STRUCTURE MATERIALS BEHAVIOR

UNDER SERVICE LOAD

Subject:
Stress and strain

Bartosz Ankurowski
Wiktoria Białogońska
Budownictwo
Studia stacjonarne
Semestr 5
Rok 2023/24
In the discussion of strength and rigidity in structures, stress and strain are crucial
concepts. They occur when a load is applied to a structural material. Stress can be
interpreted as something that opposes a load. Strain equals to the deformation of
material that happens when the material is under a certain stress.

Stress
The measure of internal force per unit area of cross-section is known as stress. The
maximum point where an element cannot withstand any more pressure depends on
its size, shape and the material that was used to make the element - referred to
commonly by ultimate strength.
There two types of basic stress:

 normal stress,
 shear stress.

Other types are similar to these or are a combination of them.

If the stress act perpendicular to the particular area, they are known as normal stress
(σ). This type of stress creates a uniaxial state, as the force only acts in one direction.
However, this scenario rarely occurs. Instead, we commonly see biaxial and triaxial
states where there are two or three mutually perpendicular normal stresses present.
The normal stresses can either be tensile or compressive whether the stresses acts
out of the element or into the element.
The principle of Saint-Venant is utilized to explain the manner in which loads and
stresses operate within an axially loaded element, and may be important when
assessing the loads exerted on corroded structures. This concept was formulated by
Adhémar Jean Claude Barré de Saint-Venant, a French theorist specializing in
elasticity. The principle's primary phrasing reads as follows:
“If the forces acting on a small portion of the surface of an elastic body are replaced
by another statically equivalent system of forces acting on the same portion of the
surface, this redistribution of loading produces substantial changes in the stresses
locally but has a negligible effect on the stresses at distances which are large in
comparison with the linear dimensions of the surface on which the forces are
changed.”
Saint-Venant's principle states that stresses occurring at any point in a cross-section
subjected to an axial load will exhibit uniformity, provided that said location is
sufficiently far from both the points of load application and the discontinuity in the
cross-section of the element.
When a surface is subjected to a point load, the stresses are concentrated at the
point of application. However, as you move away from this point, the stress
distribution gradually evens out. This stress amplification – termed “stress gain” – is
similarly generated during sudden changes in cross-sectional area in materials.

Let's look at a scenario in which the element experiences parallel forces distributed
over its cross-sectional area rather than perpendicular forces. These types of forces
shear the material and are called shear forces, resulting in what is called shear
stress. The forces resulting from this phenomenon can be called shear stresses (τ).

The use of Mohr's circle allows for graphical determination of normal and shear
stresses acting on the plane of the loaded object. This technique is characterized by
both mathematical accuracy and visual appeal, thus offering a unique interweaving of
the principles of mathematics and physics.

Strain
When a body is acted upon by either one force or a system of forces, it experiences
deformation. This deformation can be quantified as strain per unit length.
Mathematically speaking, strain refers to the amount of deformation relative to its
original length measurement.
Shear strain is produced when the deforming force causes change in the shape of
the body. It is defined as the ratio of the displacement of a layer to its distance from
the fixed layer. Let the height of the body be l and the displacement of the layer is x.

Volumetric strain occurs when the applied load results in a change of volume. This
type of strain is characterized by volumetric stress, which causes changes in the
body's volume and deformation. The mathematical definition for this change can be
expressed as the ratio of change in volume to original volume.

Strain with stress

When stress is low, some materials exhibit a linear relationship between stress and
strain. This behavior adheres to Hooke's Law, where the ratio of stress to strain is
referred to as the elastic modulus. However, this only holds true within a certain
range of stresses known as the elastic region. Elastic bodies follow these principles
and can return back their original shape after applied force is removed - an example
being an idealized spring. Beyond that point lies non-linear behavior with increasing
stress until material failure occurs.
Hooke’s Law states that within elastic limit stress is proportional to strain.
Mathematically:
stress
E=
strain
Where E = Young’s Modulus

The modulus of elasticity, also known as Young's Modulus (or simply E or Y), is a
measure of how well a material can withstand compression or elongation in relation
to its length. This mechanical property specifically describes the behavior of linear
elastic solids including rods and wires.
The ratio lateral strain to longitudinal strain produced by a single stress is known as
Poisson’s ratio (µ). Poisson's ratio refers to the proportion of elongation in one axis
compared to contraction in the opposite axis upon exposure of a material to either
tensile or compressive forces. For instance, when a rubber band experiences tensile
strain, it stretches along its length but constricts across its width causing thinning
while becoming longer simultaneously. Similarly, applying compression on a rubber
ball results in an increase in girth perpendicular to its longitudinal axis and shrinkage
parallelly. Poisson's ratio represents this correlation between axial and transverse
distortions plainly.

Bulk modulus is a numerical value that characterizes how solid or liquid substances
behave elastically under pressure on all surfaces. This pressure reduces the volume
of the substance, although when released from this force it returns to its initial state.
The term "incompressibility" can be used interchangeably with this physical property
because the bulk modulus quantifies a material's ability to withstand volumetric
changes when subjected to compression from all directions simultaneously. It is
exactly the quotient calculated by dividing the applied force exerted equally on each
surface by the proportional deformation in response to it.

Literature:
 Engineering Mechanics Statics and Dynamics by Irving H. Shames
 Strength of materials by G. H. Ryder
 University of Oxford
 Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology