Topic:

Regional dialects in British English

A focus on Scottish and welsh varieties

Contents:

 What is British English?

 Origin and development of British English
 What are regional dialects and its types
 Brief description of Scottish Gaelic, Irish and Cornish
 Scottish Varieties
 Welsh varieties

Mobeen Rafique(2308-FLL/BSENG/F20)

British English:

British English is the variant of the English language used in the United Kingdom and its territories. It
encompasses distinctive spelling, vocabulary, and sometimes grammar differences compared to other
English variants, like American English. Examples include words like “colour” (UK) versus “color” (US) and
“centre” (UK) versus “center” (US).

Origin and development of British English:

English, a West Germanic language, has its roots in the Anglo-Frisian dialects introduced to Britain by
Germanic settlers from regions that now constitute northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands.
During this period, the local population primarily spoke Common Brittonic, a variant of Continental Celtic
shaped by Roman presence. While languages like Welsh, Cornish, and Cumbric coexisted with English,
their impact on English was restricted due to their linguistic divergence from the Germanic languages.
The extent of their influence is a subject of ongoing debate, with recent arguments suggesting that their
grammatical contributions may explain the substantial linguistic distinctions observed between English
and other West Germanic languages.
Originally, Old English comprised a diverse array of dialects, mirroring the diverse origins of the Anglo-
Saxon kingdoms in England. Among these dialects, Late West Saxon eventually emerged as the
predominant one. Subsequently, the original Old English underwent influence from two consecutive
waves of invasion. The first wave, during the eighth and ninth centuries, involved speakers of the
Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family settling in various parts of Britain. The second wave
occurred in the 11th century when the Normans, who spoke Old Norman, invaded, ultimately giving rise
to an English variant known as Anglo-Norman. While these invasions introduced a degree of “mixing” to
the English language, it’s crucial to note that it didn’t transform into a genuinely mixed language as
defined by the cohabitation of speakers developing a hybrid tongue for basic communication.

The Norman Conquest brought French influences, leading to a period of Middle English. The Renaissance
saw a revival of classical learning, influencing language and culture. The printing press, introduced by
William Caxton in the late 15th century, standardized spelling and contributed to linguistic stability. The
Early Modern English period, marked by works like Shakespeare’s, witnessed significant linguistic
changes. Exploration and trade expanded English vocabulary, absorbing words from various languages.
The King James Bible (1611) also left a lasting impact on the language.

The 18th-century Enlightenment brought about linguistic refinements, and the British Empire’s global
reach further influenced English through colonialism. The Industrial Revolution and technological
advancements in the 19th century contributed to vocabulary growth. The 20th century saw the influence
of American English due to global media and technology. World War II and post-war migration shaped
British English further, incorporating diverse linguistic elements. Today, British English continues to
evolve, reflecting societal changes, globalization, and technological advancements. Regional accents
persist, adding to the linguistic diversity of this dynamic language.

Regional dialects of British English:

Regional dialects refer to variations in language that occur in specific geographic areas. These variations
can include differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Examples include the Southern
dialect in the United States, the Cockney dialect in London, or the Kansai dialect in Japan. Dialects often
reflect the unique linguistic features of a particular region and can contribute to the cultural identity of
its speakers. There are many different dialects of British English that sound totally different from each
other, and in many cases use different spellings and word structure. British English exhibits various
regional dialects, each shaped by historical, social, and geographical factors. Here are some prominent
ones:

1. Scottish 2. Welsh. 3. Scottish Gaelic.

4.. Irish. 5.Cornish

Hafsa Abbas(2364-FLL/BSENG/F20)

Scottish Gaelic:

Scottish Gaelic, also known as "Gàidhlig," holds a significant place in Scotland's cultural heritage. With
roots reaching back to the Gaelic-speaking settlers who arrived from Ireland around the 4th century, the
language played a crucial role in shaping the identity of the Scottish people. Over time, the influences of
Norse, Scots, and English languages have left their mark on Scottish Gaelic, contributing to its unique
linguistic evolution.

