clear what it means to be a member of
the group.
c. By opening up the illegitimate opportunity structure
d. Rewarding deviance enhances the strength of the group as a whole.
Answer: b. Punishment of a deviating group member helps make clear what it means to be a
member of the group.
Learning Objective: LO 6.3 Apply the functionalist perspective by explaining how deviance can
be functional for society, how mainstream values can produce deviance (strain theory),
and how social class is related to crime (illegitimate opportunities).
Topic/Concept: The Functionalist Perspective
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
TB_Q6.3.26
According to functionalists, deviance _____ social unity.
a. encourages
b. has no discernible impact upon
c. destroys
d. discourages
Answer: a. encourages
Learning Objective: LO 6.3 Apply the functionalist perspective by explaining how deviance can
be functional for society, how mainstream values can produce deviance (strain theory),
and how social class is related to crime (illegitimate opportunities).
Topic/Concept: The Functionalist Perspective
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Analyze It
TB_Q6.3.27
_____ may force a group to rethink its moral boundaries, helping the group to adapt to changing
circumstances.
a. Deviance
b. Strain theory
c. White collar crime
d. Social disintegration
Answer: a. Deviance
Learning Objective: LO 6.3 Apply the functionalist perspective by explaining how deviance can
be functional for society, how mainstream values can produce deviance (strain theory),
and how social class is related to crime (illegitimate opportunities).
Topic/Concept: The Functionalist Perspective
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Apply What You Know
TB_Q6.3.28
Sociologist Robert Merton developed
a. deviance theory.
b. a defense of white-collar crime.
c. strain theory.
d. modern sociology.
TB_Q6.3.29
In strain theory, institutionalized means are
a. rejected.
b. approved ways of reaching cultural goals.
c. unapproved ways of reaching cultural goals.
d. outmoded.
TB_Q6.3.30
Strain theory _____ the sociological view that deviants are the product of society.
a. rejects
b. offers an alternative to
c. diminishes
d. supports
Answer: d. supports
Learning Objective: LO 6.3 Apply the functionalist perspective by explaining how deviance can
be functional for society, how mainstream values can produce deviance (strain theory),
and how social class is related to crime (illegitimate opportunities).
Topic/Concept: The Functionalist Perspective
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Understand the Concepts
TB_Q6.3.31
The _____ refers to opportunities for crimes that are woven into the texture of life.
a. illegitimate opportunity structure
b. strain theory
c. legitimate opportunity structure
d. social disorder theory
TB_Q6.3.32
A _____ is committed by people of respectable and high social status in the course of their
occupations.
a. street crime
b. white-collar crime
c. victimless crime
d. crime that results in society’s most severe punishments
TB_Q6.3.33
Executives who committed corporate crimes at Macy’s, Sears, and Bloomingdales spent _____
in jail.
a. an average of 10 years
b. an average of five years
c. an average of six months
d. no time
Answer: d. no time
Learning Objective: LO 6.3 Apply the functionalist perspective by explaining how deviance can
be functional for society, how mainstream values can produce deviance (strain theory),
and how social class is related to crime (illegitimate opportunities).
Topic/Concept: The Functionalist Perspective
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
TB_Q6.3.34
In the 20 years from 1992 to 2012, the percentage of people arrested for burglary who were
women
a. decreased dramatically.
b. decreased slightly.
c. increased by 31%.
d. increased by 82%.
TB_Q6.4.35
The system of police, courts, and prisons set up to deal with people who are accused of having
committed a crime is known as
a. favoring the poor.
b. the criminal justice system.
c. a mockery.
d. class blind and color blind.
TB_Q6.4.36
Conflict theorists view the criminal justice system as
a. operating impartially to bring justice to all.
b. a tool designed by the powerful to maintain their power and privilege.
c. focusing on punishment of the powerful.
d. an honest endeavor by society to settle disputes equitably.
Answer: b. a tool designed by the powerful to maintain their power and privilege.
Learning Objective: LO 6.4 Apply the conflict perspective to deviance by explaining how social
class is related to the criminal justice system and how the criminal justice system is
oppressive.
Topic/Concept: The Conflict Perspective
Difficulty Level: Difficult
Skill Level: Analyze It
TB_Q6.4.37
Executives who are responsible for harm caused by creating pollution, manipulating prices, or
making unsafe products can usually
a. get away with a modest amount of jail time.
b. bypass the courts altogether.
c. go into the witness protection program.
d. count on their corporations not having to pay any fines.
