4 Usb LMC Pa 1 Fundamentals MT Sorreda

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CatSU College of Arts and Sciences
COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 1

Introduction
This learning material was conceptualized in order to help the students to learn
even without the close supervision of the faculty. Lessons presented are in accordance
with the syllabus in the subject PA1 – Fundamentals of Political Science.
This compilation of lessons in Fundamentals of Political Science was taken from
different books and the authors and publishers are acknowledge at the end of every
chapters. This LMC consists of ten chapters and each chapters has a minimum of two
lessons. The first three chapters cover the critical thinking about politics such as: the
“political” and “science” in Political Science, Concepts in Political Science, and the
Concept of Government. Other chapters focus on studying politics: approaches,
analytical perspectives and subfields.
The lessons are presented in a way that you will be motivated to read, understand,
and appreciate the content of the course. Through this lessons it is hope that you will
embrace the values of studying political science that could help you to be a future
researcher, public servant and a law abiding citizens of the country.
At the end of each chapter you have to answer the activity to test your
comprehension in the lessons presented. Submission of the outputs will be announced
later through group chat or text messages. Submission of activity outputs shall be on or
before the due date.
Cheating and plagiarism are strictly prohibited. Uploading this learning material in
any electronic means is likewise strictly prohibited. Students caught doing these acts
shall be dealt with in accordance with the provisions of the Student Handbook and the
Data Privacy Act.
JOCELYN T. SORREDA, Ed.D.

Subject Professor

CHAPTER 1
The “political” and “science”
in political science
Learning Outcomes:
After studying the module the students are expected to:

1. Define Political Science;
2. Justify that political science is “science” or “not a science”;
3. Justify that political science is a “science” or “not a science”;
4. Explain the scope of political science;
5. Discuss the objectives of political science;
6. Distinguish the methodologies in political science;
7. Analyze the relationship of political science with other studies; and.
8. Describe the tasks of a political thinker.
Lesson 1. Meaning of Political Science

Lesson 2. Political Science as a “Science”
Lesson 3. Scope of Political Science
Lesson 4. Objectives of Political Science
Lesson 5. Methodologies in Political Science
Lesson 6. Relationship of Political Science with other Studies
Lesson 7. Tasks of Political Thinkers
Lesson 8. Careers in Political Science
Lesson 9. History of Political Science in the Philippines
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Lesson 1 – Meaning of Political Science

Defining Political Science is very important for you to be familiar of what it is all about.
In the book of Ayson, Florentino and Reyes (2000) there are two definitions of Political
Science such as:
Political scientists define political science as the study of the state in all its elements,
aspects and relationships.
To modern political scientists it is a systematic study of politics. It is not only about the
state, its organs and institutions but also other institutions or polities as well such as
political attitudes of people and their leaders, controversial issues and other aspects
concerning the States’ operation, powers and functions.`
According to Laurente, R. (2006, p2) Political Science is the social science that deals with
the ways human beings organize and govern themselves. As a social science it is also
concerned chiefly with the description and analysis of political and governmental
institution and processes.

De Leon, (1999) as cited by Laurente, 2006 defines political science as the systematic
study of the state and government.
Political Science is a branch of social science which deals with the study of state and its
elements. (Valenzuela 2012).
As observed the word state is common to all the definitions cited above. In a very
simplest term we can define Political science as the study of state. In the study of state
the focus of study is the elements of state which are the population, territory, government
and sovereignty. These elements will be further discussed in other chapter of the course.
Lesson 2 - Political Science as a “Science”

There are several authors who said that Political Science is a science while other claim
that it is not a science.
Science - systematized body of knowledge based on facts, phenomena, laws and
proximate causes gained and verified by exact observation organized, experiment and
correct thinking.
Some considered it not a Science because political phenomena are characterized by
uncertainty, variables and lack of order and continuity.
Some considered it as a Science because it represents a mass of knowledge about the
phenomena of the state acquired by systematic observation, experience and study.
Hotzendorff – German writer claimed that it is a science because with the enormous
growth of knowledge it is impossible to deny that the sum total of all the experiences,
phenomena, and knowledge respecting the state maybe brought together, under the
collective title of Political Science.
Lesson 3 - Scope of Political Science

The scope of political science focused about the politics in a state or nation and also its
relationship of the people and the state with other states. How the government works for
the people is also one of its concerned. According to (Valenzuela, 1992, p. 4-6) the
following are the scope of Political science as a field of study:
1. Comparative Governments and Politics - It is about the comparative analysis of
governments and political movement of states, how the powerful states monopolize
and influence the weaker states. Example: In the United States the form of
government is a Federal form while in the Philippines it is a Presidential form.
2. Gender Politics – It is a study in Political science wherein the issue is who will be the
ideal leader a man or a woman? Who is more inclined to be corrupt a man politician or
a woman?
3. Local Government and Administration – It is a study of allocation of governmental
powers from national to local governments. It discusses the relationship of the Central
government and local government unit. Example: centralization and decentralization.
4. Political Institutions – It traces the evolution of state and its elements. For example,
Every new administration in the Philippine government propose the changing of our
constitution. Like changes from Presidential to Parliamentary, from Unitary to Federal.

5. Political Dynamics – elections, elitism, pluralism, behavioralism, women in politics, the
role of mass media and public opinions are considered in the depth-analysis of political
phenomena.
6. Political Economy – The study of economics in relation to politics can be a great help
to solve problems in world economy. In time of Covid pandemic all businesses was
closed during the lockdown, hence the government has to do something because
prolonging the enhanced community quarantine or ECQ will bring big problem in the
economic life of every individual and the economy of the nation as well. The public
safety was likewise given importance by the government by educating the public to new
normal protocols. (example: wearing of mask, social distancing, washing hands or
sanitizing).
7. Political Theories – Example of theories used in Political science are: Aristotle’s idea
that man by nature is a political animal. John Locke also believed that man is a rational
being and needed a state for their everyday living such as peace and order, essential
services and to settle their conflicts. (Ayson and Reyes, 2000)
8. Legal Philosophy – law focuses on divine, natural and positive laws while Political
Science has many aspects considering its scope is broader that law.
9. International Relations and Diplomacy – study of political science focused also on the
state and the relationship of a state with another state. The Philippine government
have ambassadors in other state to help in maintaining the good relationship with other
states. It also protect the Philippine Overseas Workers employed in the different states
of the world.
10. Political Science and Research – Political analyst usually used pure research and
applied research, and expository method of research.
Lesson 4 - Objectives of Political Science

The following are the objectives of Political Science Courses:
1. The prime objective of the study of Political Science is education of citizens, equipping
them to charge the obligations of democratic citizenship.
a. Political Science equips them with knowledge about their rights, duties and
obligations in a democratic milieu.
Intelligent and responsible citizenship makes a democratic nation strong and
stable.
Ignorance of the civic rights, duties and obligations weakens the national
foundation and causes it collapse.
b. The study of political science gives the students the civic skills and humane ideals
requisite for responsible participation in the political and social life of a democracy.
Students of political science will exercise their rights of suffrage effectively by
voting wisely during election. Political Science makes the student informed about
political concepts, institutions, and practices and leads him towards his
development for civic efficiency.
2. Knowledge of political science prepares students for career in law, foreign service,
public administration, politics, teaching, economics etc.

Political science is one of the preparatory course in law. With the implementation
of the K-12 program they can also teach in senior high school. They can also
teach in college if they will continue studying Master in Political Science. They can
be a future public administrator, a politician, a policeman, etc.
3. The study of political science seeks to gather knowledge and understanding of

government, how it operates, the conduct of elections, who are his representatives,
etc.
The different forms of government, organizational structure and functions of

government, qualification of voters and dates of election, qualification and
functions of members of congress, the qualifications of the president are only a
few of the knowledge that political science students will learn.
4. It also enables every Filipino to discharge and exercise more intelligently and more
efficient to his duties as a citizen.
The duties and obligations as member of the society and rights as a citizen are
being discussed in Political Science.
5. Knowledge of Political Science, local and comparative with other states, constitutes
particularly useful equipment for the Filipinos who desire to participate effectively and
usefully in our political growth and development.
Studying the advantages and disadvantages of the different form of government

will give insights to the students on how to vote during referendum in case that the
present government will be changed to other form of government. Example in the
Philippines, changing the government from Presidential to Parliamentary or from
Unitary to Federal system.
Lesson 5 - Methodologies in Political Science

The following are the methods used by political scientist in the study of political
institutions and situations (Zulueta, 2003, p. 4-7).
1. Philosophical Method. During the times of Plato and Aristotle, Greek philosophers,
both philosophized about government and man’s political activities. Since then, political
scientist have expounded and analysed political theories of what the government ought
to be and how it ought to function. Plato, in his famous book “The Republic,” believed
that man is a rational being and needed a state for their everyday living such as peace
and order, essential services and to settle their conflicts. (Ayson and Reyes, 2000)
2. Historical Method. The historical method seems to be the most popular of all the
methods employed in studying political science. This method looks into the political
institutions which thrived in the past eras and appraises the political growth and
development brought about by the tides of time. Using these as frame of reference,
political analysts may be able to make certain inferences for future plans of action.
3. Experimental Method. This method seeks to discover, by a series of experiments,
certain general truths on political problems relating to rule of action or political
machinery that is best adapted to or workable under certain conditions. There have
been a lot of political experimentations in all governments. The process of
government is in fact a series of experiments.

Policies in the government continuously changed. Many parents, politicians, teachers
and citizens are against the implementation of the K to 12 program and yet the
Philippine government push through its implementation. It was implemented by the
government because they want to be in accord with the curriculum in Asian countries.
There are problems during the initial implementation but everything goes smoothly
because the government tried to resolve the problem along the way of the
implementation.
4. Observation Method. This method deals with the study of political institutions by
observing their actual performance. High government officials are sent to other
countries to observe the operations of their government. Observation as a method is
gaining popularity among political scientist because the actual working of the
government and the political institutions are seen and felt in the outside world of
political life.
5. Psychological Method. This method attempts to explain political phenomenon by
means of psychological laws. Psychology has been rendering invaluable aid to the
government in the management of the affairs of the state.
Psychological method was often used by politicians especially during election. In their
political platform usually the target are the poor people. They used this propaganda
because many of the voters are coming from the poor class. Example: Erap para sa
Mahirap, para sa mga nasa laylayan, etc.
6. Sociological and Biological Methods. These methods regard the state like a dynamic
organism whose component parts and the focal interest are the individuals. They
seek to explain the growth and development of the state in the premise of the
evolutionary method.
This methods can be attributed to the leadership of families in the politics of the
Philippines and may also the reason why political dynasty is existing in our country. It
can be observed in the Philippine politics that a set of officials is just coming from one
clan. Example of political families in the history of Catanduanes are the Albertos,
Verceles, and Joson.
A few of the prominent politician today who are presently in power and their political
career started because their families are inclined in politics are the families of
Escudero, Salceda, Abalos, Fuentebella, Villafuerte, Arroyo, Binay, Marcos,
Belmonte, Macapagal, Revilla, Sotto, Cojuangco, and Zubiri. They remain in power
and their political career was influenced by the senior members of the clan.
7. Juridical Method. A state without laws will be in chaos. People will not be free from
exercising their freedom because there will be no entity that will settle what is right and
wrong. The rights of every citizen can only be protected if there will be a legal entity
who will protect them. Juridical method are used in resolving conflicts in politics.
8. Analytical Method. This method deals with the way the political scientists analyze
different political institutions and their programs. It dissects a political entity by
making a detailed study of each part to show their interrelation. Example in the study
of the Philippine government it can be divided into the different branches of the
government - the legislative, executive, and judicial branches; Constitutional
Commission - the Commission on Audit, Commission on Audit and the Civil Service
Commission; the local government units - the cities, provinces, municipalities and
barangays.

