1

The Cell Structure and

Functions
TOPIC 3 PART 2 ( WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY )
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Whole Cell Activity

A cell’s characteristics are determine by the type of proteins

produced.
The proteins produced are in turn determined by the genetic
information in the nucleus.
Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its cellular
processes.
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DNA 1

DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis; a process

called gene expression.
A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined together to form two
nucleotide strands.
The two strands are connected and resemble a ladder that is twisted
around its long axis.
Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base.
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DNA 2

Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a specific bonding

pattern to another nucleotide on the opposite strand.
A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical set
of instructions for making a specific protein.
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Gene Expression

Gene expression, which is protein synthesis, involves transcription

and translation.
Transcription involves copying DNA into messenger RNA.
Translation involves messenger RNA being used to produce a
protein.
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Transcription 1

Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the cell.

DNA determines the structure of mRNA through transcription.
During transcription, the double strands of a DNA segment
separate, and DNA nucleotides of the gene pair with RNA
nucleotides that form the mRNA.
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Transcription 2

DNA contains one of the following organic bases: thymine,

adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, adenine, cytosine, or
guanine.
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Transcription 3

DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA nucleotides.

DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine.
DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.
DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine
DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine.
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Transcription
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Translation 1

Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA has exited

the nucleus through the nuclear pores.
The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.
Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are read by
anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) on transfer RNA (tRNA).
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Translation 2

Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids from the

cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA complex and initiates
formation of the polypeptide chain.
The process continues until the entire polypeptide is completely
formed.
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Translation
of mRNA in
Protein
Synthesis
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Overview of
Gene
Expression
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The Cell Cycle 1

During growth and development, cell division occurs to increase

the number of cells or replace damaged or dying ones.
This cell division involves a cell cycle.
The cell cycle includes two major phases: a nondividing phase,
called interphase, and a cell dividing phase, termed mitosis.
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The Cell Cycle 2

A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase performing its

normal functions.
During interphase, the DNA (located in chromosomes in the
cell’s nucleus) is replicated.
The two strands of DNA separate from each other, and each
strand serves as a template for the production of a new strand
of DNA.
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The Cell Cycle 3

Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand pair with new

nucleotides that are subsequently joined by enzymes to form a
new strand of DNA.
The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA template determines
the sequence of nucleotides in the new strand of DNA.
Replication of DNA gives two identical chromatids joined at a
centromere; both form one chromosome.
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DNA
Replication
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Cell Genetic Content

Each human cell (except sperm and egg) contains 23 pairs of

chromosomes, a total of 46.
The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes total.
One pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes, which
consist of two X chromosomes if the person is a female or an X
and Y chromosome if the person is a male.
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Mitosis

Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells from a single

parent cell.
Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.
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Prophase

During prophase the chromatin condenses to form visible

chromosomes.
Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to assist in breaking
the centromere between the chromatids and move the
chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell.
The nuclear membrane dissolves.
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Metaphase

During metaphase, the chromosomes align near the center of

the cell.
The movement of the chromosomes is regulated by the
attached spindle fibers.
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Anaphase

At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids separate and

each chromatid is called a chromosome.
Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by the
spindle fibers toward the centriole at one of the poles of the
cell.
At the end of anaphase, each set of chromosomes has reached
an opposite pole of the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
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Telophase

During telophase, the chromosomes in each of the daughter

cells become organized to form two separate nuclei, one in each
newly formed daughter cell.
The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the genetic
material during interphase.
Following telophase, cytoplasm division is completed, and two
separate daughter cells are produced.
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The Cell
Cycle
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Differentiation

A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell, then a

great number of mitotic divisions occur to give the trillions of
cells of the body.
The process by which cells develop with specialized structures
and functions is called differentiation.
During differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA are active,
but others are inactive.
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Diversity of Cell Types
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Apoptosis

Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a normal process

by which cell numbers within various tissues are adjusted and
controlled.
In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra tissue, such as
cells between the developing fingers and toes.
In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess cells to
maintain a constant number of cells within the tissue.
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Cellular Aspects of Aging

There are various causes for cellular aging.

• Existence of a cellular clock
• Presence of death genes
• DNA damage
• Formation of free radicals
• Mitochondrial damage
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Tumors

Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.

They are due to problems occurring in the cell cycle.
Some tumors are benign and some are malignant (cancer).
Malignant tumors can spread by a process, termed metastasis.
 Seeley’s 30
REFERENCE
ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology
Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo