7 Tunneling Phenomena Chapter Outline 7A. The Square Bartier Summary 7.2. Barier Penetration: soar The Scanning Tunneling Some Applications Microscope, Roger A. Freedman Field Emission and Paul K. Hansma e Decay Awsmonia Inversion Decay of Black Holes In this chapter the principles of wave mechanics are applied to particles stik- ing a potential barrier, Unlike potential wells that attract and trap particles, barriers repel them, Because barriers have no bound states, the emphasis shifts to determining whether a particle incident on a barrier is reflected or transmitted In the course of this study we shall encounter a peculiar phenomenon called tunneling. A purely wavemechanical effect, tunneling nevertheless is essential to the operation of many moderndlay devices and shapes our world on a scale from atomic all the way up to galactic proportions. The chapter includes a dis cussion of the role played by tunneling in several phenomena of practical inter est, such as field emission, radioactive decay, and the operation of the ammonia maser. Finally, the chapter is followed by an essay on the scanning tunneling microscope, or STM, a remarkable device that uses tunneling to make images of surfaces with resolution comparable to the sizeof a single atom. 7.1 THE SQUARE BARRIER ‘The square barrier is represented by a potential energy function U(x) that is constant at U in the barrier region, say between x= 0 and x= L, and zero outside this region. One method for producing a square barrier poten tial using charged hollow cylinders is shown in Figure 7.12. The outer cylin- ders are grounded while the central one is held at some positive potential V. For a particle with charge q the barrier potential energy is = q¥. The Copyright 2005 Thomson Learning, Inc.All Rights Reserved. 23122 CHAPTER 7 ‘TUNNELING PHENOMENA _ ae oo§ * « © Figure 7.1 (2) Aligned metallic eylinders serve asa potential barvier to changed parti cles. The central eyinder is held at some positive electric potential ¥, and the outer cplinders are grounded. A charge qwhose total energy is less than gVis unable to pene- uate the central cylinder classically, but can do so quantum mechanically by a process called tunneling, (b) The potential energy seen by this charge in the limi where the ‘gaps between the cylinders have shrunk to zero size. The result is the square barvier po- tential of height U charge experiences no electri Force except in the gaps separating the eyli ders. The force in the gaps is repulsive, tending to expel a positive charge from the central cylinder, The electric potential energy for the idealized ‘ease in which the gaps have shrunk to zero size is the square barries, sketched in Figure 7.1b. ‘A classical particle incident on the barrier, say from the left, experiences a retarding force on arriving at x = 0. Particles with energies E greater than U are able to overcome this force, but suffer a reduction in speed to a value commensurate with their diminished kinetic energy (E ~ U) in the barrier re- gion. Such particles continue moving to the right with reduced speed until they reach x= L, where they receive a “kick” accelerating them back to their original speed. Thus, particles having energy E> U are able to cross the barrier with their speed restored to its initial value. By contrast, particles with ‘energy E< Uare turned back (reflected) by the barrier, having insufficient ‘energy to cross oF even penetrate it. In this way the barrier divides the space into classically allowed and forbidden regions determined by the particle ‘energy: If E> U, the whole space is accessible to the particle; for £< U only the interval to the side of the barrier in which the particle originates is accessi- ble—the barvier region itself is forbidden, and this precludes particle motion on the far side as well. [According to quantum mechanics, however, there is no region inacces: ble to our particle, regardless of its energy, since the matter wave assoc ated with the particle is nonzero everywhere. A typical wavefumetion for this case, illustrated in Figure 7.2a, clearly shows the penetration of the wave into the barrier and beyond. This barrier penetration is in complete disagreement with classical physics. The process of penetrating the barrier is called tunnel: ings we say the particle has tunneled through the barvier. “The mathematical expression for ¥ on either side of the barrier is easily found. To the lelt of the barrier the particle is free, so the wavefunction here is composed of the free particle plane waves introduced in Chapter 6: V(x) = Adie 4 gibt aay This wavefunction W(x, 0) is actually the sum of two plane waves. Both have frequency @ and energy E = fw = A2K?