The language's distinctive features include a melodic sound system, characterized by the use of
mutations and a variety of vowel sounds. Scottish Gaelic has a strong connection to the natural
environment, with many words dedicated to describing the landscapes, flora, and fauna of Scotland.
Additionally, it embraces a rich oral tradition, with storytelling, folklore, and poetry serving as vital
mediums for preserving its cultural narrative. Despite the challenges it has faced, including a decline in
native speakers, Scottish Gaelic remains a resilient and cherished aspect of Scotland's diverse linguistic
and cultural tapestry. Efforts to promote Gaelic education and cultural initiatives aim to ensure its
continued presence in the modern Scottish context

Irish:

The Irish language, known as "Gaeilge" in its native form, has a deep-rooted history and cultural
significance on the island of Ireland. Originating from the Celtic languages spoken by early Irish settlers,
it developed over centuries into a distinct Gaelic language. The Irish language has been a central
component of Ireland's cultural identity, shaping literature, folklore, and daily communication. Its origins
can be traced back to the primitive dialects spoken by Celtic tribes around 500 BCE. As Ireland became
more interconnected with European cultures, Old Irish emerged around the 6th century, marked by the
creation of written manuscripts such as the famous Book of Kells. Over time, the language evolved
through Middle Irish and Early Modern Irish, adapting to historical, social, and linguistic changes.
Irish boasts unique linguistic features, including a system of initial mutations, where the beginning of a
word undergoes changes based on grammatical context. The language is recognized for its poetic and
rhythmic qualities, with an emphasis on alliteration and intricate metaphors in traditional Irish poetry.
Furthermore, Irish maintains a rich oral tradition, with storytelling, music, and song playing crucial roles
in passing down cultural heritage. Despite historical challenges, including periods of English dominance
and the decline of native speakers, efforts to revitalize the Irish language have been ongoing. In recent
years, there has been a renewed focus on Irish language education, cultural initiatives, and policy
measures aimed at fostering its preservation and continued vitality in Ireland.

Cornish:

Cornish, or "Kernewek," is a Celtic language spoken in Cornwall, a region in the southwest of England
with a distinct cultural identity. Its origins trace back to the early medieval period when Cornwall was an
independent Celtic kingdom. The language flourished during this time, with evidence of its use in various
texts and inscriptions. However, as England's influence expanded, particularly after the Norman
Conquest, Cornish faced challenges, and its usage declined over the centuries. The language experienced
a revival in the late 20th century, driven by a renewed interest in Cornwall's cultural heritage and efforts
to preserve this unique linguistic tradition.

Cornish exhibits distinctive linguistic features, characterized by its Celtic roots and historical connections
to other Celtic languages. The language employs a system of initial mutations, where the beginning of
words undergo changes based on grammatical context. Cornish also incorporates a variety of sounds and
pronunciation nuances, contributing to its individuality within the Celtic language family. Efforts to
revitalize Cornish have included language education programs, cultural events, and community
initiatives, emphasizing its importance as a living part of Cornwall's heritage. While the number of fluent
speakers may be limited, the ongoing commitment to Cornish revitalization reflects a dedication to
preserving the linguistic diversity and cultural richness of Cornwall.

Tehreem Salah-ud-Din(2339-FLL/BSENG/F20)

Scottish English:

During the 16th century Reformation, English religious texts were widely distributed in Scotland to
propagate Protestant doctrine. Scottish English, emerging from language contact with Standard English
after the 17th century, saw poets adapting their language and style for the English market when King
James VI of Scotland became James I of England in 1603. This linguistic blend, born in the 17 th century,
resulted from a mix of Anglo-Scandinavian, French, Latin, Gaelic, and Dutch influences. After the Acts of
Union in 1707, Scottish and English parliaments united, but church, educational, and legal structures
remained separate, fostering Scottish English. Today, out of 5,118,223 residents in Scotland, 99% speak
English, 30% speak Scots, and 1.1% speak Scottish Gaelic. Scots, often considered a dialect, was
historically viewed as vulgar, but in modern Scotland, it coexists with Scottish English, spoken in media,
business, and education, reflecting a linguistic richness shaped by historical and social factors, notably in
cities like Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Dundee with distinct dialects and accents.

‘Scots’ is the collective name for our Scottish dialects.Scottish English refers to the varieties ofEnglish
spoken in Scotland . It is the official name of a West Germanic language spoken in modern
Scotland.Whereas Gaelic was the dominant language in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, the
Lowlands of Scotland adopted the language of Scots. As opposed to Gaelic, the Scots language is much
closer in style to that of English and debate has raged for many years as to whether it’s a separate
language or a dialect. Today, the UK government accepts Scots as a regional language and recognised it
under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages

Along with Scottish Gaelic it is special and precious because, while many other languages are spoken in
Scotland today, if Scots were to cease being used here, where it is rooted, it would effectively become
extinct. Often mistakenly called slang or regarded as only a dialect of English, the Scots language can
boast a world-class literature dating from the early Middle Ages to the present day. Writers such as
Robert Burns, Walter Scott, Hugh MacDiarmid, Liz Lochhead and Irvine Welsh have all written great
works in varieties of Scots. Many of our finest traditional songs and ballads are also in Scots.

