Name : kihla Zeinab Umaru

Matricule:NUS/22/0033

Topic: Discuss on cancer in

general, cervical cancer and
Breast cancer .
 CANCER
Definition
It could be defined as the abnormal growth of
body cells which invades into other parts of the
body.

Physiological stages of cancer

The four main stages of cancer are:

 Stage 1 — Cancer is normally localized in a
small area
 Stage 2 — The size of the cancer
increases
 Stage 3 — The size of cancer becomes
larger and starts spreading to some parts of
the body including lymph nodes
 Stage 4 — Cancer has grown and has
spread to most parts of the body

Causes / risk factors of cancer

The main cause of cancer is mutation which could
occur for several reasons :
Gene mutations you're born with. You may be
born with a genetic mutation that you inherited
from your parents. This type of mutation accounts
for a small percentage of cancers.

Gene mutations that occur after birth. Most

gene mutations occur after you're born and aren't
inherited. A number of forces can cause gene
mutations, such as smoking, radiation, viruses,
cancer-causing chemicals (carcinogens), obesity,
hormones, chronic inflammation and a lack of
exercise.

Certain things may predispose us to cancer such

as
o Lifestyle habits
o Family history
o Certain health conditions
o Age
o Environment
Clinical manifestations
Signs and symptoms caused by cancer will vary
depending on what part of the body is affected.
Some general signs and symptoms associated
with, but not specific to, cancer, include:
o Fatigue
o Pain
o Lump or area of thickening that can be felt
under the skin
o Weight changes, including unintended loss
or gain
o Skin changes, such as yellowing, darkening
or redness of the skin, sores that won't heal,
or changes to existing moles
o Changes in bowel or bladder habits
o Persistent cough or trouble breathing
o Difficulty swallowing
o Hoarseness
o Persistent indigestion or discomfort after
eating
o Persistent, unexplained muscle or joint pain
o Persistent, unexplained fevers or night
sweats

Diagnosis
o Physical exam. Your doctor may feel areas
of your body for lumps that may indicate
cancer.

o Laboratory tests. Laboratory tests, such as

urine and blood tests, may help your doctor
identify abnormalities that can be caused by
cancer. For instance, in people with
leukemia.

o Imaging tests. Imaging tests allow your

doctor to examine your bones and internal
organs in a noninvasive way. Imaging tests
used in diagnosing cancer may include a
computerized tomography (CT) scan, bone
scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
positron emission tomography (PET) scan,
ultrasound and X-ray, among others.
o Biopsy. During a biopsy, your doctor
collects a sample of cells for testing in the
laboratory.

Prevention
o Stop smoking. Smoking is linked to
several types of cancer, not just lung
cancer.
o Avoid excessive sun exposure. Harmful
ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun can
increase your risk of skin cancer.
o Eat a healthy diet. Choose a diet rich in
fruits and vegetables. Select whole grains
and lean proteins. Limit your intake of
processed meats.
o Exercise most days of the week. Regular
exercise is linked to a lower risk of cancer.
o Maintain a healthy weight. Being
overweight or obese may increase your risk
of cancer.
o Drink alcohol in moderation, If you
choose to drink alcohol, do so in
moderation.
o Schedule cancer screening exams. Talk
to your doctor about what types of cancer
screening exams are best for you based on
your risk factors.

Treatment

Cancer treatment options include:

o Surgery. The goal of surgery is to remove
the cancer or as much of the cancer as
possible.
o Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy uses drugs
to kill cancer cells.
o Radiation therapy. Radiation therapy uses
high-powered energy beams, such as X-
rays and protons, to kill cancer cells.
 Radiation treatment can come from a
machine outside your body (external beam
radiation), or it can be placed inside your
body (brachytherapy).
o Bone marrow transplant. Bone marrow
transplant is also known as a stem cell
transplant.
 A bone marrow transplant allows
your doctor to use higher doses of
chemotherapy to treat your cancer. It
may also be used to replace
diseased bone marrow.
o Immunotherapy.Immunotherapy,uses your
body's immune system to fight cancer.
o Hormone therapy. Some types of cancer
are fueled by your body's
hormones.Removing those hormones from
the body or blocking their effects may cause
the cancer cells to stop growing.
o Targeted drug therapy. Targeted drug
treatment focuses on specific abnormalities
within cancer cells that allow them to
survive.
 Breast cancer
Definition
Breast cancer is cancer that forms in the
cells of the breasts or the rapid growth of cells
found in the breast .