TB_Q6.5.38
The United States has 5% of the world’s population and about _____ of the world’s prisoners.
a. 3%
b. 5%
c. 13%
d. 25%
Answer: d. 25%
Learning Objective: LO 6.5 Be able to discuss street crimes and imprisonment, the three-strikes
law, the decline in violent crime, recidivism, bias in the death penalty, the medicalization
of deviance, and the need for a more humane approach.
Topic/Concept: Reactions to Deviance
Difficulty Level: Easy
Skill Level: Remember the Facts
TB_Q6.5.39
On any given day, one out of _____ African American, one out of _____ Latino, and one out of
_____ white men in their 20s is in jail.
a. 20; 13; 19
b. 10; 20; 30
c. 8; 26; 100
d. 5; 30; 143
TB_Q6.5.40
In prison, _____ of inmates have less than a high-school education. In the U.S. population over
18 years of age, _____ of people have less than a high-school education.
a. 10.1%; 2.7%
b. 16.4%; 5.0%
c. 20.3%; 8.8%
d. 30.6%; 12.4%
TB_Q6.5.41
The sharp decline in violent crime can be attributed to
a. increased employment.
b. a variety of potential factors; research has not yet shown which.
In sheep the most noteworthy and dangerous parasite is Coenurus cerebralis (or
the cystic stage of the dog-taenia, T. coenurus), which gives rise to the disease
known as "gid" or "staggers." It is found in various parts of the brain or spinal
cord, and the symptoms differ according to the position of the parasite. If this
presses upon one hemisphere the sheep describes circles and finally falls: if on
the optic lobes, the eyes are affected: if the pressure affects the cerebellum the
movements of the sheep are uncertain and incoordinated. Four or six weeks
after the appearance of the symptoms, death results from cerebral paralysis, or
from general debility, and the loss of sheep incurred by this disease (happily less
frequent in England than formerly) has been calculated by Youatt at a million for
France annually; at 35 per cent of the flocks for England in bad seasons; and
about 2 per cent for Germany. Besides sheep, which are most subject to "gid"
during their first year, various ruminants—Goat, Ox, Moufflon, Chamois, Roe,
Antelope, Reindeer, Dromedary—are attacked in the same way. A similar form,
Coenurus serialis Baill., is common in the wild rabbit in this country, and in
Australia in the hare and squirrel. It forms large swellings in the connective
tissue of various parts of the body, but usually does not affect the health of the
host. It is not known in what carnivore Taenia serialis Baill. normally occurs.
Experiments have, however, shown that it develops rapidly in dogs.
The preventive measures which are steadily diminishing the prevalence of the
Cestode parasites in man in some parts of Western Europe cannot be dealt with
here, but it may be noticed that the Jewish observance with regard to swine is
the surest preventive measure against taeniasis and trichinosis. Careful
inspection of meat and general cleanliness, are the leading measures that in
these hygienic matters secure the greatest immunity from disease.
The reproductive organs, unlike the preceding systems, are discontinuous from
one proglottis to the next. The male and female organs and their mutual
connexions, especially in the unsegmented Cestodes, may be compared in
detail with those of Trematodes, but the difference between the arrangement of
the generative organs of various Cestodes is very great.[107] The penis (Fig. 41,
cs) is evaginated through the male pore (Fig. 41, ♂ ), and inserted far into the
vagina (♀, vag) of the same or another segment of the tape-worm.
From this fact and the anatomical relations of the vagina, it is becoming
increasingly probable that the so-called uterus of Trematodes is an organ
corresponding to the vagina of Cestodes, and not to the uterus of Cestodes. The
latter opens to the exterior in Schistocephalus, Bothriocephalus, and some other
Cestodes of fishes by a special pore (Fig. 41, uto). Through this, some of the
eggs (which in these genera give rise to ciliated larvae) are enabled to escape,
and need not wait for the detachment of the proglottis, as must happen in the
Taeniidae, where the uterus is closed. This uterus, a true physiological one, is
probably the homologue of the "canal of Laurer" ("Laurer-Stieda canal," or
"vagina") of Trematoda. The fertilised ovum and yolk are brought together into
the "ootype," where the shell-gland forms the egg-shell around them (Fig. 41,
sh.gl) and the egg is then passed into the uterus. The ovum segments to form a
minute six-hooked larva, which may (Bothriidae, Fig. 42) or may not (Taeniidae)
be ciliated. Thus in Taenia serrata the proglottides are shed with the faeces of
the host (dog), and they protect the young from the desiccating influence of the
surroundings. If inadvertently eaten by a rabbit along with herbs, the proglottis
and larval envelope are digested, and by its six hooks the tiny larva bores
through the gastric wall into the portal vein, and so into the liver. Here the hooks
are thrown off, and the solid mass of cells becomes vacuolated.