There are four main Scots dialects present in Scotland:

Insular Scots – Insular means island, and Insular Scots refers to the language spoken on the Orkney and
Shetland Islands. Insular Scots is heavily influenced by Scandanavian and Norwegian and dates back to
the 1400s. Today, Insular Scots is arguably the Scots dialect furthest sounding from English.
Northern Scots – Northern Scots can primarily be found in the North East of Scotland, including the city
of Aberdeen. The most noticeable difference from other Scots dialects is the use of an /f/ sound in place
of the /w/ sound.

Central Scots – Central Scots is the widest-spoken Scots dialect in Scotland because it covers the “central
belt,” which includes Edinburgh and Glasgow. Central Scots became widely used and standardized as the
Scottish government came to be based in this area. Today, it is probably the closest Scots dialect to
English.

Southern Scots – Due to the geographical location in which Southern Scots is used, it is often called
Borders Scots or simply Borders (the border being the one between England and Scotland). Southern
Scots primarily differs from other Scots dialects in terms of its vowel sounds. For example, long “oo”
(/ʊ/) sounds are pronounced more like “ow” (/aʊ/).

Naturally, each of the four dialects can be divided further into other sub-dialects, and even sub-sub-
dialects.As you travel around Scotland and listen to the locals speak, you’ll notice the differences in
speed, accent, vocabulary, pronunciation and expression. The longer you spend here, the easier it will
become to understand what people are saying!

A couple of the more distinctive dialects you might encounter on your travels include Doric and Shaetlan.

‘The Doric’:

You’ll hear this in the north-east of Scotland, mainly around Aberdeenshire and further north. It’s an
area with farming and fishing traditions, and a good awareness of its own dialect. To the untrained ear, a
person speaking Doric in full flow can be quite difficult to understand, even for other Scots! You’ll notice
that ‘f’ is often used instead of ‘wh’ so that ‘how, what, where and when’ become ‘foo, fit, far and fan’.
The classic novel trilogy ‘A Scots Quair’ by Aberdeenshire author Lewis Grassic Gibbon is a fantastic
immersion in Doric Scots and the history of farming life in the early 20th century.

Examples of Doric:

Quine – girl

Loon – young man

Fit like? – hello, how are you?

Foos yer doos? – how are your pigeons? (meaning the same as Fit like!)
The Scots Language dialect of Doric hails from Aberdeenshire.

Shetland:

‘Shaetlan’, as it’s known by Shetlanders, is similar in many ways to other Scots dialects but noticeably
different in terms of its Norwegian influence. The ancient Pictish island society was invaded and settled
by the Norse (Vikings) during the 9th century AD. The local form of Norwegian, known as Norn,
developed and was used as the language of administration until the 16 th century. Vowel sounds are
similar to those used in Scandinavian languages. There’s a beautiful lilting quality to the dialect that
makes it a pleasure to listen to while you tune in.

Examples of Shetland:

Du – you

Peerie – tiny, small

Dey hed dem a fun – they enjoyed themselves

Ah my mindin – as long as I can remember

Shetland plays host to the Shaetlan dialect of Scots Language.

Examples of Commonly Used Scots Colloquialisms

Auld lang syne – literally ‘old times since’ – ‘times gone by’ ‘times long past’

Aye – pronounced ‘eye’, meaning ‘yes’

Bahookie – bum/backside eg ‘sit yer bahookie doon there.

Baffies – slippers

Iqra Asghar(2335-FLL/BSENG/F20)

Scottish English: What Makes it Different from Standardized British English?

There are many accents on the British Isles alone, many of which are similar to what is deemed to be
“standard English”, however the Scottish accent is very different and here are some linguistic differences
to see what makes Scottish English more complicated.