Types of breast cancer

o Angiosarcoma
o Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS)
o Inflammatory breast cancer
o Invasive lobular carcinoma
o Lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS)
o Male breast cancer
o Paget's disease of the breast
o Recurrent breast cancer
Clinical manifestations

Signs and symptoms of breast cancer may

include:
o A breast lump or thickening that feels
different from the surrounding tissue
o Change in the size, shape or appearance of
a breast
o Changes to the skin over the breast, such
as dimpling
o A newly inverted nipple
 o Peeling, scaling, crusting or flaking of the
pigmented area of skin surrounding the
nipple (areola) or breast skin
o Redness or pitting of the skin over your
breast, like the skin of an orange

Risk factors

Factors that are associated with an increased

risk of breast cancer include:
o Being female. Women are much more
likely than men are to develop breast
cancer.
o Increasing age. Your risk of breast
cancer increases as you age.
oA personal history of breast
conditions. If you've had a breast
biopsy that found lobular carcinoma in
situ (LCIS) or If you've had breast
cancer in one breast, you have an
increased risk of developing cancer in
the other breast.
 o A family history of breast cancer
o Radiation exposure.
o Obesity
o Beginning your period at a younger
age.
o Beginning menopause at an older age.
o Having your first child at an older age.
o Having never been pregnant.
o Postmenopausal hormone
therapy. Women who take hormone
therapy medications that combine
estrogen and progesterone to treat the
signs and symptoms of menopause
have an increased risk of breast
cancer. The risk of breast cancer
decreases when women stop taking
these medications.
o Drinking alcohol. Drinking alcohol
increases the risk of breast cancer.

Prevention
Making changes in your daily life may help
reduce your risk of breast cancer. Try to:
o Ask your doctor about breast cancer
screening.
 Talk to your doctor about the benefits
and risks of screening.
 Become familiar with your breasts
through breast self-exam for breast
awareness..
Breast awareness can't prevent breast
cancer, but it may help you to better
understand the normal changes that
your breasts undergo and identify any
unusual signs and symptoms.
o Drink alcohol in moderation, if at all.
o Exercise most days of the week.
o Limit postmenopausal hormone therapy.
o Maintain a healthy weight.
o Choose a healthy diet.

Diagnosing breast cancer

 Tests and procedures used to diagnose
breast cancer include:
o Breast exam
o Mammogram
o Breast ultrasound
o Removing a sample of breast cells for
testing (biopsy)
o Breast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Treatment
Your doctor determines your breast cancer
treatment options based on your type of breast
cancer, its stage and grade, size, and whether the
cancer cells are sensitive to hormones. Your
doctor also considers your overall health and your
own preferences.
o Breast cancer surgery
Operations used to treat breast cancer
include:
1.Removing the breast cancer (lumpectomy).
 2.Removing the entire breast (mastectomy).
o Radiation therapy
o Chemotherapy
o Hormone therapy
o Targeted therapy drugs
o Immunotherapy
o Palliative ( supportive) care

Cervical cancer

Definition
Cervical cancer is a type of cancer that occurs
in the cells of the cervix, the lower part of the
uterus that connects to the vagina.

Clinical manifestations

Signs and symptoms of more-advanced

cervical cancer include:
o Vaginal bleeding after intercourse, between
periods or after menopause
o Watery, bloody vaginal discharge that may
be heavy and have a foul odor
o Pelvic pain or pain during intercourse

Causes
Cervical cancer begins when healthy cells in
the cervix develop changes (mutations) in
their DNA. A cell's DNA contains the
instructions that tell a cell what to do.
It isn't clear what causes cervical cancer, but it's
certain that HPV plays a role. HPV is very
common, and most people with the virus never
develop cancer. This means other factors ,
such as your environment or your lifestyle
choices ,also determine whether you'll develop
cervical cancer.
Types of cervical cancer
 Squamous cell carcinoma. This type of
cervical cancer begins in the thin, flat
cells (squamous cells) lining the outer
part of the cervix, which projects into the
vagina. Most cervical cancers are
squamous cell carcinomas.
 Adenocarcinoma. This type of cervical
cancer begins in the column-shaped
glandular cells that line the cervical canal
.
Cervical cancer risk factors
Risk factors for cervical cancer include:
o Many sexual partners. The greater your
number of sexual partners — and the
greater your partner's number of sexual
partners — the greater your chance of
acquiring HPV.
o Early sexual activity.
o Other sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
o A weakened immune system.
o Smoking. .
o Exposure to miscarriage prevention drug.
 Prevention
To reduce your risk of cervical cancer:
o Ask your doctor about the HPV vaccine.
o Have routine Pap tests.
o Practice safe sex. .
o Don't smoke. If you don't smoke, don't start.
Diagnosis and screening