/2m, but the first moves from left to right (wavenumber A), the second from right to left (wavenumber ~A). Thus, ‘Copyright 2005 Thomson Learning, Inc.All Rights Reserved.na Ainciden a (cransmied) (rettected) — —— @ Figure 7.2. (a) A ypical stationarystate wave fora particle in the presence of a square barrier. The energy E of the particle is lest than the barrier height U Since the ‘wave amplitude is nonzero in the barrier, there is some probability of finding the particle there. (b) Decomposition of the stationary wave into incident, reflected, and transmitted waves that part of ¥ proportional to Ais interpreted as a wave incident on the bar- rier from the left; that proportional to Bas a wave reflected from the barrier and moving from right to left (Fig. 7.2b). The reflection coefficient for the barrier is calculated as the ratio of the reflected probability density to the in dent probability density: (HW reteced BB _ BP CP Wncidens APA LAP (72) In wave terminology, R is the fraction of wave intensity in the reflected beam; in particle language, R becomes the likelihood (probability) that a particle in- cident on the barrier from the leftis reflected by it. Similar arguments apply to the right of the barrier, where, again, the parti= cle is free: V(x f) = Foleo 4. Gell 0d (73) ‘This form for W(x, ¢) is valid in the range x> L, with the term proportional to F describing a wave traveling to the right, and that proportional to Ga wave traveling to the left in this region. The latter has no physical interpretation for waves incident on the barrier from the left, and so is discarded by requiring G= 0. The formers that part of the incident wave that is transmitted through the barrier. The relative intensity of this transmitted wave is the transmission coefficient for the barrier T: (Y*Wanemined FPF _ IE PMc — AXA TAP oo Tr The transmission coefficient measures the likelihood (probability) that a parti cle incident on the barrier from the left penetrates to emerge on the other ‘de. Since a particle incident on the barrier is either reflected or transmitted, the probabilities for these events must sum to R+T=1 (735) Equation 7.5 expresses a kind of sum rule obeyed by the barrier coellicients, Further, the degree of transmission or reflection will depend on particle ‘Copyright 2005 Thomson Learning, Inc.All Rights Reserved. ‘THE SQUARE BARRIER 288 Reflection coefficient for barrier234 CHAPTER7 TUNNELING PHENOMENA Jing conditions at a square barrier energy. In the classical case T= 0 (and R= 1) for E< U, but T= 1 (and R = 0) for E> U. The wavemechanical predictions for the functions T(E) and R(E) are more complicated; to obtain them we must examine the matter wave within the barrier. To find V in the barrier, we must solve Schradinger’s equation. Let us consider stationary states U(x)" whose energy E= fiw is below the top of the barrier, This is the case £< U for which no barrier pen- etration is permitted classically. In the region of the barrier (0 < x< 1), U(x) = Uand the time-independent Schrddinger equation for Y(x) can be rearranged as a@y _ [2m(u- £)) ee Ie With E< U; the term in braces is @ postive constant, and solutions to this equation are the real exponential forms o°* Since (d2/ds2)@°" = (a)%e°™, we should identify the term in braces with a? or, equivalently, A2m(U= «=e (76) For wide barriers, the probability of finding the particle should decrease steadily into the barrier; in such eases only the decaying exponential is impor- tant, and itis convenient to define a barrier penetration depth § = 1/a. At a distance 3 into the barrier, the wavefunction has fallen to 1/eof its value at the barrier edge; thus, the probability of finding the particle is appreciable only within about 5 of the barrier edge. The complete wavefunction in the barrier is, then, W(x 0 = wperist = GMM + Demis — forO U, a warsmision coefcent. TE) becomes imaginary and sinh (a1) turns oscillatory. This leads to fluctuations for a square barrier. Oscillation in T(E) and isolated energies for which transmission occurs with complete i? T\£) with E, and the trans- certainty, that is, T(E) = 1. Such transmission resonances arise from wave © aE re farther ¢ we Fy Q imerference and constitute further evidence for the wave nature of matter 3 Fate farther evidence for (see Example 7.3) EXAMPLE 7.1 Transmission Coefficient for an Oxide Layer ‘Two copper conducting wires are separated by an insulat "The transm jon coefficient from Equation 7.9 is then ing oxide layer (CuO). Modeling the oxide layer as a tp aot “1 square barrier of height 10. eV, estimate the transmis a {ts [2] sant cosas Ayah sion coefficient for penctration by 7.00V electrons bra) {a) if the layer thickness is 5.00 nm and (b) ifthe layer Substieuting £ = 50.0 A (5.00 nm) gives thickness is 1.00 nm, T= 0.968 % 10-8 Solution From Equation 7.6 we calculate a for this fantastically small number on the order of 10-4 Wit cease, usin 178 keV-A/cand ame = 511 KeV/e for Seung ask ‘Aeand me = 51 ReV/E 1. 10.0.4 (1.00 nm), however, we find Bn0- T= 0657 x 10-7 a We see that reducing the layer thickness by a factor of 5 po ‘enhances the likelihood of penetration by nearly 81 or AB(611 KeV/ 268.00 X 10 eV) Act dersof magnitude! 1973 keV-A/e as75 * QD Eeerite 1 Co 10 our companion Web site (htp://infobrookscole.com/ pte) and select QMTools Simulations — Exercise 7-1. This parGcularJova applet Shows the de Broglie wave factually just the teal part) for an electzon with nergy 7.00 eV incident from the left on a square barrier 10.0 eV high and 1.0 A wide. Compare this waveform withthe ilustration of Figure 72a, In fact, cis wave inherently complex ‘aed, wih a moduls and phase that vares from point to point. Amore informative display plots the moduins in the usual vay but uses color to represent the phase ofthe wave. Rghtclck onthe waveform and select Properties...» Color4.Phase — Apply to show the colorforphase plotting spe. Why does the ransmited wave (to the right of the barrier) now have a uniform height? What is the sgnifience ofthis height? Follow the onsite instructions to display the incident component of this scattering wave and determine the transmission coeficient directly from the graphs, Compare your result with the predicdon of Equation 7. ‘Copyright 2005 Thomson Learning, Inc.All Rights Reserved.