The Scottish Accent

Phonology: Vowels

As for standardized British English, there are long and short vowel sounds, whereas this tends not to be
the case in Scottish English which has fewer vowel sounds. For instance, Scottish English lacks about 5 (!)
English vowels. Scottish speakers don’t use aschwa sound: thesound in ‘the’ is the same as the sound in
‘bit’ . Similarly, ‘bird’ and ‘heard’ are not homophones (the vowel in ‘heard’ is the same as the vowel in
‘bet‘ and thevowel in ‘bird’ can be the same as vowel in ‘but’ or ‘bit’ depending on the accent and
gender of thespeaker.

Also there is no difference between front and back’a’sounds.

Other examples:

Caught

Cot

In a standardised version of British English these two words would be pronounced differently with the
first having a long vowel sound and the second maintaining a short sound. In Scottish English, these two
words sound exactly the same as we do not tend to distinguish between long and short vowel sounds.

Consonants:

Scottish English is arhotic accent, meaning /r/ is pronounced in the syllable coda although some non-
rhotic varieties are present in Edinburgh and Glasgow.

Example:

Girl

World

Curl

In standard English, the “r” in the examples above would almost vanish and not be pronounced, but the
same cannot be said for the “r” in Scottish English. North of Hadrian’s Wall, the “r” is almost always
pronounced and is sometimes almost likened to the “r” sound in Spanish. In other words, it is a much
stronger sound than in standardised English.

There is a distinction between/w/and /wh/in word pairs such as witch and which
The phoneme/x/ is common in names => SomeScottish speakers use it in words of Greek origin aswell,
such as technical, patriar ch.Just as there is a clear difference in some of the vowel sounds between
standard British English and Scottish English, there is also a big difference between how an “r” is
pronounced up north and down south. Moreover, /p/, /t/ and /k/ are not aspirated in more traditional
varieties,[18] but are weakly aspirated currently.

Pronouns in Scottish English:

Unlike standard English where the personal pronoun “you” is used in both singular and plural, this is not
the case in the majority of Scotland where the personal pronoun “yous” is used as the plural. This seems
incorrect to many native English speakers because in English a different personal pronoun for the second
person plural does not exist. This, however, is linked to whether “Scots” is a dialect of English or an
official language in its own right which just bears striking resemblances in both written and spoken
English. Many have argued that it is more than a dialect but not quite reaching a fully fledged language.

Example:

Have yous finished your homework?

Are yous okay?

Yous won’t believe what I’m going to say.

In addition to using “yous” as a second person plural, Scottish English also allows for the first person
plural pronoun “us” to be used in an informal way to represent the first person singular.

Examples:

Can you tell us the news?

He didn’t give us money when I asked him.

In these examples it can be slightly confusing as most people associate “us” with the first person plural,
not singular. It is important to keep in mind that this only refers to Scotland and in some cases the very
north of England. The location use of this point is being stressed due to the fact that if this were to be
used by someone in an area where it is not common, it could be misunderstood or sound strange.

Vocabulary:
Scottish English has inherited a number of lexical items from Scots, which are less common in other
forms of standard English. Example of lexical items from Scots: outwith, meaning “outside
of”;wee=small); pinkie=little finger and janitor=caretaker(pinkie and janitor are also standard in
American English).

Culturally specific items: caber, haggis, teuchter, ned andlandward for rural; It’s your shot for “It’s your
turn”.

“How?”=”Why?“. “Why not?”=”How no?”.

Grammar:

The progressive verb forms are used rather morefrequently than in other varieties of standard
English( I’m wanting a drink )

Speakers often use prepositions differently: thecompound preposition off of (Take thatoff of the table)or
I was waiting on you instead of “waiting for you”)

The definite article tends to be used more frequently in phrases such as I’ve got the cold/the flu, he’s at
the school, I’m away to the kirk.

In colloquial speech shall and ought are wanting, must is marginal for obligation and may is rare. In
Scottish English, the first person declarative I amn’t invited and interrogative Amn’t I invited? Are both
possible.

Scotticism:

Scotticisms are idioms or expressions that arecharacteristic of spoken Scottish English:especially when
used in English. They are more likely to occur in spoken than written language. The use of Scottish
English, as well as of Scots and of Gaelic in Scotland, were documented over the 20 th century by the
Linguistic Survey of Scotland at the University of Edinburgh.

She learnt him some manners = “She taught himsome manners.“

Whaur dae ye bide? = “Where do you live?“ Caw canny = “Go easy”

Awrite!=“Hi!”