9. Behavioral Method – This method seeks to study the political behaviour of the people,
public officials and candidates for government positions. The political scientist
analyzes the behaviour of the people under certain conditions especially during public
hearings, social, movements, and election campaigns so that he can devise certain
mechanisms to forecast political trends.
During the 2016 presidential election the people of the Philippines was attracted to the
slogan of the present president Rodrigo Roa Duterte who was then the incumbent
mayor of Davao City. His slogan are “Tapang at Malasakit”, “Matapang na Solusyon”
and “Mabilis na Aksyon”. Among the cases that they featured in the political
advertisement that remained in the mind of the electorates are the drug problem in
the Philippines and the tanim bala at the Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA).
This political Ad made president Duterte very popular to the masses because they
want immediate action and change in the Philippine politics. By that time the people
are already upset on how the government resolved problems of the society, thus
President Duterte won in the 2016 election.
10. Mathematical Method. Statistics is very important in the study of political science.
Numbers can provide as reference in the decision of government officials. For
instance, numbers of positive patient becomes the basis of the decision of government
officials in the problem brought about by the COVID 19 pandemic. The declaration of
the enhanced community quarantine in Luzon last March 16, 2020 was based on the
positive cases of COVID 19 in the Philippines. Later, other parts of the countries was
declared to be under the Modified Enhanced Community Quarantine (EMECQ)
considered as high-risk areas, General Community Quarantine (GCQ) they are
places considered as moderate-risk, and Modified General Community Quarantine
(MGCQ) areas that are low-risk. The basis for the classification of such areas are the
number of COVID 19 cases in every areas or provinces.
Republic Act No. 11469 or the “Bayanihan to Heal as One Act” was approved by
President Rodrigo Duterte in order to address the problem related to COVID 19
pandemic of which the numbers count most in every detailed policies. Example,
number of positive cases, number of people who will be given relief goods and
qualified for cash assistance, the hospital beds, the benefits that can be given to the
fatalities especially the frontliners etc.
Lesson 6 - Relationship of Political Science with other Studies

Political Science in related to the following branches of learning:
1. History – The bond between the political scientist and the historian is obvious in the
observation that “history is past politics and politics present history.” The political
scientist frequently adopts a “historical approach” and employs knowledge of the past
when he seeks to interpret present and probable developments in political
phenomena.
One aspects that evolves in the history of the Philippine is the attempts of government
officials especially the members of executive and legislative department is to change
the Philippine government.
In the 1935 constitution considered to be the longest constitution in the Philippines the
form of government is Presidential. In 1972 it was changed to Parliamentary form of
government under former president Ferdinand E. Marcos. After the EDSA people
power 1 former president Corazon C. Aquino, the widow of Ninoy Aquino was installed
as a de facto president of the Republic of the Philippines. De facto in the sense that

her installation is not in accordance with the 1972 Constitution. In 1987 the Filipino
people approved through a plebiscite on February 2, 1987 the new Constitution of the
Philippines adopting a Presidential form of government. After six years members of
the legislative department planned to change the Philippine Constitution with a new
government which is a Parliamentary form of government. Such attempts did not
prosper until the presidency of Benigno Aquino III . When President Rodrigo Roa
Duterte becomes the president, his allies wanted to change the Philippine
Government from Unitary to Federal system.
The above situation describe that history will always be related to Political Science.
This is because history may serve as a guide to government officials in making
decisions in the present situation of the country. Just like in the leadership of Corazon
Aquino, they prefer to go back to the Presidential form of government in order to avoid
dictatorship as what happened during the time of Marcos. In the 1987 constitution it
was emphasized that the President shall only serve for six years and cannot be re-
elected and anyone who succeeded him shall only serve for his unexpired term if the
services was rendered four or more years.
2. Economics – the study of production, distribution, and conservation, and consumption
of wealth were coupled under the name of political economy. Today these fields are
jointly concern with the fact that economic conditions affect the organization
development, activities of the states, which in turn modify or even prescribe economic
conditions. The political scientist regularly adopts an “economic approach” when
seeking to interpret such matters as “public financial policies” and government
regulations of business.
In the mid of the COVID 19 pandemic the government gives authority to open the
businesses and industries in the provinces or areas under GCQ and MGCQ. The
public is still warned to wear mask, sanitize and observe social distancing. The
government decided to open the business and industries in order to help the economy
and at the same time to allow the people to work because many families will suffer and
business or industries will be closed.
3. Geography – Geopolitics (a science concerned with the study of the influences of

physical factors such as population pressures, sources of raw materials, geography
etc. upon domestic and foreign politics) indicates on approach which a political
scientist frequently must adopt to help explain such phenomena as the early growth
of democracy.
The Philippines is composed of 5,107 islands situated at the confluence of the South
China Sea, the Indonesian archipelago, the Philippine Sea and Pacific Ocean. It forms
the outer edge of maritime Southeast Asia, and for much of its modern history has
served as a gateway between western powers and continental Asia. A former colony
of both Spain and the United States, the Philippines today consists of three island
clusters: Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Luzon, with the country’s capital in Manila, is
the political, cultural and economic core of modern Philippines. It is highly urbanized
relative to the rest of the country, boasts a large port and deep harbor, and accounts
for roughly one-third of the Philippines GDP. Mindanao has long been a hotbed for
political unrest and insurgent movements and is populated by the predominantly
Muslim Moro tribes. It is also an important fruit and produce exporter. The Philippines
is shaped by sharp geographic, economic and social divisions between a primarily
urban north — in Luzon — and a heavily agricultural, poorer south. This, along with
the fractured island geography, makes effective national integration difficult.
(https://worldview.stratfor.com/region/asia-pacific/philippines)
4. Sociology – the study of society as a whole. A social science course that enriches
political science by its contributions to the study of social problems, juvenile

delinquency, housing problems, etc. are data available to the political scientists to
evaluate, and which may be later become interesting and basic subjects of
legislations.
The problems in society will likewise be the problems of the government. The
government introduces programs to solve social problems, juvenile delinquency,
housing problems, etc. by promulgating and implementing laws.
The following are some of the programs of the government to alleviate poverty in the
Philippines:
1. Four Ps or the Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4Ps)
2. Free tertiary education
3. Housing Materials Assistance (HOMA) Program
4. Comprehensive Health Care Program
5. K to 12 Basic Education
5. Psychology – Psychology is the foundations of Political Science. Many political

thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes to Jeremy Bentham tried to evolve a whole science
of politics based on psychology. The study of political behavior is a good example of
how these men used psychology in their theories about politics.
Jeremy Bentham – father of utilitarianism in 10th century England, formulated in theory
of political behavior on the fundamental reality that men act always in pursuit of their
self-interest.
Thomas Aquinas and Thomas Hobbes – expounded their theories of morale and
politics on a solid foundation of reality by recognizing the fact that man’s instinctive
desire is to preserve himself.
During election period political parties have their own platform of government. Most of
their platform is to serve the people especially the poor. Their political slogan also
aims to improve the life of the Filipino people specially the poor.
Examples of Political Slogan:
Erap Para sa Mahirap by Joseph Ejercito Estrada, Kung walang corrupt, walang
mahirap, Benigno C. Aquino, Jr. ; Tapang at Malasakit, Rodrigo R. Duterte, Para sa
mga nasa Laylayan, Leni Robredo; and Gaganda ang Buhay kay Binay.
As observed the poor are given attention because they know that these people always
hope that their life will improve with the help of the government.
6. Anthropology – students of politics are benefited by the anthropological theory of the
state. Anthropologists believe that the state evolved from the family, and from the clan
into bigger or more extensive groupings (i.e. the tribe and finally the nation, bound by
common ties and goals.
Aristotle writes that man is by nature a political animal, the anthropologist
helps the students of political science to understand this it means that man is a
rational, civilized and cultural being.
The clans are important aspect in the eye of the politician during election
campaign in the Philippines. These clans usually hold reunions and the political
candidate are being invited and presented during the reunion. Clans are also
considered in choosing a ward leader during election campaign especially in
provinces.

7. Philosophy - Political theories about the origin of the state, individualism, democracy,
communism, the separation of governmental powers, and others are but a few
examples of the personal philosophies of those who advocated them.
Every Philippine President have its own political philosophy in terms of the forms of
government. Example of this is during the time of Ferdinand E. Marcos he prefer the
Democratic-Parliamentary form of government; Corazon C. Aquino administration
choose to have Democratic-Presidential; while Rodrigo R. Duterte administration prefer
to change the Unitary type of government to Federal.
8. Statistics and Logic – political theorists must possess a broad scientific background
and knowledge of current political problems and he must employ scientific methods in
gathering and evaluating data and in drawing conclusions.
In this time of Covid 19 pandemic statistics and logic is very crucial in the decision
making of the government. The higher the number of positive patients the higher are
the needs of the government to attend to in terms of the number of the following:
1. Health workers/frontliners;
2. hospital beds;
3. personal protective equipment;
4. medical supplies;
5. ventilators;
6. quarantine facilities;
7. testing centers, testing kits;
8. cash/good assistance;
9. assistance to the unemployed; and etc.
9. Jurisprudence – branch of public law is concerned with the analysis of existing legal
systems and also with the ethical, historical, sociological and psychological
foundations of law. Law and state are inseparable. All states proclaim laws, effective
within their jurisdiction, and enforce them through a system of penalties.
In the Philippines, the legislative, executive and judicial department are separated.
They are independent but coordinate with each other. The legislative department
promulgate the laws, the executive department execute the laws while the judicial
department interpret the law. The judicial department checks whether the laws
promulgated by congress is within the bound of the Constitution of the Philippines and
see to it that the laws are implemented by the executive department.
Lesson 7 – Task of Political Thinkers

The following are the task of political thinkers:
1. According to Agpalo (1998: p. 36), as cited by Valenzuela, (2012: p. 7) the professional
political scientists must have a doctoral degree in order to give a creditable work
especially in political research, others with bachelor’s degree and with master’s
degree (especially in line with their specialization to teach in private colleges and
universities.
2. Book writing about political science;
3. Work as lawyers and diplomat in other countries; and

4. Conduct Political research (quantitative and qualitative) which requires reading, writing
questionnaires in order to measure the variables with the help of the respondents. The
political thinkers analyses and interprets the data gathered.
Lesson 8 – Careers in Political Science

Graduates of political science:
1. Proceed to Legal studies such as Bachelor of Laws or taking up Legal Management.
2. Those who are teaching in tertiary education proceed to Masteral studies and Doctorate
degree.
3. Can be a professional writer in political science, politician, administrator, speaker,
professional lecturer, political adviser and political scientist.
Lesson 9 - History of Political Science in the Philippines

Political science started in the Philippines during the time of Jose Rizal when he became a
propagandist through his writings in La Solidaridad and his two novels Noli Me Tangere
and El Filibusterismo. His two novels attacked the wrong doings of the friars since that
time the state and the church is not separated.
Other propagandist against the Spanish government are Marcelo H. del Pilar a lawyer and
recognized political scientist and Graciano Lopez Jaena, an orator.
The University of the Philippines was the first school who offered political science as a
field of discipline in 1915 under the College of Liberal Arts with George A. Malcolm, an
American as the first appointed Dean. (Agpalo:1998, p.4) as cited by (Valenzuela: 2016,
p. 8).
Other colleges like Far Eastern University and University of Santo Tomas started to offer
Political Science with a separate department of political Science. At present more than
100 tertiary schools offering the program all over the country.
The Commission on Higher Education issued CHED Memorandum No. 51, series of 2017
entitled “Policies, Standards and Guidelines (PSGs) for the BA Political
Science (BA PoS) Program”. Such policies took effect last academic
year 2018-2019. The CMO served as the guide and standard for the
establishment, transformation of the current Bachelor of Arts in Political
Science (BA Pos) curriculum towards a learner- or a student centered
approach. All private Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), State
Universities and Colleges (SUCs) and Local Universities and Colleges
(LUCs) with existing authorization to operate Bachelor of Arts in
Political Science programs are given three years to comply with the
provision of the said CHED Memorandum.

References
Ayson, Florentino G. and Reyes, Dolores A. 2000. Fundamentals of Political Science,
Second Edition.Mandaluyong City: National Book Store.
Valenzuela, Edwin E. 2012 . Understanding Basic Concepts in Political Science.

Intramuros, Manila: Purely Books Tradining and Pulblishing Corpo.
Valenzuela, Edwin E. 2016. Understanding Basic Concepts in Political Science. 2nd

Edition . Intramuros, Manila: Purely Books Tradining and Pulblishing Corporation.
Laurente, Reynold R. 2006. Essentials of Political Science 2. Manila: Philippines, Rex

Book Store.
https://worldview.stratfor.com/region/asia-pacific/philippines
Zueleta, Francisco M. 2003. Foundations and Dynamics of Political Science.
Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Academic Publishing Corporation.

Self-Assessment Question No. 1 (Chapter 1)
Course Code: ____ Description:____________________Time/Day:
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Class No._______ I.D. No. ________________ Score: _______ EPS:
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Name_______________________________________Date: ___________
College:________________Course:_____________________Block_____
1. Complete the table below to define Political Science.
Author Definition
1. Florentino Ayson, et. al.
a. Political Scientists
b. Modern Political Scientist
2. Reynold Laurente
3. Hector De Leon
4. Edwin Valenzuela
2. Justify whether Political Science is a “science” or “not a science”.
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3. Identify the Scope of Political Science applicable to the following:
a. Change of Government from Monarchy to Democracy _____________________
b. Social Contract Theory _____________________________________________
c. Who will be the next President of the Philippines, a man or a woman?
_____________________________
d. Studying the government of Japan and England. ________________________
e. Postponement of election in 2022 _____________________________________
4. Do you think studying Political Science will help you to become a better citizen of the
Philippines? Justify your answer.
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5. What method of political science is applicable to the present situation of the country.
Give examples to back up your argument. _________________________________
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6. Among the different tasks of political thinkers, which do you think is true in the
Philippine setting? Give examples to back up your argument.
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7. Do you know someone who graduated in Political Science course? Describe him/her
educational attainment and career.
If none, try to connect in the internet and search someone who graduated in the
course Political Science and describe him/her educational attainment and career.
Evaluate their career if related to political science or not.

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__________________________________________________________________
8. List down at least 10 Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), State Universities and
Colleges (SUCs) and Local Universities and Colleges (LUCs) offering Political Science
Course. Follow the table below:
Tuition Fee
Classification
Name Location Per
HEIS/SUCs/LUCs
Semester
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
GOOD LUCK

CHAPTER 2
Concepts in Political Science
Learning Outcomes:
After studying the module the students are expected to:

1. Distinguish power from authority
2. Critique the three types of authority
3. Distinguish state and nation
4. Classify the different types of states
5. Discuss the purposes of state
6. Make a chart showing the functions and obligations of the state
7. Classify the different theories of state
8. Trace the evolution of modern states
9. Analyze the different essential elements of state
Lesson 1: Power and Authority

Lesson 2: Nation-State
===================================================================
Lesson 1 – Power and Authority

The Meaning of Power and Authority
Authority derives from the Latin word auctoritas and is a concept used to indicate
the foundational right to exercise power, which can be formalized by the State and
exercised by way of judges, monarchs, rulers, police officers or other appointed
executives of government, or the ecclesiastical or priestly appointed representatives of a
higher spiritual power (God or other deities). The term authority can also be used to
indicate an academic knowledge of an area (as in an authority on a subject), or to refer to
an original or natural obligation (as in the authority of a father).
In government, the term authority is often used interchangeably with power.