Table for the Discrimination of the more usual Cestodes of Man and
Domestic Animals.[108]
I. Scolex in most cases with hooks; uterus with a median and lateral
branches; yolk-glands simple, median; genital pore single; dorsal
excretory vessel narrower than the ventral, without a circular
commissural trunk; eggs without pyriform apparatus (processes of the
ovarian membrane)
Gen. Taenia L. (s. str.)
A. Genital ducts pass on the ventral side of the
nerve and of the two longitudinal excretory
vessels T. crassicollis Rud.
B. Genital ducts pass between the dorsal and ventral longitudinal vessels.
a. Nerve present on dorsal side of genital ducts.
α. Head armed T. solium Rud.
β. Head unarmed T. saginata Goeze.
b. Nerve on ventral side of genital ducts.
Dog-Taeniae[109]
Head armed; genital pore marginal and
— Single
Many proglottides; strobila several centimetres long; small hooks
with guard.
Bifid hooks, which are
— 230µ-260µ long[110]; genital pore very
distinct T. serrata Goeze.
— 136µ-157µ long; genital pore not very
salient T. serialis Ball.
Entire large hooks, which are
— 180µ-220µ long; length of mature
segments double their width T. marginata Batsch.
— 150µ-170µ long; length of mature
segments treble their width T. coenurus Küch.
3-4 segments; a few mm. long T. echinococcus
v. Sieb.
— Double and bilateral Dipylidium caninum
L.
Head unarmed; two genital pores on ventral Mesocestoides
surface lineatus Goeze.
II. Scolex without hooks; one or two transverse uteri present; one or two
genital pores and yolk-glands, the latter never median; genital ducts
pass on the dorsal side of the nerve; eggs with pyriform apparatus.
A. One transverse uterus present.
a. Uterus with bullate egg-sacs; pyriform apparatus without horns; genital
ducts between dorsal and ventral vessels
Thysanosoma Dies.
α. Head large (1.5 mm.); square lobed testes in median field; posterior
margin of segments fimbriated; genital pore double
T. fimbriata Dies.
β. Head small; no fimbriae; pore rarely double T. giardii Riv.
b. Uterus without saccular dilatations; segments Anoplocephala E.
short, thick, and slightly imbricate Blanch.
Horse-Taeniae.
α. Head very large A. plicata
— No posterior lobes Zed.
— Four posterior lobes A. perfoliata
Goeze.
β. Head small, without posterior lobes A. mamillana Mehl.
B. Two uteri and two genital pores present; horns of pyriform apparatus
well developed; genital ducts pass on the dorsal side of the
longitudinal vessels
Moniezia R. Bl.
a. Interproglottidal glands [111] arranged in linear series (planissima
group)
M. planissima S. and H. M. benedeni Mz. M. neumani Mz.
b. Interproglottidal glands saccular (expansa group)
M. expansa Rud. M. oblongiceps S. and H. M. trigonophora S. and H.
c. Interproglottidal glands absent (denticulata M. denticulata Rud.
group) M. alba Perr.
C. Uterus single or double, without spore-like egg-sacs; eggs with a single
shell; genital pores irregularly alternate; strobila narrow; testes absent
from median part of the field
Stilesia Raill.
a. A transverse uterus in middle part of median S. centripunctata
field; head 2 mm. diameter Riv.
b. Two lateral uteri in each segment; head less
than 1 mm. in diameter S. globipunctata Riv.
III. Scolex almost invariably provided with hooks; genital pores on left border
of segment; eggs with three shells but no cornua. Segments broader
than long; posterior angles salient.
Hymenolepis Weinl.
a. Scolex with a single series of 24-30 hooks, each 14-18µ long
H. nana v. Sieb. H. murina Duj.
b. Scolex very small, unarmed H. diminuta Rud.
IV. Scolex provided with two elongated muscular pits. Body segmented; three
genital apertures in middle of ventral surface
Bothriocephalus Rud.
Body 2-20 metres in length
B. latus Brems. B. cristatus Dav. (doubtful species). B. cordatus Leuck. B.
mansoni Cobb. (= B. liguloides Leuck.)
CHAPTER IV
MESOZOA
DICYEMIDAE—STRUCTURE—REPRODUCTION—OCCURRENCE: ORTHONECTIDAE—
OCCURRENCE—STRUCTURE: TRICHOPLAX: SALINELLA.
The Mesozoa are an obscure group, the position of which in the animal kingdom
is still doubtful. The name Mesozoa was given to the group by its discoverer, E.
van Beneden,[112] as he concluded that they were intermediate between the
Protozoa and the higher Invertebrates. Recent authors, however, have called
attention to the resemblance existing between them and the "sporocysts" of
Trematodes, and though we still are ignorant of certain important points in their
life-histories, the Mesozoa are most conveniently (and probably rightly)
considered as an appendix to the Platyhelminthes.
The animals composing this group are minute and parasitic, and are composed
of a small number of cells. They may be divided into two families: the
Dicyemidae, which occur exclusively in the kidneys of certain Cephalopods
(cuttle-fish); and the Orthonectidae, which live in the brittle-star Amphiura
squamata, the Nemertine Nemertes lacteus, or the Polyclad Leptoplana
tremellaris. In addition to the undoubted Mesozoa, certain anomalous forms—
Trichoplax adhaerens and Salinella salve—may be referred to this group.
The occurrence of the known species of Dicyemids (a group which has not been
investigated on our coasts) is as follows:—
Species. Host.
Dicyema typus van Ben. Octopus vulgaris.
D. clausianum van Ben. O. macropus.
D. microcephalum Whit. O. de Filippi.
D. moschatum Whit. Eledone moschata.
D. macrocephalum van Ben. Sepiola rondeletii.
D. truncatum Whit. Rossia macrosoma, Sepia elegans, S.
officinalis.
D. schultzianum van Ben. S. biseralis, Octopus vulgaris.
Dicyemennea eledones Wag. Eledone moschata, E. aldrovandi.
D. mülleri Clap. E. cirrosa.
D. gracile Wag. Sepia officinalis.
Conocyema polymorphum S. officinalis, Octopus vulgaris.
van Ben.
Rhopalura giardii is of distinct sexes. Either males or females are found in one
Amphiura. Two kinds of females, flattened unsegmented, and cylindrical
segmented forms, are known. They consist of a ciliated ectodermal layer
enclosing an endodermal mass of eggs, between which is a fibrillar layer usually
considered to be of a muscular nature. The cylindrical female gives rise to eggs
which develop, probably exclusively, into males. The flattened female produces
eggs from which females alone arise, though the origin of the two forms of this
sex is not well ascertained. The males contain spermatozoa which fertilise the
eggs of the cylindrical female, whereas the ova of the flat form probably develop
parthenogenetically.
BY
LILIAN SHELDON
Staff Lecturer in Natural Science, Newnham College, Cambridge.
CHAPTER V
NEMERTINEA
INTRODUCTORY—EXTERNAL CHARACTERS—ANATOMY—CLASSIFICATION—
DEVELOPMENT—HABITS—REGENERATION—BREEDING—GEOGRAPHICAL
DISTRIBUTION—LAND, FRESH-WATER, AND PARASITIC FORMS—AFFINITIES
The Nemertinea form a compact group, the affinities of which have not been at
present clearly determined. Several species were mentioned and described in
the works of various naturalists during the latter half of the eighteenth century,
though their anatomy was not understood until considerably later. The first
mention of any member of the group was made by the Rev. W. Borlase in his
Natural History of Cornwall, published in 1758. He gives a short description and
a rough figure of Lineus marinus. From that time the increase in the knowledge
of the group was very gradual. New species were from time to time described,
but few of the descriptions could boast of much completeness, and many
erroneous views were held until comparatively recent years. The group was very
variously classified, but the general arrangement in early times seems to have
been to unite it with the Planarians. Valuable contributions to the history of the
development were made in 1848 and the few subsequent years by Desor,[118]
Gegenbaur,[119] Krohn,[120] and Leuckart and Pagenstecher[121]; and more
recently by Metschnikoff[122] and Salensky.[123]
Nemertines for the most part closely resemble one another in all essential
points, though they differ considerably in size, colour, and external details. They
vary in length from less than an inch to thirty yards, this extreme size being
attained by Lineus marinus.
Fig. 48.—Lineus marinus Mont., from the living specimen in the coiled condition.
Plymouth. × 1. a, Anterior end; b, posterior end.
Fig. 49.—L. marinus, from the same specimen as Fig. 48, in the expanded
condition. a, Anterior end; b, posterior end.
Nemertines are common on the British coasts; about forty species have been
recorded from this area. On turning over a stone on a sandy or muddy shore in a
pool left by the receding tide, there may often be seen a coiled mass, having the
appearance of a uniform slimy string twisted into a complicated knot. If it be
carefully removed, the ends can generally be made out, one bluntly rounded and
the other slightly tapering (Fig. 48, a and b). Occasionally there may be seen
attached to the blunter end a fine thread, which moves about freely. This thread
may, by an instantaneous movement, be drawn into the body, no trace of its
existence being left except at the tip of the head, where a small pore is visible;
this is the orifice through which it was withdrawn. Shortly afterwards the thread
may be again shot out, the process being instantaneous and often accomplished
with great force. This thread (Fig. 50, p) is the proboscis, a very important and
characteristic organ in Nemertines.
Most Nemertines are marine; they are mostly indifferent to climate and to the
nature of the soil on which they live.
Fig. 50.—Side view of head of Cerebratulus (Micrura) tristis Hubr., showing the
everted proboscis. Naples. × 2. Drawn from a spirit specimen. c.s, Cephalic
slit; m, mouth; p, proboscis.
In the ordinary forms the posterior end of the body is pointed either bluntly or
sharply. The head is somewhat broader than the rest of the body, and often
assumes a spatulate form. Eyes (Fig. 51, e) are usually present either in one or
several pairs, or in symmetrically-arranged groups on each side of the head. The
mouth (Fig. 58, m) is situated near the front end of the body on the ventral
surface, and is usually rendered conspicuous by being surrounded by thick
tumid lips. It varies in form from being slit-like to elliptical. At the anterior end of
the body a small terminal pore occurs; this is the external opening of the
proboscis (Fig. 51, p.p).
Nemertines are often very diversely and brilliantly coloured, the hues most
commonly found being white, yellow, green, deep purple, and various shades of
red and pink. The ventral surface is usually paler in colour than the dorsal, and
the latter is often marked by longitudinal and transverse stripes (Fig. 59) in
contrasting colours.
1. An external epidermic layer (ep), consisting of ciliated cells, among which are
placed numerous unicellular glands. These glands probably secrete the mucus
in which the Nemertine is usually enveloped; their contents when in the body are
very highly refracting. The epidermis rests on a basement membrane (b.m).
2. The two or three muscular layers, arranged as either an external circular and
an internal longitudinal, or an inner and an outer circular separated by a
longitudinal layer, or, as in the figure (c.m and l.m), two longitudinal separated by
a circular layer.
Fig. 51.—Amphiporus lactifloreus Johnst., drawn from the living specimen, from
the dorsal surface. Plymouth. × 2. e, Eyes; g, generative organs; n.g, nerve
ganglion; p.p, proboscis pore; p, proboscis.
3. A fairly thick connective-tissue layer often found between the epidermis and
the muscles, into which latter it gradually merges (s.t).
The Digestive System.—The mouth is placed on the ventral surface near the
anterior end of the body (Figs. 53, 58, m). It leads into a straight oesophagus
(Fig. 53, oes), whence passes off the intestine (int), which is continued as a
straight non-convoluted tube to the anus (a), situated terminally at the posterior
end of the body. The intestine is thrown out throughout the greater part of its
course into paired lateral pouches.
The eversion is effected by a turning inside out of the anterior part of the
proboscis (Fig. 54). The process whereby the proboscis is retracted has been
very aptly compared to the effect which would be produced by the inversion of
the finger of a glove, accomplished by pulling a string attached to its tip on the
inside, the anterior muscular part being comparable to the finger and the
glandular part to the string. It is thus obvious that in the everted condition the