Screening
Screening tests include:
 Pap test. During a Pap test, your doctor
scrapes and brushes cells from your
cervix, which are then examined in a lab
for abnormalitie
 HPV DNA test. The HPV DNA test
involves testing cells collected from the
cervix for infection with any of the types
of HPV that are most likely to lead to
cervical cancer.
Discuss your cervical cancer screening options
with your doctor.
Diagnosis
o Punch biopsy, which involves using a sharp
tool to pinch off small samples of cervical
tissue.
o Endocervical curettage, which uses a small,
spoon-shaped instrument (curet) or a thin
 brush to scrape a tissue sample from the
cervix.
o Electrical wire loop, which uses a thin, low-
voltage electrified wire to obtain a small tissue
sample. Generally this is done under local
anesthesia in the office.
o Cone biopsy (conization), which is a
procedure that allows your doctor to obtain
deeper layers of cervical cells for laboratory
testing. A cone biopsy may be done in a
hospital under general anesthesia.

Treatment
Treatment for cervical cancer depends on
several factors, such as the stage of the cancer,
other health problems you may have and your
preferences.
Cervical cancer surgery
Options might include:
o Surgery to cut away the cancer only.
o Surgery to remove the cervix
(trachelectomy).
o Surgery to remove the cervix and uterus
(hysterectomy).
o Radiation therapy
o Chemotherapy
o Hormone therapy
o Targeted therapy drugs
o Immunotherapy
o Palliative ( supportive ) care
 General nursing
intervention in the
management of cancer

Oncology nurses care for cancer patients,

serving as their first line of communication,
and helping to coordinate the many aspects
of their care throughout cancer treatment.
They may perform a number of duties,
including:
o Reviewing the patient’s health history
o Assessing and monitoring the patient’s
physical and emotional status
o Keeping track of laboratory, pathology and
imaging studies
o Safely administering medications, fluids and
cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy
o Collaborating with the patient’s doctors and
other clinicians about the treatment plan
o Helping patients understand the disease
and their treatment plan
o Helping translate complex medical
terminology and answering questions
o Communicating with the doctors and other
clinicians on the patient’s behalf
o Helping the patient plan for and manage
symptoms throughout treatment
o Maintaining Tissue Integrity
Stomatitis. Assessment of the patient’s
subjective experience and an objective
assessment of the oropharyngeal tissues
and teeth are important and for the
treatment of oral mucositis, Palifermin
(Kepivance), a synthetic form of human
keratinocyte growth factor, could be
administered.
Radiation-associated skin
impairment. Nursing care for patients with
impaired skin reactions includes maintaining
skin integrity, cleansing the skin, promoting
comfort, reducing pain, preventing
additional trauma, and preventing and
managing infection.
o Alopecia. Nurses provide information about
hair loss and support the patient and family
in coping with changes in body image.
o Malignant skin lesions. Nursing care
includes cleansing the skin, reducing
superficial bacteria, controlling bleeding,
reducing odor, protecting the skin from
further trauma, and relieving pain.
o Promoting Nutrition
o Anorexia. Anorexia may occur because
people feel full after eating only a small
amount of food.
o Malabsorption. Surgical intervention may
change peristaltic patterns, later
gastrointestinal secretions, and reduce the
absorptive surfaces of the gastrointestinal
mucosa, all leading to malabsorption.
o Cachexia. Nurses assess patients who are
at risk of altered nutritional intake so that
appropriate measures may be instituted
prior to nutritional decline.
o Relieving Pain
o The nurse assesses the patient for the
source and site of pain as well as those
factors that increase the patient’s perception
of pain.
o Decreasing Fatigue
o The nurse assesses physiologic and
psychological stressors that can contribute
to fatigue and uses several assessment
tools such as a simple visual analog scale
to assess levels of fatigue.
o The role of exercise as a helpful intervention
has been supported by several controlled
trials.
o Improving Body Image and Self-esteem
o The nurse identifies potential threats to the
patient’s body image experience, and the
nurse assesses the patient’s ability to cope
with the many assaults to the body image
experienced throughout the course of the
disease and treatment.
o Assisting in the Grieving Process
o . The nurse assesses the patient’s
psychological and mental status, as well as
the mood and emotional reaction to the
results of diagnostic testing and prognosis.
o Monitoring and Managing Potential
Complications
o Infection. The nurse monitors laboratory
studies to detect any early changes in WBC
counts.
o Septic shock. Neurologic assessments are
carried out, fluid and electrolyte status is
monitored, arterial blood gas values and
pulse oximetry are monitored, and IV fluids,
blood, and vasopressors are administered
by the nurse.
o Bleeding and hemorrhage. The nurse may
administer IL-11, which has been approved
by the FDA to prevent severe
thrombocytopenia, and additional
medications may be prescribed to address
bleeding due to disorders of coagulation.