A’m tint=“I’m lost”

Lexical scottisism:

Scottish English has inherited a number of lexicalitems from Scots, which are comparatively rare inother
forms of standard English: wee – smallbairn – childbonnie – prettybraw – finemuckle – big spail –
splinter Why not – How no? pinkie – little finger janitor – school caretaker outwith – outside of kirk –
churchladdie /lassie -a young boy /young girl.

Grammatical scotticism:

What age are you? For “How old are you?”

My hair is needing washed or My hair needswashed for “My hair needs washing” or “Myhair needs to be
washed”.

I’m just after telling you for “I’ve just told you”.

Amn’t I invited? For Am I not invited?

He’s at the school. For He’s at school.

I’m wanting a drink. For I want some drink.

Scotticism saying

We’re a’ Jock Tamson’s bairns.(bairn = child)

Translation: We are all equal in the eyes of God. OrJock Tamson.

Don’t be a wee clipe. Translation: Don’t be a tattle-tale.

Whit’s fur ye’ll no go past ye.

Translation: Que sera sera. What ever will be, will be.The future’s not ours to see.

You’re all bum and parsley. Translation: You’re mouth and trousers. You’re a blowhard. Keep the heid.

Translation: Don’t lose your head. It’s a lang road that’s no goat a turnin.’ (goat = got)

Translation: Don’t lose heart in dark times, things can’tkeep going in the same direction forever.

Scottish sayings
Welsh English: Ayesha Imran(2218-FLL/BSEGN/F20)

Flag of wales

Introduction:

Welsh English, also known as Saesneg Gymreig in Welsh, encompasses the varieties of English spoken by
the Welsh population. These dialects exhibit a significant influence from Welsh grammar, incorporating
words derived from the Welsh language. Alongside distinctive vocabulary and grammar, Wales boasts a
diverse range of accents, such as those found in North Wales, the Cardiff dialect, the South Wales
Valleys, and West Wales.

The accents and dialects in western Wales bear a stronger imprint from the Welsh language, whereas
those in the eastern regions reflect more influence from English dialects. In the east and southeast, West
Country and West Midland dialects have played a role, while in the northeast and parts of the North
Wales coast, Merseyside English has left its mark.

A colloquial term often used to refer to Welsh English is “Wenglish,” a portmanteau word that has been
in circulation since 1985.

History and Origin of English Language in Wales:

The prominence of English in Wales intensified with the enactment of the Laws in Wales Acts of 1535–
1542, which promoted English dominance. This, combined with the closure of monasteries that served
as centers for Welsh education, contributed to the decline of the Welsh language. The Industrial
Revolution exacerbated this trend as many Welsh speakers migrated to England for employment, and
English-speaking individuals filled roles in the emerging mining and smelting industries. According to
David Crystal, the persistence of English dominance in Wales is comparable to its global expansion. The
diminishing use of Welsh is also linked to a preference for English in schools and efforts to discourage
everyday Welsh language usage, including the use of the Welsh Not in some schools during the 18 th and
19th centuries.

Origin and development:

Welsh English, commonly known as Wenglish, is a unique dialect predominantly spoken in Wales. Its
roots can be traced to a period when the region was Celtic-speaking, and it has undergone substantial
evolution throughout the years.

The roots of Welsh English words:

Before we understand how the Welsh English works, it is also important to dive into its origins. At its
core, Welsh English is mainly divided into the following language sources.

 Old English: Old English, alternatively recognized as Anglo-Saxon, denotes the Germanic
language spoken in medieval England and serves as the precursor to the contemporary English
language.
 Old Norse: Old Norse was the language spoken by Viking settlers who came to Britain in the 8 th
century. These languages played a substantial role in shaping the evolution of the English
language, including the development of the Welsh English dialect (due to Viking settlements in
the region).
 Celtic Languages (Mainly Welsh): Celtic languages, including Welsh, belong to the Celtic language
family, which is a branch of the broader Indo-European language family. These languages have
historical roots in the Celtic-speaking communities of ancient Europe.