However, their meanings differ: while power is defined as "the ability to influence
somebody to do something that he/she would not have done", authority refers to a claim
of legitimacy, the justification and right to exercise that power.
Authority is legal and formal right to a person, who can take decisions, give orders
and commands to others to perform a particular task. It is conferred to high officials, to
accomplish organization’s objectives. It is hierarchical in nature, it flows downward, i.e.
delegated from superior to the subordinate.
In general, authority is exercised to get things done through others. It is attached

to the position, i.e. any person who gets the position enjoys the authority attached to it, the
higher the position, the higher would be his authority. As the authority lies in the
designation, in the absence of authority, the position offered to the person would be of no
use. Moreover, it is restricted to the organisation only.
The Difference between Power and Authority
The difference between power and authority can be drawn clearly on the following
grounds:
1. Power is defined as the ability or potential of an individual to influence others and

control their actions. Authority is the legal and formal right to give orders and
commands, and take decisions.
2. Power is a personal trait, i.e. an acquired ability, whereas authority is a formal right that
vest in the hands of high officials or management personnel.
3. The major source of power is knowledge and expertise. On the other hand, position
and office determine the authority of a person.
4. Power flows in any direction, i.e. it can be upward, downward, crosswise or diagonal,
lateral. As opposed to authority, that flows only in one direction, i.e. downward (from
superior to subordinate).
5. The power lies in person, in essence, a person acquires it, but authority lies in the
designation, i.e. whoever get the designation, get the authority attached to it.
6. Authority is legitimate whereas the power is not.
The Three Types of Authority

The sociologist and philosopher Max Weber distinguishes three types of authority—
charismatic, traditional and legal-rational—each of which corresponds to a brand of
leadership that is operative in contemporary society. Jeffry Ocay, a scholar in critical
theory, explains that the achievement of a particular form of political order in any

democracy depends on prevailing conditions “in which different forms of society cohere”
and different ways “in which consensus is achieved.”
1. Charismatic authority points to an individual who possesses certain traits that make a
leader extraordinary. This type of leader is not only capable of but actually possesses
the superior power of charisma to rally diverse and conflict-prone people behind him.
His power comes from the massive trust and almost unbreakable faith people put in
him.
2. Traditional authority indicates the presence of a dominant personality. This leader is

someone who depends on established tradition or order. While this leader is also a
dominant personality, the prevailing order in society gives him the mandate to rule.
This type of leadership, however, is reflective of everyday routine and conduct.
3. Legal-rational authority is one that is grounded in clearly defined laws. The obedience
of people is not based on the capacity of any leader but on the legitimacy and
competence that procedures and laws bestow upon persons in authority.
Contemporary society depends on this type of rationalization, as the complexities of its
problems require the emergence of a bureaucracy that embodies order and
systematization.
All three forms of a2uthority exhibit a specific weakness or problem
1. Charismatic leadership can be problematic because it is somehow based on some

form of a messianic promise of overhauling an unjust system. It is not impossible,
however, to find such type of a leader, as history would show. Consider Mahatma
Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., or Nelson Mandela. A charismatic leader holds the
mission to unite his people amid adversity and differences in order to attain an almost
insurmountable goal.
2. Traditional authority poses its particular difficulty insofar as it is based on some kind of
a dominant power. For Weber, all authority exhibits some form of domination. A
traditional leader may rely on or even exploit prevailing practices. Traditional authority
may suffer from a lack of moral regularity in the creation of legal standards.
3. Legal-rational authority makes manifest the power of the bureaucracy over the
individual. In the exercise of authority, the administration of power, laws and rules,
including institutional duties and protocols, have control over individuals. While order
and systematization are desirable, the bureaucracy may not be able to fully address
the problems and concerns of everyone, as what the development of nation-states
today suggests.
Modern societies rely on legal-rational authority in terms of finding a common

ground in which consensus may be achieved. But consensus on the basis of
agreements often lacks flexibility, which may embody the dominance of a bureaucratic
mentality of which government service is sometimes accused.
Weber’s analysis of modern societies also points to the idea that capitalist states
do give rise to bureaucratic authority. Instrumental reason, grounded in the “means to
an end” discourse, can be found in the exercise of authority on the basis of laws, rules
and procedures that govern citizens. For Weber, legal-rational authority has been
successful in Protestant countries because Protestantism fills the bill in terms of
responsible capitalism. The basic point is that Protestant ethics emphasizes hard work
and individual responsibility, which are both necessary in order to maintain and pursue
the ends of capitalism.

As a people, Filipinos not only need to have the knowledge about the character
traits of the leaders we so desire. More importantly, we have the moral duty to
understand collectively the basic requirements that confer legitimacy on the mandate
of government officials in whom we entrust the future of this nation. Democracy is
about how and why power must be reconfigured so that it emanates from the center in
order to capacitate the peripheries. But democratic change cannot be achieved simply
by means of rewriting our laws. An ideal discourse situation in the grassroots must be
present.
The Philippines has always been a difficult case. Right now, what the country
needs is a unifying leader who must exhibit both political will and charisma, one who
can bring about social and political cohesion in the pursuit of public interest. Given the
problems that we have, becoming the country’s leader should be an unenviable
position. But we have to make the right choice. The continuing saga that is Philippine
democracy is not wanting in terms of potential heroes and villains.
Leadership Power
Everyone leads differently, but all leadership involves authority. Most leaders exhibit the
same types of leadership power.
Each leader usually exhibits at least one of these types of leadership power.
1. Legitimate power is traditional power – it is the type of power a manager, executive, or

another leading official in a company has due to the status of their position.
2. Information power - one gains information power when they know something other
people want to know. This information could be anything from gossip to intricate
knowledge about a person or company.
3. Expert power - people who have more knowledge or experience than other members of
their team exhibit expert power. For example, an executive with 20 years of experience
in their field has expert power over a recent college graduate who is just starting their
career.
4. Reward power - a leader who has the ability to reward an employee or team member
(with money, praise, etc.) has reward power.
5. Coercive power - is the opposite of reward power; a leader who can punish an
employee or team member has coercive power. Because the threat of punishment can
persuade an employee to act a certain way, this type of leadership power is called
“coercive power.”
6. Referent power - is all about “who you know.” A leader with lots of referent power may
have many connections or a large social network they can use to their advantage.
Someone with referent power may also be close to an executive with legitimate power.
7. Charismatic power - charismatic leaders have the ability to influence others. While they
may or may not have an established network of contacts, they usually have a natural
ability to persuade or inspire others.
8. Moral power - A leader who has moral power over his or her employees and
exhibits ethical leadership has been placed on a pedestal, so to speak, due to their
beliefs and actions. A leader’s good qualities can lead to them having moral power
over an employee, because the employee may be inspired to replicate the leader’s
actions.

Lesson 2 – Nation-State
State-Nation Defined
State is a group of people, living in a definite territory, having a government of their
own and enjoying independence from other country.
Nation a large body of people united by common descent, history, culture, or
language, inhabiting a particular state or territory.
Nation is a group of people bound together by certain characteristics such as
common social origin, language, customs and traditions and who believe that they are one
and distinct from others.
State Distinguished from Nation

1. State is a political concept while nation is an ethnic concept.
State is a political concept, a legal fiction. It has perpetual existence as long as its
four elements are intact.
Nation – is an ethnic or a sociological collectivity of individuals, a sociological
collectivity of individuals who possess in common certain non-political characteristics
such as:
a. common racial origin
b. common language
c. common religion
d. common historical experience
e. common cultural and social tradition
There must be among them a common unifying bond that holds them together:
emotionally, culturally, spiritually and socially. They must demonstrate a spirit of
national unity.
Even if some of the essential elements of nation may not be present, like absence of
common social origin, religion or culture, are those of a state, like absence of
sovereignty or lack of territory provided the spirit of nationalism is strong among the
people, they still constitute a nation although they do not form a state.
2. State is not subject to external control while a nation may or may not be independent of
external control.
3. A single state may consist of one or more nations or people, and conversely, a single
nation may be made up of several states.
A nation may comprise several states. Example: Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon,
Jordan, Algeria and Libya, among others, while each is a separate state, all belong to
the Arab nation.
On the other hand, it is also possible for a single state to be made up of more than one
nation. Example: United states, which was a melting pot of many nations that were
eventually amalgamated into the “American nation,” or of Malaysia, whose population
consists of Malay and Chinese, or of the United Kingdom, which is composed of
England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

A state need not be a state at all, as demonstrated by Poles after the dismemberment
of their country in 1975 again in World War II or by the Jews before the creation of the
State of Israel in 1948. (Cruz, 2002) as cited by Laurente, 2006).
Types of States
1. Simple State – Type of state in which there is only one state and no other states
included on their statehood. Example – Philippines and Japan.
2. Composite States – Type of state in which there are many states merged to form a
single entity. Examples: United States of America, United Kingdom and the former
Czechoslovakia
Purposes and Functions of State
1. Domestic Order and Tranquility - the government can realize this by providing laws to
regulate the people’s conduct and an effective system of law enforcement.
Essential Functions
a. Maintenance of an effective police force to apprehend criminals and suppress

domestic violence.
b. Keeping an independent and impartial court system to settle disputes.
2. Common Defense of the State
Undertaking to defend the state from external aggression. To attain this end:
a. government build strong armed forces for common defense

b. establishing order
c. protecting national security.
3. Blessings of Liberty and Justice
Freedom of the individual to enjoy these rights is dependent upon government, which
is instituted to safeguard them.
Freedom of speech and of the press, freedom of association, freedom of religion and
the rights of persons accused of crime should not be subject for restraints.
4. Promotion of the General Welfare
Undertaken by the government by performing service functions like:
a. creation of essential public service (establishment of roads and bridges)

b. promotion of health and sanitation
c. regulation of business and dissemination of public information.
d. Other governmental activities relative to the case of the general interests and
well-being of the state.
5. Promotion of Public Morality

This end of the state is concerned with value judgments and moral standards. The
government should:
a. government build strong armed forces for common defense It should set a high
standard of morality in running the affairs of the state.
Rights and Obligations of the State

Rights of the State
Cruz (1971) as cited by Valenzuela, (2016) enumerated the following rights of states.
1. Existence – A state should exist if all elements are acquired such as government,
territory, people and sovereignty.
2. Independence – The right of the state to manage its affairs without the intervention
coming from other states as defined by Aurego-Aruego-Torres (1981). There are two
types of independence; de-facto and de-jure. The former existence in fact but not in
law and the latter both in existence of fact and in law. Example: Philippine
independence in two declarations – June 12 and July (1898 and 1946 respectively).
3. Self-defense – Self-defense is considered as one of very important right of the state.

The Philippine constitution of 1987 reiterates that – “Civilian authority is, at all times,
supreme over the military. The Armed Forces of the Philippines is the protector of the
people and the state. Its goal is to secure the sovereignty of the state and the integrity
of the national territory.” (Art. II section 3, 1987 Philippine Constitution). It means that
the state shall be protected by its armed forces as designed also by the Geneva
Convention Laws on War and protocol of conventional weapons ratified by the United
Nations Organizations.
4. Property and Domain – Property of the State consists of territorial (within the limits of
territory) and non-territorial (outside the domain of the state) such as embassies,
consulates, warship, airship even submarines of the armed forces; on the other-hand,
domain consists of aerial, maritime and fluvial and terrestrial (land) which is also a part
of the jurisdiction of the state. Outer space is not included.
5. Equality – The essence of equality among state is more on juridical rather than factual.
Physically states are not equal when it comes to territorial size, number of population,
economy, military might and so on. On the other-hand equality of states are stated in
international law regarding to the rights to representation (in United Nations
Organization), right to vote and the right to self-preservation.
6. Territorial Acquisition (Expansion)
According to Aruego and Aruego Torres, (1981) the following are the territorial
acquisition of the states:
a. Discovery and Occupation – An unknown territory should be discovered first and

there is a need of effective occupation to draw its boundaries of claimant. Such as
the case of discovery of Spratley Islands by a Filipino navigator named – Thomas
Cloma; on the other-hand after its discovery of group of islands there is no effective
occupation and that the reason why China and Vietnam claimed some portion of
islands. It should be simultaneously done, discovery and effective occupation to
complete the process of claiming of unknown territory.

b. Prescription – The concept of prescription is a long process. There is no specific
rule as far as international law is concern (Cruz: 1971 p. 86). It should be
considered the consensual agreement of states in practicing their sovereign in a
certain portion of territory or unknown territory as a whole.
c. Cession – Almost the same as of prescription, on the other hand, there should be a
formal agreement between two or more states. Such as sale, just like the case of
the Philippine islands ceded by Spain to the United States for 20 million dollars;
donation, exchange, and even testamentary dispositions (Cruz: 1971 p. 87).
d. Conquest – This acquisition is merely traditional. Just like the empire builders of
Rome and Greece in which a certain state used force or military might to conquer
territories. This is a barbaric style of claiming territories, named or unnamed.
e. Accretion - This is the process whereby territory will expand by natural (alluvium
and erosion of the soil) and by man-made such as reclamation projects (e.g. the
Macapagal Highway along the coastline of Manila Bay in Metropolitan Manila,
Philippines).
f. Jurisdiction – This right merely pertains to the power and authority of the state.
Whether the jurisdiction of the state is territorial or non-territorial possessions.
Jurisdiction also considered the scope of administration of the state whether
persons or things.
g. Legation – This is the right of the state to establish relations with other states.
There are two types of categories of this right; the active and the passive right. The
former is the right of the state to send foreign dignitaries such as ambassadors and
consuls; while the latter is the receiving of such foreign representatives or public
ministers.
Obligation of States
1. Capable to enter international treaty and agreements where the statehood is not
subject as an issue.
2. States shall participate in political and economic declarations where they could stand
on the major concern or issues; and
3. They are capable to join international organizations like United Nations Organizations
or economic block such as Asian Free Trade Area (AFTA), North Atlantic Free Trade
Area (NAFTA), Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Association
of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) or Asia Pacific Economic Caucus (APEC).
Theories of State
According to Valenzuela (2016) the following are the theoretical origins of state:
1. Divine-Right-Theory – Was popularized during the 17th centuries when most people
believed that “God vested political power to his representatives here on earth” and that
was no other than monarchs as well as they are also recognized by the Papacy. This
theory was also epitomized by King Louis XIV wherein he reiterated that his political
power claimed in the name of God. The people believed that their leader was God
sent to them.

2. Contract Theory – Was popularized by John Lock and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Social
Contract) tackles about the relationship between the government and the governed.
According to this theory, man is sociable and needs a powerful sovereign to protect
his basic rights i.e. the right to life, liberty and property. The theory holds that the
government and sovereign were set up by the people in order to protect their basic
rights and avoid absolutism and the abuse of power against them. The very essence
of the theory is that the constitution per se wherein the contract of the sovereign and
the people’s rights should be limited, and the protection of the basic rights of every
individual.
3. Patriarchal Theory – The theory holds ancient societies were ruled by male based on
their belief that male belief that male is powerful over female. Mostly even today, that
family is ruled by the father. The male designation is most likely believed because
male can think and decide firmly which is contrary to female.
4. Force or “might makes” right” Theory - Might makes right theory known as the force
theory was popularized by Thomas Hobbes where man is at war with every man.
According to this theory, the strong groups can use selfishness. According to this
theory, the strong groups can use force with other groups in order to form the state.
Example: the American Revolution wherein they were united in order to use force
against their British counterpart, domed the United States of American with its 13
original states, and followed by other 37 states.
5. Historical Theory - State was a product of historical development of the society.

According to Aristotle, state was evolved from a family to tribes, tribes into a clan into
a nation and a nation into a state. Moreover, state is only a product of human
civilization in terms of organization of individuals just like a colony, school of fishes
and flock of a sheep.
6. Instinctive Theory - state is a product of necessity. Man is weak if he is alone and

according to English proverb that “no man is an island”. Therefore, the organization of
the society can be considered as the formation of the state.
7. Biological Theory – Biology is the study of life. Just like life itself, state exists because
of the life within the society and that is human. Just like instinctive theory, wherein
man is needed a companion in order to live and that is the harmonious relationship of
the government and the governed.
Evolution of Modern States
States are the product of evolution, which were discussed by the following political
thinkers:
1. According to Aristotle
Aristotle, a Greek thinker wrote a book entitled “The Politics “ wherein according to
him, State is considered a moral idea. As a moralist, State, just like an individual
should be moral in the sense that the foundation of state is family. He also designed
that state comes from individual, into family, into clan, tribe, nation up to state. The
evolution of State is merely coming from the people and the group of people
organized themselves to form the modern state.
Aside from the basic four elements of state, modern political analyst considered
the fifth element-recognition wherein according from the words of Aruego-Aruego-
Torres (1981) as cited by Valenzuela (2016) “recognition is an act which gives the
state an international status.” In short, modern civilization should accept the legal

consequences of recognition. Cruz (1971) on the other hand classifies recognition
into two: express and implied. Express – is by verbal or writing; Implied – formal
agreement which the two states undergoes official intercourse. Moreover, recognition
should be considered as an element of modern states to attain legal status quo.
2. According to Marx
Karl Marx, a German sociologist, discussed in his “theory of Revolution” that the
“State withers away” in the sense that there no more social classes and the
abolishment of private property. For him the state should be abolished in order to
abolish the higher class-the elites and the capitalists comprises in the government in
order to attain the communism stage.
3. According to Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher wrote the book entitled “The Eternal
Peace”. According to him, there is concept of generation of States such as:
a. That there will be the Federation of States such as the one world government
(which was idealized the concept of the United Nations);
b. That states should adjudicate their conflicts in one judicial court or world court; and
c. State must maintain a police force and one world army (which idealized the United
States of America as the policeman of the world.)
Essential Elements of State
1. People are a mass of population living within the state. Without people there can be
no functionaries to govern and no subjects to be governed. The number of people
comprising the state is not definite.
2. Territory includes the lands over which the jurisdiction of the state extends rivers and
lakes therein, certain area of the sea and air space above.
Domain of State
a. fluvial – rivers, lakes and springs
b. terrestial – lands
c. maritime – seas and oceans
d. aerial – air space above
3. Government – agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and
carried out. The word is sometimes used to the person or aggregate of those persons
in whose hands are place for the time being the function of political control.
4. Sovereignty – supreme power of the state to enforce its will upon its citizens through
laws. Also means independence from the control of other states.

In democracy, sovereignty resides on the people. It is the power of the people to
elect or charge officials who will make the laws of the land.
Symbols of State are flag, zeal, currency and stamps.
Flag of the Philippines
Three (3) stars represent Luzon, Visaya, and Mindanao.

The 8 rays refers to the 8 provinces who revolts against the Spaniards:
Cavite, Bulacan, Batangas, Laguna, Manila, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga and Tarlac.
Two Aspects of Sovereignty
1. Internal Sovereignty – is the supreme or absolute power of a state to enforce its

will on the people within its territory. It implies therefore, that the government must
possess adequate powers to control and regulate the conduct and affairs of the
people within the borders of the state.
2. External Sovereignty – means independence of a state from control by any state.

External sovereignty of a state should be recognized and respected by the nation-
states.
Characteristics of Sovereignty
1. Absolute – The exercise by the state of its sovereign powers is absolute in the
sense that the state is not subject to restrictions by another other power. Jean
Bodin (1530-1597), father of the modern theory of sovereignty, defined
sovereignty as the supreme power over subjects and their possessions
unrestrained by law. It is unrestrained by law because the sovereign is the source
of law.
According to De Maistre, a French political philosopher during the French

Revolution sovereignty is “always one, inviolable, and absolute” no matter where
it is located and how it is defined.
2. Comprehensive – The sovereignty of a nation-state is comprehensive for its

supreme legal authority extends to all- the citizens, aliens, associations or
organizations within its boundaries. Rules of international relations, however,
provide several exceptions to this characteristic. Under the principle of mutual
respect or international courtesy, diplomatic immunity is extended to foreign
ambassadors and ministers together with their respective families during the
period of their assignment in the host nation-state. Under the principle of ex-
territoriality, diplomatic immunity means that diplomatic representatives and their
families are exempted from the local jurisdiction of the state.
3. Permanent Sovereignty is perpetual in the sense that as long as the state exists,
sovereignty also exists. This is so because sovereignty is an inherent attribute of
the state. Rulers may be ousted through elections, or they may be overthrown
from power through revolutions. Government may be changed from one form to
another. However, as long as the state exists, sovereignty is always present a
one of its element.
4. Indivisible – Indivisibility has caused misunderstanding among political theories.

Bodin, for example, sought to prove the indivisibility of sovereignty by his theory
that sovereignty should reside in an absolute monarch unrestrained by law
because the sovereign is the source of law. It is perpetual, inalienable, and not

subject to prescription. Yet, he also advocated the sovereign should be limited by
the laws of the nation, laws of God and the natural law. There is no doubt in the
mind of Bodin that the sovereign is requires to respect agreements involving
political obligations toward his subjects or toward other sovereigns and the right of
private property.
Sovereignty, according to Rosseau, a French social contractualist and

political philosopher who came much later than Bodin, is inalienable and indivisible
in terms of the “general will” which is posited in the great body of people. Such
general will is always for the common good of the polity. For every act of
sovereignty, every act in the name of the general will and not particular individual
wills.
Sovereignty cannot be divided; there could only be one supreme power in

a state. The state may grant the exercise of some powers to its political
subdivisions, but “what it grants it may take away”. The authority to govern may
be shared, but not the supreme power. There is only one state with one
sovereignty.
Types of State Sovereignty
1. Legal Sovereignty – defined as the supreme authority of the state expressed by the
law and the constitution, which even authority, has the power to make the law or
amend the constitution, that authority exercises legal or constituent sovereignty.
John Austin – famous jurist describes law as a supreme command enforced by the
ruler upon his people who in turn render habitual loyalty and obedience to their ruler.
In the Philippines it is the Congress or the constitutional convention and the people,
which exercise legal authority. Amends to the constitution may be proposed by:
a. Congress
b. Constitutional convention
c. By the people through initiative
Proposal from Congress requires ¾ of vote of all members of the congress.
Initiative requires petition of at least 12% of the total number of registered voters
of every legislative districts represented by 3% of the registered voters.
2. Political Sovereignty – is the supreme will of the state expressed by the electorate.
Also called electoral sovereignty in the sense that, the supreme authority of the state
is exercised by the electorate, in the choice of public officers at least during election
time.
3. Popular Sovereignty - supreme power of the state, which resides in the people. This
authority means that the people are the ultimate source of power and so they possess
coercive power to control government through which they allow themselves to be
governed. It was said that sovereignty resides in the people and all government
authority emanates from them.

4. De Facto Sovereignty – vested on a person who has succeeded in displacing the
legitimate sovereign. The authority of coercive power of this person or group of
persons exists in fact and is sanctioned by the people within the state territory.
5. De Jure Sovereignty a state is de jure from the viewpoint of recognizing states. Theory
of de Jure Sovereignty is that the supreme legal authority of the state is based on the
supremacy of law.
References:
https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-power-and-authority.html
https://opinion.inquirer.net/85293/max-webers-3-types-of-authority By: Christopher Ryan

Maboloc - @inquirerdotnet Philippine Daily Inquirer / 12:06 AM May 29, 2015
Read more: https://opinion.inquirer.net/85293/max-webers-3-types-of-

authority#ixzz6TSgEulfn
Follow us: @inquirerdotnet on Twitter | inquirerdotnet on Facebook
https://yscouts.com/executive/types-of-leadership-power/ BY Y SCOUTS|MAY 9TH, 2014|

EXECUTIVE
https://www.iedunote.com/power

______
____
Name_______________________________________Date: ___________
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
1. Define authority in general term.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. Complete the table below to show the difference between authority and power.
Power Authority
4. Describe the President of the Philippines according to the three types of authority.
Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
5. Among the different leadership power, which do you think is best applicable to your
barangay chairman? Justify your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. Fill in the table below to distinguish state from nation.
State Nation
7. Identify the different departments of the government assigned to carry out the
purposes and functions of the State.

Purpose/Functions of the State Responsible Department
1. Domestic Order and Tranquility
2. Common Defense of the State
3. Blessings of Liberty and Justice
4. Promotion of the General Welfare
5. Promotion of Public Morality
8. Among the different theories of state, which do you think is most applicable to the
Philippines as a state? Justify your answer.
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9. What methods of political science is applicable to the present situation of the country?
Give examples to back up your argument.
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10. Enumerate the elements of state?

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11. List down the different rights of the state.
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12. List down 10 examples of single state and 2 examples of composite states.
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13. List down the different states in the United States of America.
14. List down the top 20 states in the world affected by Covid 19 pandemic as of August
31, 2020. Complete the table below:
No. of
No. of No. of No. of
Name of States/Nation active
Positive Recoveries Casualty
cases
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
GOOD LUCK
CHAPTER 3
The Concept of Government
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Define government and state
2. Make a chart showing the concept of government of the
different political philosophers
3. Make a list of the different forms/classification of
government applicable to the history of the Philippines
4. Explain the immunity and inherent powers of the state
5. Analyze if the functions of government are carried out
by the present administration.

Lesson 1. Government Distinguished from State
Lesson 2. Political Philosophers’ Concept of Government
Lesson 3. Forms/Classifications of Government
Lesson 4. Immunity and Inherent Powers of the State
Lesson 5. The Functions of Government
===================================================================
Lesson 1 – Government Distinguished from State

State is an ideal person, invisible, intangible, immutable and existing only in
contemplation of law.
Government is an agent and, within the sphere of its agency, it is a perfect

representative, but outside of that it is a lawless usurpation (Cruz, 1993 as cited by
Laurence, 2006).
Government is considered as a management of state affairs where the wealth of

the state is properly distributed to the people. Government sets a provider and protector
of the society such as in the case of legal principle “sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas” -
“subordination of individual interest for the benefit of the greatest number.” (Valenzuela,
2016).
Lesson 2 - Political Philosophers’ Concept of Government

1. Aristotelian Concept of Government
Aristotle, student of Plato and one of the pillars of the science of politics discussed the
classification of government based on the quantitative and qualitative concepts.
Monarchy is ruled by one person but the monarch could be a tyrant. Aristocracy is
ruled by a few but oligarchy is ruled by a wealthy selfish few. In case of many, polity
or the constitutional government is good while the perverted system is the democracy
or ruled by many and uneducated individuals. (Valenzuela, 2016).
No. of Persons Exercising Quantitative Concept Qualitative Concept

Sovereign Power
GOOD BAD
ONE MONARCHY TYRANNY
FEW ARISTOCRACY OLIGARCHY
MANY POLITY DEMOCRACY
2. Machiavellian Concept of Government
Niccolo Machiavelli, one of the greatest political thinkers during Renaissance Period.
According to him, a prince should possess characteristics in order to retain its political
power in the government. He is advocating a republican form of government wherein
he set aside the value judgement (might be descriptive or prescriptive) of the
individual of the state itself. He also classified the government into two: the
republicanism and the monarchical (monarchy).
3. Hobbes Model of Government

Thomas Hobbes, a British Philosopher, defended the monarchical type of government
wherein the sovereign (ruler) must act as “leviathan” so that there must be peace and
comfort in the society and the sovereign is above the social contract. The ruler cannot
depose in the sense that God will punish him or her for their tyranny.
4. Marxian Model of Government
Karl Marx, well-known German sociologist and philosopher, wrote its observations and
idealized the revolution as the overall change of the status quo on which the “state
withers away” including the government as the element of the state. He believed that
government including the church and capitalists were organized in order to oppress
the people. The highest stage, which is communism will become the improvement of
human conditions and not by the government.
5. Lockean Model of Government
John Locke was a British Philosopher. One of his major works in political philosophy
was the idea of social contract. According to him that “GOD, having made man such a
creature that, in His own judgment, it was not good for him to be alone, put him under
strong obligations of necessity, convenience, and inclination, to drive him into society,
as well as fitted him with understanding and language to continue and enjoy it. He
also discussed the separation of powers in the government- the executive, legislative
and judiciary, working hand in hand to promote peace and safeguard the rights of the
individuals within society. The government was made in order to protect the life,
liberty and property of every individual within the state.
Lesson 3 - Forms/ Classifications of Government

A. According to the number of persons who share in exercising the sovereign powers of
the State
1. Monarchy – known as the rule of one. A monarchical government is ruled by a King

or by an Emperor.
a. Absolute Monarchy - One in which the ruler rules by Divine right. Prevailed in
the ancient oriental empires where the rulers considers themselves as the
descendants of God
b. Constitutional Monarchy – One in which the authority of the ruler is limited by the
Constitution.
2. Aristocracy – This is the government of the few for the benefit of the few. Or one in
which political power is exercised by a few privileged class like the intellectuals or
the rich people.
3. Democracy – The government of the many. Abraham Lincoln defined it as the

government of the people by the people, and for the people.
a. Direct or Pure Democracy – One in which the will of the state is formulated or
expressed directly by the people in a mass meeting or assembly.
b. Indirect, Representative or Republican – One in which the will of the State is

formulated and expressed through the select body or persons or delegates
chosen by the people to act as their representatives in the government.

Advantages of Democracy
1. It is more durable and impregnable to the blandishments of rebellions and world-

wide wars.
2. It is founded upon a social foundation composed of a large middle lass which is

neither rich nor poor – a body of citizens large enough to give the state a popular
foundation, strong enough to hold government responsible, and “select enough
to avoid the evils of government by the masses.”
3. It allows experimentation by trial and error to attain consequently the desired

results for a stable and effective government.
Disadvantages of Democracy
1. It is slow, fickle and extravagant.

2. It may lead to the role of the mob.
3. The government established by the people is a reflective of their emotions,
prejudices and average intelligence.
B. According to the nature of tenure of the officials
1. Hereditary – Ruled by persons deriving powers from their predecessors who are
related to them by consanguinity. Emperorship or kingship is an example of this
government.
2. Elective or Popular – the administrators of the government are chosen by the

people through the electoral process of a certain country.
C. According to the distribution or concentration of governmental powers
1. Unitary or Centralized – the powers of government are concentrated in the central

government represented by the majority party in power.
Advantages of Unitary
a. It is simple in structure
b. There is no duplication of offices and services with those of the central and
national government, thus insuring greater economy in governmental
expenditures.
c. There is uniformity of laws and public policy and administration of government.
d. There is no conflict of jurisdiction between the national government and its local
government units.
e. It is easy to pinpoint responsibility for any misdeed or anomaly committed by
government officials, or for any inefficiency of government.
Disadvantages of Unitary
a. Over-centralized administrative control over local affairs overburdens the central

government with numerous local problems.
b. In a unitary state, the national officials are responsible for determining the
policies to regulate the conduct of local affairs.

c. Restraints local initiative and interest in managing the affairs of the local
government.
d. Hastens the creation of a large centralized bureaucracy. There is much red tape
in the solution of people’s problem.
e. Generally not suitable to a large country with a culturally heterogenous

population.
2. Federal – Governmental powers are distributed between the central government

and the local governments or states. Each one being supreme within its territorial
boundaries but not in external relations.
Advantages of Federal Government
a. The government is independent in its sphere of jurisdiction within its scope of

authority – the feral government dealing with national and international
matters, and the local government, with problems that are local or regional in
nature.
b. Provides uniformity when it is needed in terms of federal laws, policies and

administration, and allows wide diversity of local policies to be determined and
promulgated by local officers in their respective localities.
c. enhanced Interest of the people in their local government is.
d. It relieves the national government of time-consuming efforts in solving local

problems.
e. Provides great opportunities for local government to experiment on new

legislative and administrative methods of solving people’s problems.
Disadvantages of Federal Government
a. The structure and organization of the political machinery is complex.
b. There is duplication of officers and personnel, and maintaining the operation of

the government system would cause a heavy financial burden to the
government.
c. Overlapping of functions may occur in many areas of government activity to the
consternation of both central and local government.
d. Whenever governmental problems arise on the boundary line of authority as

prescribed by the constitution, both federal and local governments may be
hesitant to act on these problems causing unnecessary delay in solving them.
e. Lack of uniform legislation on many matters makes the problems of

administration more difficult.
D. According to the relations of legislature and the executive
1. Parliamentary System – The Chief Executive (the Prime Minister) and his cabinet is
directly responsible to the legislative branch of the government whereas, the Head
of State occupies the position of irresponsibility. The Head of State is just a
ceremonial figure. The Prime Minister and his Cabinet remain in office as long as
they have the confidence and support of the parliamentary majority. They are

removable by parliament by means of parliamentary censure on the members of
the cabinet and no-confidence vote against the Prime Minister.
Most outstanding among other features of the parliamentary system are:

a. collective ministerial responsibility
b. fusion of executive and legislative powers
c cabinet responsibility to Parliament
d. party discipline.
2. Presidential System – The Chief Executive (the President) is directly responsible to

the people for he is directly chosen by them during elections. The three branches
of the government are distinct and separate from each other. The legislature
enacts the law, the executive executes the law, and the judiciary applies or
interprets the law. The president holds office for a specific period of time as fixed
by the constitution of the state. He appoints the members of his Cabinet who are
his alter egos and responsible to him only. The cabinet members serve at the
pleasure and measure of the President.
The essential element of the presidential system is the separation of

powers of the executive, legislative and judicial branches which is made more
effective by checks and balances of the three branches.
Lesson 4 - Kinds of Government

1. Democracy – ruled by the people. The term came from two Greek words – “demos”
and “kratos” which mean to rule by the people. Some related terms of democracy are
“republic” and representative governance.
2. Authoritarianism – is the same as of Aristotelian classification (aristocracy or

oligarchy) wherein a group of people run the affairs of the state.
3. Totalitarianism – is actually ruled by a powerful dictator such as Hitler’s rule in

Germany and Mussolini’s rule in Italy during the World War II. The necessity of this
government is a charismatic leader, all words come from his mouth is the main source
of law; he controls the mind and behaviour of the people.
4. Socialism – a government which is ruled by a socialist or communist party. It is more

economic rather than political. The main slogan of this government is – “from each
according to his ability and to each according to his needs” Example People’s
Republic of China, North Korea and Vietnam and Cuba.
5. Communism - Actually, no government will exist in communism. As Marx says that

“the State withers away” then there is a plan to abolish the ruling classes including the
government by means of a bloody revolution.
Lesson 5 - Immunity and Inherent Powers of the State

Immunity of the State
Article XVI of the 1987 Constitution Sec. 3 states that “the State may not be sued
without its consent.

Section 10 of Executive Order No. 292, Book I, Chapter 3, Section 10 Non-
suitability of the State, states that “No suit shall lie against the State except with its
consent as provided by law”.
Likewise Section 11, The State’s Responsibility for Acts of Agents of the same
code states that:
“(1) The State shall be legally bound and responsible only through the acts
performed in accordance with the Constitution and the laws by its duly
authorized representatives.
(2) The State shall not be bound by the mistakes or errors of its officers or agents
in the exercise of their functions.”
The classic justification for the non-suitability of the State is that provided by Mr.
Justice Oliver Weldell Holmes: “There can be no legal right against the authority which
makes the law on which the right depends” (Kawanakao vs. Polybank, 205 U.S. 349).
Article VI, Section 11 of the Constitution also grants parliamentary immunities, viz: “A
senator or member of the House of Representatives shall, in all offenses punishable by
not more than six years imprisonment, be privileged from arrest while the congress is in
session. No member shall be questioned nor be held liable in any other place for any
speech or debate in the congress or in any committee thereof.” Mr. Justice Isagani A.
Cruz explains the rationale for this immunity in the following manner: “xxx The first is
intended to ensure representation of the constituents of the member of the Congress by
preventing attempts to keep him from attending its sessions. The second enables the
legislators to express views bearing upon the public interest without fear of accountability
outside the halls of the legislature for his inability to support his statements with the usual
evidence required in the court of justice. In other words, he is given more leeway than the
ordinary citizen in the ventilation of matters that ought to be divulged for the public good.
Inherent Powers of the State
The fundamental powers of the state are: 1) the police power, 2) the power of
eminent domain, and 3) the power of taxation. It is said that these powers are inherent
because they need to expressly conferred by constitutional provisions as they are
supposed to co-exist with the State. The moment the State comes into being it deemed
invested these powers as its innate attributes.
Similarities of the three Inherent Powers of the State
1. They are inherent in the State and may be exercised by it without need of express
constitutional grant.
2. They are not only necessary but also indispensable. The State cannot continue or be
effective unless it is able to exercise them.
3. They are methods by which the state interferes with private rights.
4. They all presuppose an equivalent compensation for the private rights interfered with.
5. They are exercised primarily by the legislature.
Limitations in Exercising the Inherent Powers of the State

Despite being inherent and indispensable, the inherent powers of the state are not without
restrictions. It is common knowledge that ours is a government of limited powers and that
these prerogatives may not be exercised to trample upon the rights guaranteed under the
Bill of Rights. The exercise of these fundamental powers is subject at all times to the
limitations and requirements of the Constitution and may in proper cases be annulled by
the courts of justice.
1. POLICE POWER – is the power of the state to enact and enforce laws and to regular
property and liberty in the promotion of the general welfare of the people. It is the
power to regulate the behavior or conduct of its citizen in the interest of the common
good within the limits of the state’s laws. This power of the state is not only confined
to its citizens but also to the foreigners temporarily staying within the state.
Characteristic of Police Power
a. The police power is considered the most pervasive, the least limitable, and the
most demanding of the three powers.
The justification is found in the ancient Latin maxims, Salus populi est suprema
lex. (The welfare of the people is the supreme law. And Sic utere tuo ut alienum
non laedas (To use your property so as not to injure others) which call for the
subordination of individual benefit to interests of the greater number. It has even
been held that the police power may not be bargain away through the medium of a
contract or even a treaty. The provision in Article III of the Philippine Constitution,
which protects and guarantees the non-impairment of obligations and contract
deals with a subject affecting the public welfare.
b. The police power is dynamic, not static and must move with the moving society it
is supposed to regulate.
Being dynamic, police power can be exercised again and again, as often as it is
necessary for the protection or the promotion of the public welfare. Conditions
change, circumstances vary; and to every such alternation the police power must
conform. Police power continues to change even as constraints on liberty diminish
and private property becomes more and more affected with public interest and
therefore subject to regulation.
c. Police power may sometimes use taxing power as an implementation for the
attainment of a legitimate police objective. As a rule, police power is vested in the
national legislature. Pursuant however to a validity delegated legislative authority,
the President and Administrative bodies, as well as law making bodies of local
government units, may exercise the same local government units exercise the
power under the general welfare clauses. No mandamus is available to coerce the
exercise of the police power. The only remedy against legislative inaction is a
resort to the bar of public opinion, a refusal of the electorate to return to the
legislature members who, in their view, have been remiss in the discharge of their
duties.
Examples of Police Power Laws
a. On Public morals – those punishing public scandal, vagrancy and prostitution;

prohibiting illegal gambling, etc.
b. General Welfare and convenience – Those penalizing the turning loose of large
cattle or permitting them to run loose in streets and plazas of municipalities;

regulating prices of commodities; regulating distances between gasoline stations
etc.
c. Public safety – those requiring a license to drive motor vehicles; authorizing the
demolition of buildings or improvements which constitute a fire hazard.
d. Public health – Those providing paternity and maternity leave for working men and
women respectively; those regulating the medical profession, etc.
2. POWER OF EMINENT DOMAIN
This power enables the state to take private property for public use upon payment of
just compensation. In the implementation of the programs of the government, such as
infrastructure projects, the private properties that are affected or included in the project
will be taken are paid by the government based on the existing market value. The
power of eminent domain, otherwise known as the power of expropriation, “is the
highest and most exact idea of property remaining in the government” that they may
be acquired for some public purpose through a method “in the nature of compulsory
sale to the state”. It is the right or power of the State or those to whom the power has
been lawfully delegate to take private property for public use upon payment of just
compensation.
Who May Exercise Eminent Domain?
Just like the police power, the power of eminent domain is primarily lodged in the law-
making body, but may be validly delegated to other government entities and to
private corporation like the so called quasi-republic corporation, serving essential
public needs or operating public utilities. Under the law, the following may exercise
the power of expropriation: (1) the Congress; (2) the President; (3) the local
legislative bodies; (4) certain public corporations, like the Land Registration,
Authority and the MWSS; (5) Quasi-public corporations like the PNR, PLDT and the
MERALCO.
Requisite in taking the Property
a. Necessity – When the power is exercised by legislature, the question of necessity

is generally a political question, but when exercised by a delegate, the
determination of whether there is genuine necessity for the exercise is a justifiable
question.
b. Private Property – Anything that can come under the dominion of man or can be
the subject of contract is subject to expropriation. This will include real and
personal, tangible and intangible properties.
c. Just Compensation – described as a full and fair equivalent of property taken from
the private owner by the expropriator. The compensation to be just must be fair
not only to the owner but also to the expropriator. The court is invested with the
power to ascertain just to compensation by determining first the actual or basic
value of the property. The basic or market value of the property subject of
expropriation is the price that may be agreed upon the parties willing but not
compelled to enter into a contract of sale.
Factors to be considered in arriving at the fair market value of the property are the
following:
a. the cost of acquisition

b. the current value of properties

c. its actual or potential uses; and,
d. the size, shape or location and the tax declaration.
3. POWER OF TAXATION – is the power of the state to impose and collect revenues for
the operation of the government. The money generated from the people in the form of
different taxes shall be used in the operations of government, for infrastructure
programs and other expenditures of the state. Generally, the revenues collected shall
go back to the people in the form of services.
Purpose and Importance of Taxation
a. To raise revenues of funds to support the government and its service

b. Utilized as a tool to carry out the national objective or social and economic
development.
The importance of taxation derives from the unavoidable obligation of the government
to protect the people and extend them benefits in the form of public projects and
services. In return, people are subjected to the reciprocal duty of sharing the
expenses in the form of taxes.
The Nature of Taxation
1. The power of taxation is inherent in sovereignty being indispensable in the

existence of the government. It is inherent because it exists without the necessity
of any specific grant of the power by the Constitution. Just like the police power
and the power of eminent domain, it exists independently of the Constitution.
2. It is essentially a legislative function. Even in the absence of any Constitutional

grant, the power falls to the legislative branch as part of the more general power of
law making.
Constitutional Limitations of Taxation
1. Territory – which requires that the person or property taxed must be subjected to
the jurisdiction of the taxing State.
2. International comity – under which the property of a foreign state may not be taxed
by another.
3. Exemptions of governmental agencies performing governmental function.
4. Prohibition against the delegation of legislative power under the principle of

protestas delegata non delegare protest; and,
5. The levy of taxes must be for public purpose.
What is the Theory of Taxation?
The power of taxation proceeds from the theory that without funds, the Government
cannot meet the various essential expenses it has to incur to enable it to exist and
function effectively. Therefore the existence of the government is necessity; that is
cannot continue without means to pays its expenses. Along this line, the government
has to call upon its citizens and residents to assume monetary burdens and pay taxes
so that it can perform its function, meet its widely expanding services and carry on its
legal as well as constitutional functions.
Scope of Taxation

The power of taxation is regarded as supreme, unlimited and comprehensive. It is so
pervasive that it reaches even the citizen abroad and his income earned from source
outside.
What are Taxes
Taxes are enforced proportional contributions from persons and property levied by the
State by virtue of its sovereignty, for the support of the government and for all public
needs.
The Important Characteristic of Taxes
1. It is an enforced proportional contribution because its imposition is not based upon

the will of the person taxed;
2. Equality or theoretical justice means that the tax burden should be proportionate to
the tax payer’s ability to pay. (This is so-called ability to pay principle); and
3. Administrative feasibility, which means that the tax laws should be capable of
convenient, just and effective administration.
The Functions of Government
A. Constituent functions
Constitute the very bonds of society and are, therefore, compulsory.
1. The keeping of order and providing for the protection of persons and property from
violence and robbery.
2. The fixing of the legal relations between husband and wife and between parents
and children.
3. The regulation of the holding, transmissions and interchange of property, and the
determination of its liabilities for debt or for crime.
4. The determination of contractual rights between individuals.
5. The definition of punishment of crimes.
6. The administration of justice in civil cases.
7. The administration of political duties, privilege, and relations of citizens.
8. The dealings of the state with foreign powers.
9. The preservation of the state from external danger or encroachment.
10. The advancement of its international interests.
B. Ministrant Functions
Those undertaken to advance the general interest of society, such as public

works, public charity, and regulation of trade and industry. These functions are merely
optional. Significantly, though, it is the performance and ministrant functions that

distinguishes the paternalistic government from the merely individualistic government,
which is concerned only with the basic function of maintaining peace and order.
Doctrine of Parens Patriae
One of the important tasks of the government is to act for the state as parens
patriae, or guardian of the rights of the people
References:
Valenzuela, Edwin E. 2016. Understanding Basic Concepts in Political Science. 2nd
Edition. Intramuros, Manila: Purely Books Trading and Publishing Corporation.
Executive Order No. 292 .BOOK I. Chapter 3-State Immunity. 1997 from Suit. Accessed
at: https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1987/07/25/executive-order-no-292-book-i-
sovereignty-and-general-administrationchapter-3State-immunity-from-suit.

______
____
Name_______________________________________Date: ___________
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
1. Define government.
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2. Whose political philosophers’ concept of government was more convincing? Why?

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3. What would the result be if the Philippines will change the form of government from
Unitary to Federal? Are you in favor of changing the Philippine government from
Unitary to Federal?
_______________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________
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4. How would you present the concept of the different forms of government stated in
Lesson 4 in a table form?

5. What criteria would you use to assess whether the government can take private
property?
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6. On the scale of 1 to 10 rate the performance of the government on the following.
Explain your rating.
Government Functions Rating Explanation
1. Keeping of order and providing for the

protection of persons and property
from violence and robbery.
2. Fixing of the legal relations

between husband and wife and
between parents and children.
3. Determination of contractual rights

between individuals
4. Punishment of crimes.
5. Administration of justice in civil cases.
Government Functions Rating Explanation
6. Administration of political duties,

privilege, and relations of citizens.
7. Dealings of the state with foreign

powers.
8. Preservation of the state from external

danger or encroachment.
9. The advancement of state’s

international interests
10. Public works, public charity, and

regulation of trade and industry
7. What facts can you gather to prove that the present government accomplished or did
not accomplished the Doctrine of Parens Patriae or the guardian of the rights of the
people as one of the state most important task?
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GOOD LUCK
CHAPTER 4
Approaches in Studying Politics
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Define normative, traditional, structural-functional
approaches;
2. Discuss the institutional dilemmas;
3. Distinguish pluralism, elitism and Marxism; and
Lesson 1. Normative
Lesson 2. Traditional
Lesson 3. Structural- Functional
Lesson 4. Pluralism
Lesson 5. Elitism
Lesson 6. Marxism
==============================================================
Lesson 1 – Normative Approach

The normative approach involves the discovery or application of moral notions in the study
of politics. It represents all sorts of theory making about “what ought to be”, as opposed to
“what is” in political life. Normative thinkers focus on social institutions, especially those
concerned with the exercise of public power, and the relationship between individuals and
those institutions. Normative approach is deployed in defining the concepts of justice,
liberty, equality, rights, democracy, peace, and the like. They also evaluate the
justifications given for the existing political arrangements and the justifiability of possible
alternative arrangements. The outcome of normative analysis is usually prescriptive or
recommendatory (Orji, 2009).
Definition
The term normative is derived from the Latin word norma, meaning precept rule,
carpenter’s square. The word norm means usual, typical or standard thing. Normative
relates to norm or standard. The central idea of normative approach is—the subject is
viewed and analysed normatively that is there are certain standards, rules and precepts
which must find their application in political science.
https://www.politicalsciencenotes.com/political-science/study-of-politics-various-
approaches/715
Norms are several principles which an authority cannot deny. The accountability of the
authority is also based on these norms and principles. Norm or normativeness is
explained in terms of “should” and “ought”. It means that the authority should do it or
adopt such and such policy or decision. Or it ought to do it.
Therefore, normativeness talks about preference. The word preference is not different
from should and ought. To sum up, the objectives and functions of state are judged in the
background of preference, should and ought.

Origin of Normative Approach
Owes its origin to the political philosophy of Greek philosopher Plato. The thought of a
good society or an ideal state and the entire structure of such a state are built upon the
concepts like ‘should’, ‘ought’, ‘preference’ etc. He said that any state or society ought to
be or should be ideal or good and he has elaborated the criteria of good or ideal in his The
Republic.
The picture of state that prevailed in Plato’s time was very far from of what ought to be or
should be. In most of the city-states in Plato’s time there was no place and recognition of
morality, virtue, ideals and ethics. But he firmly believed that a state ought to have these
eternal values and he also said that in order to be an ideal state all individuals must be
ideal that is they must possess virtues such as morality and various ethical qualities.
His great disciple Aristotle followed the footsteps of Plato and elaborated the ideal state.
In latter periods we come across a number of philosophers who emphasized the
normative approach of politics and the great contractualist Rousseau is a prominent
figure.
The normative approach stressed by Plato, Aristotle, and Rousseau etc has assumed the
form and colour of Utopia. Utopia means something which has no practical foundations
and it is not supported by reasons. Large number of philosophers began to scan the
existing systems by Utopian criteria. Again with the help of this standard existing
situations are to be judged.
Thomas More (1478-1535) imagined of a Utopia or an imaginary state. His famous book
Utopia was published in 1516 and here he depicted the picture of an ought to be state. He
disapproved the drawbacks that characterized the prevailing state of his time and that led
him to think of an ought to be state.
Central Idea of Normative Approach:

The central idea of the normative approach to the study of politics is politics or analysis of
state or the functions of state are to be viewed in the light of what ought to be rather that
what they are. The normativeness wants to give preference to should and ought to be. It
wants the realizations of certain universal values, norms or principles through, the
machinery of state. “Instead of asking how social policy decisions have come to be made,
it asks instead about how they ought to be made. In such studies the aim is to examine a
set of political principles, detail their logical characteristics and explore their implications
for social policy, at least in broad institutional terms”.
It is assumed by some that since normative principles relates to what should be or ought
to be these principles can easily be ignored. But the great adherents of the approach
declare unambiguously that norms, or principles are not to be ignored but they are to be
implemented. “Normative theory should be a reflection on practice, not a means of
ignoring it”.
Thus we can say that values, principles or eternal ideas relating to politics or function of
state constituted the central idea of normative approach to the study of politics. In other
words, this approach says that norms or principles are to be followed in practice and the
aim of such norms is to make the political organization acceptable to all or majority
people.
For example, in the Philippines all government officials and employees should follow
Republic Act 6713. Said acts include the following:

1. A Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards for public officials and employees;
2. Uphold the time-honored principle that a public office is a public trust;
3. Grant incentives and rewards for exemplary service; and
4. List of prohibited acts and transactions as government officials and employees and
penalties for violations thereof and for other purposes.
Components of the Normative Approach:

1. Emphasis on what is good and what is not good. It says that when a policy-maker
proceeds to formulate policy or adopt a decision he must see that to what extent the
policy or decision will produce desired results.
2. The concept of goodness is linked with expectation. The members of political
organization want to fulfill their manifold desires and they expect that the authority
shall act accordingly. Good also relates to the attainment of welfare objectives of the
state. The term good starts to scan the policy, decision and function of authority.
3. Establishes the concept of responsibility. If certain norms and principles are put
forward and if they are made binding on the authority, people can judge the success
or failure of the authority. In other words, norms are easy of locating the responsibility.
4. Stipulates that norms or principles are of immense value and importance so far as the
determination of policy and decision and their implementation are concerned. ‘Is’ or
‘what’ is happening, are important no doubt but every authority must follow these norms
and ideals.
5. Envisages of striking a balance or equilibrium between what is or what happens and
ought to be or should be. Any biasness will invariably plague the proper functioning of
state as well as decision making process. The balancing process is not a stable one.
It is always in an unstable condition. It moves from one stage to another.
6. It never thinks of anything settled. Though it is generally argued that norms, values,
principles are of eternal in nature but scholars are of opinion that the word ‘eternal’
need not be taken seriously.
Importance of Normative Approach

1. Norms, values, ideals, ideas in normative approach is important in the study of politics.
2. It criticizes the functions, principles and policies of the existing states as did Plato in his
The Republic. The normative approach can be helpful for the day to day activities of
state.
Source: https://www.quora.com/What-is-normative-approach-of-political-science
Ellen John, M A Political Science, University of Delhi (2018)
Lesson 2 - Traditional Approach

What is Traditional Approach?
Traditional approach in political science is a normative or an imaginative approach to
politics. This approach basis its emphasis on “what ought to be” rather than “what is”.
They are mainly based on historical and ideological underpinnings. They don't use

scientific methods in their analogies but mere imaginations and intuitions. They are also
referred to as idealists.
Traditional approach involves the prescription and justification of political ideals or values,
the historical description of governmental institutions and laws and observations of actions
and activities.
The traditional approach is value based and lays emphasis on the inclusion of values to
the study of political phenomena. The adherents of this approach believe that the study of
political science should not be based on facts alone since facts and values are closely
related to each other. Since the days of Plato and Aristotle “the great issues of politics‟
have revolved around normative orientations.
The modern political approach are scientific or behavioural approach to political issues.
The use of facts and figures are very paramount here, as they base their analogies on
“what is” and not “what ought to be”. Scholars here are realists who see issues as they
are through scientific observations before coming up with conclusions.
In conclusion, the traditional approach are utopian, idea driven and are based on historical
facts while the modern approach deals with scientific methodologies and sees political
issues how they really are without being biased.
Traditional Approaches in Political Science

1. Philosophical Approach
This involved a preoccupation with ethical prescriptive and normative questions
reflecting a concern with what ought or must be brought about rather than what is.
The oldest approach to the study of politics pioneered by Greek philosophers Plato and
Aristotle. The main theme of Plato’s work was to describe the nature of an ideal
society. According to this approach, values are inseparable from facts. It is mainly an
ethical and normative study of politics, hence is concerned with what ‘should be’ or
‘ought to be’. This approach seeks to understand our fundamental nature and aim as
human beings, identifying principles and standards of right conduct in political life.
Leo Strauss who was one of the ardent supporters of this approach believed that “the
philosophy is the quest for wisdom and political philosophy is the attempt truly to know
about the nature of political things and the right or good political order.” This approach
lays stress on ethical and normative study of politics and is idealistic in nature. It deals
with the problems of nature and function of state, issues of citizenship, rights and duties
etc.
2. Historical Approach
Relies mainly on facts from the past to explain the present and probable political
development with political institutions and process. Traditional students of politics were
concerned with the study of discovery and description of past political event. The
studies were narrative and descriptive.

Political theory can be only understood when the historical factors are taken into
consideration. It emphasizes on the study of history of every political reality to analyze
any situation. Political thinkers like Machiavelli, Sabine and Dunning were of this view
believe that politics and history are closely inter-related, and hence, the study of politics
always should have a historical perspective. Sabine believes that Political Science
should include all those subjects which have been discussed in the writings of different
political thinkers since Plato.
History not only speaks about the past but also links it with the present events. Without
studying the past political events, institutions and political environment, the analysis of
the present would remain largely incomplete.
Political phenomena could be understood better with the help of historical factors like
age, place, situations etc.
3. Institutional Approach
Institutional approach focus on formal institution of government which provide the
subject matter of comparison in terms of their powers, functions, roles and mutual
relations. Institutional approach involves a relatively detailed description of analysis
followed by an attempt to clarify which details are similar of different.
The very old and important approach to the study of Political Science. This approach
mainly deals with the formal aspects of government and politics emphasizes the study
of the political institutions and structures. Thus, the institutional approach is concerned
with the study of the formal structures like legislature, executive, judiciary, political
parties, interest groups etc. The advocates of this approach includes both ancient and
modern political thinkers. Among the ancient thinkers Aristotle is an important
contributor to this approach while the modern thinkers include James Bryce, Bentley,
Walter Bagehot, Harold Laski, etc.
4. Legal Approach
Focus on constitutional and legal framework and developments as well as issues as
the rule of law, law making, interpretation, administration and enforcement of the laws
and their implication. The developments and application of laws and constitutions
were narrated and described.
Regards the state as the fundamental organization for the creation and enforcement of
laws. Therefore, this approach is concerned with the legal process, legal bodies or
institutions, judiciary, political parties, interests groups etc.
Among the ancient thinkers Aristotle is an important contributor to this approach while
the modern thinkers include James Bryce, Bentley, Walter Bagehot, Harold Laski, etc.
Legal approach regards state as the creator and enforcer of law and deals with legal
institutions, and processes. Its advocates include Cicero, Jean Bodin, Thomas
Hobbes, Jeremy Bentham, John Austin, Dicey and Sir Henry Maine.
Characteristics of the Traditional Approach
1. Traditional approaches are largely normative and stresses on the values of politics
2. Emphasis is on the study of different political structures.
3. Traditional approaches made very little attempt to relate theory and research

4. These approaches believe that since facts and values are closely interlinked, studies in
Political Science can never be scientific.
5. Ignores the behaviour of actors

6. Parochial in nature
7. Conservatives and static
Weakness of the Traditional Approach
1. There were the radical changes in the 20th century political system.
2. There were the radical developments of the emerging post colonial states.
3. There were the developments of new frontiers of science and behavioural.
Criticisms of the Traditional Approach
1. The traditional approaches have dismally failed to recognise the role of the individuals
who play very important roles in moulding and remoulding the shape and nature of
politics. In fact, individuals are important actors of both national and international
politics. The focus is directed to the institutions.
2. It is surprising that behind all the institutions there are individuals who control the
structure, functions and other aspects. Singling out institutions and neglecting
individuals cannot be pronounced as proper methods of studying politics. The
definition of politics as the study of institution’ is nothing but an exaggeration or it may
be called a travesty of truth.
3. Traditional approach is mainly descriptive. Politics does not rule out description, but it
is also analytical. Mere description of facts does not necessarily constitute the subject
matter of political science. Its purpose is to go to the depth of every incident.
Researchers want to know not only what is happening, but also why a particular
incident occurs at a particular time.
4. The view-point of the traditionalists is, limited within the institutions. Political scientists
of today’s world are not inclined to limit their analysis of politics within the four walls of
institutions. They have investigated the role of environment into which is included
international politics multinational corporations, non-governmental organisations or
trans-national bodies.
5. The decision-making process of the nation state is influenced by international events
and the political activity of other nation states. When the traditionalists were writing the
nature of politics, the interdependence of national and international politics was not
unknown to them and it is their failure not to recognise if. Viewed in this light we can
say that traditional approach is biased and incomplete. It has not the ability to meet the
needs which are rising in the present age.
6. Attention is to be paid to another shortcoming. The traditional approach as a method of
analysing politics is deficient for the analysis of political institutions of the Third World
countries, particularly the countries which do not follow the Western political system in
to. In these countries, if we try to find out Western system or institutions that will be an
utter failure.
7. It is, therefore, alleged that traditional analysis is unsuitable for all types of political
systems—both Western and non-Western. To compensate this deficiency the political
scientists of the post-Second World War period have devised a general system
approach which is quite comprehensive.

Stephen Wasby says, “Just as a dissatisfaction with an over-concentration on the
philosophical approach to the study of politics had brought a shift towards the study of
institutions and formal structures, with an accompanying move from normative to
empirical outlooks, so there was increasing realisation that institutional approach did
not encompass all the world of politics.
Source:
https://www.quora.com/search?q=traditional%20approach%20in%20politics
Ebuka Chijioke, BSc Political Science & International Relations, University of Abuja (2018)
e
Lesson 3 - Structural-functional Approach
The structural-functional approach is derived from earlier uses of functionalism and
systems models in anthropology, sociology, biology, and political science. Structural
functionalism became popular around 1960 when it became clear that ways of studying
U.S. and European politics were not useful in studying newly independent countries, and
that a new approach was needed.
Structural-functionalism assumes that a bounded (nation-state) system exists, and studies

structures in terms of their function(s) within the system. For structural functionalists the
question to be answered is what does a structure (guerrilla movement, political party,
election, etc.) do within the political system (of country x)? The goal is to find out what
something actually does in a political system, as opposed to what it is supposed to do.
Thus, structural functionalists would not waste time studying constitutions in Third World
countries if they found that the constitutions [structures] had little impact on political reality.
Almond claimed that certain political functions existed in all political systems. On the input
side he listed these functions as: political socialization, political interest articulation,
political interest aggregation, and political communication. Listed as outputs were rule-
making, rule implementation, and rule adjudication. Other basic functions of all political
systems included the conversion process, basic pattern maintenance, and various
capabilities (distributive, symbolic, etc.). Structural functionalists argued that all political
systems, including Third World systems, could most fruitfully be studied and compared on
the basis of how differing structures performed these functions in the various political
system.
Structural functionalism is based on a systems model. Conceptually, the political process

can be depicted as follows:

For analytical purposes the political system is considered to be the nation-state, and the
environment is composed of the interactions of economic, social, and political variables
and events, both domestic and external. The idea is that there are a number of actors in
the national political system (political parties, bureaucracies, the military, etc.) and that the
actions of all these actors affect each other as well as the system. The political analyst
must determine the importance of these actors in a particular political system. This is done
by analyzing the functions performed by the various actors. Any changes in the system
also affect all the actors. The feedback mechanisms allow for constantly changing inputs,
as actors react to outputs.
Structural functionalists, like systems analysts, have a bias toward systemic

equilibrium, (ie toward stability). Such a bias tends to make this approach conservative, as
stability, or evolutionary change, is preferred [and more easily analyzed], to radical, or
revolutionary change. A problem which arises with this system-based model is that the
nation-state's boundaries are often permeable in the real world, rather than being the
neatly bounded nation-state conceptualized by structural functionalists. In other words, in
the real world it is usually difficult to state exactly what the boundaries are, leading to
some conceptual difficulties. For example, some international actors are only intermittent,
such as the U.S. when it intervenes directly in Haitian or Panamanian politics. Should U.S.
military forces be considered a part of the Panamanian or Haitian political systems?

STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM AND HISTORICAL SEQUENCES OF CRISES
The structural functional approach provides a useful framework for categorizing and
comparing data, but has been criticized as being essentially static. It was not very useful
for analyzing or predicting change; the issue of why, how, when, and in what direction,
political development occurs. This issue of development, or change, is, of course, crucial
for the Third World.
In response to criticisms, structural functionalists looked at history and concluded

that political development takes place when an existing political system is unable to cope
with problems or challenges confronting it without further structural differentiation or
cultural secularization. Success at meeting such challenges constitutes political
development. By challenges, Almond meant changes in the size, content, and frequency
of inputs (especially demands) for the system. For structural functionalists:
Political Development is defined as increased structural differentiation and

increased cultural secularization.
Structural functionalists argued that, historically, there have been four major challenges to
political systems, and that the challenges have occurred in the following sequence (in the
West).
1. Penetration and integration (state-building)

2. Loyalty and commitment (nation-building)
3. Participation
4. Distribution
(Perhaps a fifth, international penetration, should be added to the list. The agents of
international penetration would include: other nations, international organizations,
multinational corporations, prominent individuals, ideological movements, guerrillas,
militaries, and technological sources such as radio broadcasts.)
In Europe the challenges occurred separately, and were handled one at a time.
Thus, the problem of state-building (road construction, tax system, boundaries)) was
usually solved before the problem of nation-building (transferring of primary political
loyalty to the national ruler, and away from the local or regional leader) became acute.
The challenge of participation was solved by the gradual extension of the vote and
political rights to non-propertied people, trade unionists, all males, and finally, to women.
The problem of distribution is still a challenge. The question of how to divide up the goods
of society has not yet been fully solved, although there seems to be a movement in the
direction of more equality in distribution.
The Third World is experiencing a fundamentally different pattern of challenge

occurrence. In the Third World the challenges are occurring simultaneously.
In many cases "solutions" to historic systemic challenges in the West have been
accompanied by violence and strong systemic resistance. (Extension of participation
rights to workers; U.S. Civil Rights movement of 1960s) In Third World nations all the
challenges are occurring simultaneously, and demands for solutions are putting severe
pressure on national political systems. From a structural functionalist point of view, the
amount of violence and instability sometimes observed in Third World politics should,
therefore, come as no surprise.
Source: http://udel.edu/~jdeiner/strufunc.html. Spring, 1999

Lesson 4 - Pluralism
What is Pluralism?
 Pluralism is a theory that political power is widely distributed in society.
Power Structures and Pluralist Democracy
 Key decisions are made by a range of different groups.

 Over time power becomes increasingly diffuse.
 In modern representative democracies there a few direct opportunities for the
mass of people to become directly involved in making decisions, but they can vote
or join pressure groups.
Pluralist and Democracy
 Pluralist accept that individuals in democracies have little say over political
decisions but claim that this doesn’t make them undemocratic.
 The democratic element is provided by pressure group activity.

 Pluralist view of society:
 Society as made up of competing interest groups;
 No one interest group dominates
 Interest groups compete with each other for influence over decision makers
 Power is shared between the interest groups in society
 Protective groups defend the interests of particular groups: e.g. trade
unions (e.g NUT and RMT) and professional organisations (BMA and the
Law Society).
Pluralist and the state
 Pluralist says that the government is the neutral arbiter between pressure groups.
 Pluralist see wide ranging pressure group activity as essential for a modern
democracy.
Evidence for the Pluralist view
 Studies have shown that one group does not dominate society, e.g. “Who
Governs” by R.A Dahl in 1961.
 Power is said to be dispersed and fluid and in the UK this is supported by studies.
 All groups in the UK can influence decision making.
 Whatever their faults, liberal democracies offer the best opportunities for all groups
to get their voices heard.
 New labour was seen as trying to balance the needs and wishes of business
interests and union interests in that they allowed private finance in public service
and also introduced a minimum wage.
Problems with Pluralism
 Power is concentrated in the hands of a relatively small number of people or

groups.
 Not all pressure groups are equal – some have more influence over government
than others, the CBI is a good example. Others have very little influence or no
group represent them at all, an example is the unemployed.

 Agenda setting – pluralists ignore the second face of power, for example
discussions about wealth ownership never reach the point of discussion.
 Very few pressure groups are democratic in their structure and tend to be
dominated by elite.
Criticism of pluralist position
 Critics argue that the classical pluralist position is overly optimistic and recognise
that some groups have no representation and therefore no access to decision
makers.
 Not all groups are equal and some such as Richardson and Jordan say that
decision making in democracies is based on a competition as business and middle
class interest groups are listened to more than others.
 Not all pressure groups are equal Some issues are deliberately kept of the political
agenda
 Makes no allowance for the third face of power, by which voters a persuaded to
accept what is not in their best interests.
 Some studies show that specific groups have greater influence than others.
 Different groups have very different resources.
 The right to vote conceals huge inequality in society.
Distinction between pluralism and elitism
 Pluralism and elitism are terms which make reference to the distribution of political
power.
 Pluralism is a theory which believes that power is to an extent evenly distributed
and that it is not concentrated.
 Pluralism has a positive view of pressure groups and considers a multiplicity of
them to be good for the body politic.
 Elitism by contrast implies that there is a concentration of power in a narrow and
exclusive grouping.
 Elitism implies that this alleged unequal and unfair distribution of political power in
the system may posit problems for the body politic.
The Characteristics of Pluralism
1. It is dominated not by a single elite but rather by a multiplicity of relatively small groups,
some of which are well organized and funded, some of which are not.
2, Groups are politically autonomous, or independent. They have the right and freedom to
do business in the political marketplace. How well they fare depends not on the
indulgence of a higher authority but on their own skill in rallying political resources.
3. Inter group competition leads to countervailing influence: The power of one group
tends to cancel that of another so that a rough equilibrium results. Group memberships
overlap as well. Members of one association, in other words, might belong to another,
even competing, group. Overlapping memberships reduce the intensity of conflicts
because loyalties are often spread among many organizations.
4. The openness of the system. It is open in two senses. First, most organizations are
seldom if ever completely shut off from the outside. They continuously recruit new
members from all walks of life. Second, the availability of unused resources constantly
encourages the formation of new groups. Stimulated by threats to their interests or
sensitized to injustices, or for whatever reason, individuals frequently unite for political
action.