Muqaddas Saleem(2334-FLL/BSENG/F20)

Phonological Features of Welsh English:

Welsh English, as a variety of English spoken in Wales, exhibits distinct phonological features influenced
by the Welsh language and other historical factors. Some notable phonological characteristics of Welsh
English include:

1. Vowel Sounds:
  Short monophthongs: The vowel sound represented by /æ/ in the word “cat” can be articulated
as either an open front unrounded vowel [a] or a more central near-open front unrounded vowel
[æ̈ ]. In Cardiff, the word “bag” is pronounced with an extended vowel, represented as [aː]. In
Mid-Wales, there is occasionally a pronunciation resembling that found in New Zealand and
South Africa, where “trap” is pronounced as /trɛp/.
 Diphthongization: Welsh English often features diphthongization, where vowel sounds may be
pronounced as a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds. This can affect words like “time” or
“like.”
2. Consonant Sounds:
 Like many British English varieties, Welsh English tends to be non-rhotic, meaning that the “r” at
the end of a syllable or before a consonant is often not pronounced.
 Due to the absence of the letter Z and the voiced alveolar fricative /z/ in Welsh, certain native
Welsh speakers may substitute it with the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ when pronouncing
words such as “cheese” and “thousand.” Additionally, the words “pens” (/pɛnz/) and “pence”
may converge into a shared pronunciation of /pɛns/, particularly in the regions of north-west,
west, and south-west Wales.
3. Vocabulary:

Apart from incorporating Welsh lexical elements such as “bach” (meaning little or wee), “eisteddfod,”
and “nain” and “taid” (referring to grandmother and grandfather respectively), vernacular Welsh English
features distinct grammatical conventions. Some speakers use the tag question “isn’t it?” regardless of
the preceding statement’s form. Additionally, emphasis is placed by certain speakers on subject-verb
placement after the predicate, as seen in constructions like “Fed up, I am” or “Running on Friday, he is.”

In South Wales, the word “where” may be extended to “where to,” as exemplified in the question,
“Where to is your Mam?” The term “butty” (Welsh: “byti”) is utilized to signify “friend” or “mate.”

Although there isn’t a specific standard English variety exclusive to Wales, certain linguistic features are
recognizable to Anglophones throughout the UK as being indicative of Welsh origin. An example is the
expression “look you,” which is a translation of a Welsh language tag.

4. Grammar:
The grammar of Welsh English exhibits distinctive features that distinguish it from other dialects,
incorporating certain structures borrowed from the Welsh language. Noteworthy examples of these
unique grammatical elements encompass:

 Verb-Noun Construction: This construction, influenced by Welsh language preferences, involves

placing a verb before a noun, as seen in expressions like “I’m going shopping.”
 Double Negatives: The utilization of double negatives, as in the phrase “I didn’t see nothing.”
 Different Prepositions: Varied preposition usage compared to Standard English, as exemplified by
phrases like “I was waiting on the train” instead of “I was waiting for the train.”
 More examples of Welsh Phrases and sentences with their meanings

Welsh English Phrase and Meaning Pronunciation

sentences
Last night she got absolutely Last night she got completely //lɑst nɑɪt ʃi gɒt ˈɑbsəluːtli
steamin’ drunk. ˈstiːmɪn// The pronunciation
of /ŋ/ as /n/ in the word
steaming is typical of many non-
standard varieties of English.

I could mangle a drink. I am dying for a drink. //ɑɪ kʊd ˈmɑŋgəl ə drɪŋk//
The word mangle means
something like strangle.

5. Code-Switching:

As Wales has become increasingly more anglicised, code-switching has also become increasingly more
common. Welsh code-switchers typically fall into one of three categories: the first comprises individuals
whose primary language is Welsh, and they may not feel entirely comfortable with English; the second
group consists of those whose first language is English, and they lack confidence in Welsh; and the third
includes individuals whose primary language could be either, displaying proficiency in both languages.
  Examples:

The congruence between Welsh and English allows for seamless code-switching, where there is sufficient
structural overlap to facilitate compatibility. In studies on Welsh English code-switching, Welsh often
serves as the matrix language, incorporating English words or phrases. An example of this usage might
be seen in sentences like “dw i’n love-io soaps,” translating to “I love soaps.”

Margaret Deuchar’s 2005 study on Welsh-English code-switching revealed that 90 percent of tested
sentences adhered to the Matrix Language Format (MLF), classifying Welsh English as a classic case of
code-switching. This classification is identifiable as the matrix language is distinguishable, with the
majority of clauses following the structure of the matrix language concerning subject-verb order and
modifiers.

References:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_English

https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/english/the-history-of-english-language/welsh-english/

https://www.uv.es/anglotic/accents_of_english/02/examples_of_welsh_english.html

https://study.com/academy/lesson/gaelic-language-overview-origin-geography.html

https://www.oed.com/discover/introduction-to-irish-english/?tl=true