Pluralists judge society not by its actual equality but by its equality of political
opportunity.
5. The endless quest by groups and office seekers for public support. Even though the
masses do not govern directly, their opinions are a resource that can be used by one
organization against another. In a country where the belief in popular control of
government is so deeply ingrained, people feel compelled to sell their causes to the
public, and are frequently judged winners or losers by their standings in the polls.
6. Consensus on the "rules of the game." Consensus, or widespread agreement, among
political activists and leaders on democratic principles and values holds the system
together. These people accept regular and open elections, the right to vote, majority
rule, political equality, free speech, the right to assemble, and the other rules that
make peaceful and orderly politics possible. They tolerate differences of opinion. And,
of utmost significance, they abide by the outcomes of elections.
Three features of Pluralism

1. Pluralism is that “political power belongs to the mass of the population”, that there is
“people power”. Therefore, democracy is real and the rights of people are protected as
there is freedom from government. Pluralists do not believe that power was always
diffused but believe the gradual democratic evolution in the Western world saw the
development of people power.
An example of this in the UK is that there is universal adult suffrage. Pluralists

would also point to the secret ballot and choice of political parties as reflections of
democracy being real. Also, the US has elections for all levels of authority from the
President to the governor to the country sheriff.
2. Pluralism is that the state is neutral. The USC expressed the desire for America to
have limited government to prevent “the tyranny of the majority” (de Tocqueville).
Consequently, the state governments were set up to allow a wide range of people to
be involved in decision-making and to prevent domination.
For example, there is a horizontal division of powers between the Legislature,

Executive and Judiciary and these are accompanied by various checks and balances
such as the President only being able to declare war with 2/3 consent from the
Senate.
3. Everyone has access to power and no one group dominates. CJ Hewitt, after his 20
year study in the UK, concluded that “no one pressure group consistently got its own
way”. Therefore, a variety of groups were represented and there was “freedom to
organise and to promote a range of opinions” which illustrates access to power is
possible for all. For example, the UK currently has more than 7000 competing
pressure groups ranging from Greenpeace to the British Medical Association. None of
these groups always get their way but get their way at some stage such as the
government consulting with them.

Lesson 5 - Elitism
Definition
Elitism is the theory that power is concentrated and not evenly distributed.
What is Elite Theory in Political Science?
 Elite theory, in political science, theoretical perspective according to which (1) a

community’s affairs are best handled by a small subset of its members and (2) in
modern societies such an arrangement is in fact inevitable. These two tenets are
ideologically allied but logically separable.
Common Features of Elitist Theory of Society
1. In every society, power is really enjoyed by a small group of persons who have high
prestige and widespread influence. This group is called the governing elite or the
power elite.
2. The members of the governing elite occupy key positions and control the decision-
making mechanism.
3. Almost all the elite theorists agree that elite is subject to change in every society. This
has been described by many as the “Circulation of elite.”
4. Elite theory advocates the view that democracy is in the ultimate form an ‘Oligarchy‘.

5. Every segment of social relationship is dominated by elite.
6. Elite theory is based on the realities of the actual working of the political system.
7. Elite Theory is based on the basis of ability, character capacity, experience and wealth.
8. Elite theory postulates a division of society into two groups: the Elite and the Masses,
the former governs and the latter is governed.

9. The elite theory regards “will of the people”, “sovereignty of the people”, “Government
by the people” and other such characterizations created and adopted by the elites to
cover, legitimize and make successful their rule over the masses.
10. Elections are regarded by the elite theorists as mechanisms for bringing out the elite.
11. The elite theory maintains that responsibility of the governing elite to the public is a
mere myth, because experts and able persons (Elite) cannot be responsible to the
ignorant.
12. Elite theory further holds that what we call a majority rule is in reality a minority rule.
13. Elite theory rejects the thesis that public opinion is supreme in a democratic system. It
holds that public opinion is a creation of the Elite.
14. It believes that rule of the elite is a natural and just condition without which any
political system, not even a democratic system can be successful.
Differences between Pluralist Theory, Elite Theory and Class Theory of

Power
Politics involves struggle for power among various groups of people through which
these want to deterministically influence the process of making and implementing of public
policies and decisions.
Elite and Class theories of power conceive of society as a society divided between two
classes or groups:
1. Dominant Class or Dominant Group which wields power and dominates and rules
the society, and
2. The rules and dominated classes or groups which live under the rule and
dominance of the ruling class/group.
Against these, the Pluralist Theory holds that in each society power is not in the hands
of a single class or group.
It stands dispersed among various social groups. Each group is an independent entity
and a centre of decision. The groups of workers, traders, businessmen, industrialists,
professionals, consumers and all others have a share in the use of power. These groups
cannot be classified into the categories of dominant and dependent groups as each
exercises more or less power in society.
The social groups are independent in their organizations but as parts of the society
these are interdependent. In the exercise of power by them a sort of balance exists
among these because each group has power and each is a partner in the exercise of
power.
Pluralist Theory of Power advocates the view that power in society, particularly in
cache democratic society, is neither in the hands of a single class nor does it belong to
any single elite. It belongs to various groups and interests which have influence in society
and which continuously complete for influencing the process decision-making at all levels.

The main supporters of the Pluralist Theory of Power have been Bentley, Figgis,
Lindsay Barker, Laski, Maclver, Miss Follet, Hunter and Daltl.
Lesson 6 - Marxism
Definition
Marxism is the theory of Karl Marx which says that society's classes are the cause of
struggle and that society should have no classes. An example of Marxism is replacing
private ownership with co-operative ownership. https://www.yourdictionary.com/marxism
Marxism is a social, political, and economic philosophy named after Karl Marx, which
examines the effect of capitalism on labor, productivity, and economic development and
argues for a worker revolution to overturn capitalism in favor of communism. Marxism
posits that the struggle between social classes, specifically between the bourgeoisie, or
capitalists, and the proletariat, or workers, defines economic relations in a capitalist
economy and will inevitably lead to revolutionary communism.
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marxism.asp
Definition of Marxism in Two Very Separate Ways:
1. Critical Theory: A philosophical tool for analyzing/explaining social-historical-political

events, relationships, and ideologies.
2. Prescriptive Method: An economic system (socialism and communism) meant to create

human equality and justice through economic equality and the elimination of personal
property. Like the Enlightenment and Romanticism, (and all religions) this element of
Marxism is utopian; it believes it can permanently eliminate certain types of human
suffering by creating social equality.
Source: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marxism.asp
The Origin of Marxism
Marxism originated in the thought of the German radical philosopher and economist Karl
Marx, with important contributions from his friend and collaborator Friedrich Engels. Marx
and Engels authored The Communist Manifesto (1848), a pamphlet outlining their theory
of historical materialism and predicting the ultimate overthrow of capitalism by the
industrial proletariat. Engels edited the second and third volumes of Marx's analysis and
critique of capitalism, Das Kapital, both published after Marx's death.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marxism
The Importance of Marxism
In the mid-19th century, Marxism helped to consolidate, inspire, and radicalize elements
of the labour and socialist movements in western Europe, and it was later the basis
of Marxism-Leninism and Maoism, the revolutionary doctrines developed by Vladimir
Lenin in Russia and Mao Zedong in China, respectively. It also inspired a more moderate
form of socialism in Germany, the precursor of modern social
democracy. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marxism

Difference of Marxism from Socialism and Leninism
Marxism and Socialism
Under socialism, the means of production are owned or controlled by the state for the
benefit of all, an arrangement that is compatible with democracy and a peaceful transition
from capitalism. Marxism justifies and predicts the emergence of a stateless and classless
society without private property. That vaguely socialist society, however, would be
preceded by the violent seizure of the state and the means of production by
the proletariat, who would rule in an
interim dictatorship. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marxism
Marxism and Leninism
Marxism predicted a spontaneous revolution by the proletariat, but Leninism insisted on

the need for leadership by a vanguard party of professional revolutionaries (such
as Vladimir Lenin himself). Marxism predicted a temporary dictatorship of the proletariat,
whereas Leninism, in practice, established a permanent dictatorship of the Communist
Party. Marxism envisioned a revolution of proletarians in industrialized countries, while
Leninism also emphasized the revolutionary potential of peasants in primarily agrarian
societies (such as Russia). https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marxism
Source: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marxism
Understanding Marxism
Marxism is both a social and political theory, which encompasses Marxist class conflict
theory and Marxian economics. Marxism was first publicly formulated in the 1848
pamphlet, The Communist Manifesto, by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, which lays out
the theory of class struggle and revolution. Marxian economics focuses on the criticisms
of capitalism brought forth by Karl Marx in his 1867 book, Das Kapital.
Marx’s class theory portrays capitalism as one step in the historical progression of
economic systems that follow one another in a natural sequence driven by vast
impersonal forces of history that play out through the behavior and conflict between social
classes. According to Marx, every society is divided among a number of social classes,
whose members have more in common with one another than with members of other
social classes.
In a capitalist system, Marx believed that the society was made up of two classes, the
bourgeoisie, or business owners who control the means of production, and the proletariat,
or workers whose labor transforms raw commodities into valuable economic goods. The
bourgeoisie's control of the means of production gives them power over the proletariat,
which allows them to limit the workers ability to produce and obtain what they need to
survive.
Marx believed that capitalism is based on commodities, which are things bought and sold.
In Marx's view, an employee's labor is a form of commodity. However, since ordinary
laborers do not own the means of production, such as factories, buildings, and materials,
they have little power in the capitalist economic system. Workers are also readily
replaceable in periods of high unemployment, further devaluing their perceived worth.
To maximize profits, business owners have an incentive to get the most work out of their
laborers while paying them the lowest wages possible. They also own the end product
that is the result of the worker's labor, and ultimately profit from its surplus value, which is

the difference between what it costs to produce the item and the price for which it is
eventually sold.
To maintain their position of power and privilege, the bourgeoisie employ social
institutions as tools and weapons against the proletariat. The government enforces the will
of the bourgeoisie by physical coercion to enforce the laws and private property rights to
the means of production. The media and academics, or intelligentsia, produce
propaganda to suppress awareness of class relations among the proletariat and
rationalize the capitalist system. Organized religion provides a similar function to convince
the proletariat to accept and submit to their own exploitation based on fictional divine
sanction, which Marx called "the opium of the masses." The banking and financial system
facilitates the consolidation of capitalist ownership of the means of production, ensnares
the workers with predatory debt, and engineers regular financial crises and recessions to
ensure a sufficient supply of unemployed labor in order to undermine workers’ bargaining
power.
Marx felt that capitalism creates an unfair imbalance between capitalists and the laborers
whose work they exploit for their own gain. In turn, this exploitation leads the workers to
view their employment as nothing more than a means of survival. Since the worker has
little personal stake in the process of production, Marx believed he would become
alienated from it and resentful toward the business owner and his own humanity.
In Marx's view, economic factors and relationships between social classes are closely
interrelated. The inherent inequalities and exploitative economic relations between the
proletariat and the bourgeoisie would ultimately lead to a revolution in which capitalism will
be abolished. While laborers are focused on basic survival, capitalist business owners are
concerned with acquiring more and more money. According to Marx, this economic
polarity creates social problems that would eventually be remedied through a social and
economic revolution.
Thus he thought that the capitalist system inherently contained the seeds of its own
destruction, because the alienation and exploitation of the proletariat that are fundamental
to capitalist relations would inevitably drive the working class to rebel against the
bourgeoisie and seize control of the means of production. This revolution would be led by
enlightened leaders, known as the vanguard of the proletariat, who understand the class
structure of society and who would unite the working class by raising awareness and class
consciousness. As a result of the revolution, Marx predicted that private ownership of the
means of production would be replaced by collective ownership,
under communism or socialism.
Source: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marxism.asp
Marxism: The Five Underlying Principles and Key Terms:
1. The Means or Mode of Production
This is Marx's term for all the material things necessary to produce wealth or products
-- it includes everything (but labor) necessary to make and distribute stuff. When we
talk about the "means of production" we generally mean natural resources like land,
minerals, oil, trees etc.; tools and factories; means of distribution like roads and
highways, vehicles.
2. Historical Materialism

a. History itself is nothing but an endless power struggle over controlling the means of
production: the natural resources and labor necessary to live. All struggles,
though they may appear to be over nationalism or religion etc., are really rooted in
a struggle over the means of production and labor.
b. All cultural beliefs (ideologies) follow material/economic relationships; we cannot

escape our economic lives (our dependence on others for goods and services)
and all of our basic beliefs -- and he does mean all -- are a reflection of those
economic relationships.
3. Hegemony: the dominance of one group over another (the Bourgeoisie over the
Proletariat) through force or Ideology (see below); the means through which one
group calls “all the shots” in terms of both Material/Economic relations and beliefs.
4. Capitalism, Profit And Labor:
Capitalist Ideology argues that profit belongs to whomever controls capital (material
goods and means to produce and distribute those goods: the land, natural resources,
tools, the means of distribution etc).
Marxist Theory (or "Marxist Ideology") argued that profit margins are actually largely
located in labor, thus labor has economic value. Capital may belong to the capitalist,
but labor belongs to each man or woman him or herself. The working class is exploited
in the form of profit: what the laborer rightly earned is given to the capitalist. This is
key: no man can own or control the value of another man's labor or the
relationship is inherently exploitive and, thus, immoral.
5. Ideology: The control of knowledge to maintain existing or establish social class

structures. A belief system adopted as “inherently true” that operates
unconsciously and permeates a culture as truth itself. In The German Ideology Marx
most clearly defines ideology as pertaining to "politics, laws, morality, religion,
metaphysics etc." This is the part of Marxist theory we are most interested in because
Marx radically changes the way philosophers see knowledge itself.
6. Alienation:
It now became the interest of men to appear what they really were not. To be and to
seem became two totally different things; and from this distinction sprang insolent
pomp and cheating trickery, with all the numerous vices that go in their train. --
Rousseau "Discourse On The Origin Of Human Inequality"
Marx picks up where Rousseau left off, arguing that modern, capitalist and industrial
economies create a condition of alienation.
a. Alienation From Self and Labor: In industrial societies, workers are paid to produce
material goods, and these goods are then sold to others; thus, labor (the work
necessary to produce something) is objectified (labor is turned into a material
object), and the worker is alienated from this object: his days are spent producing
things for others, so he becomes separated from his life/work.
b. Alienation From Others: In industrial, capitalist society, labor is a commodity; it is

something bought and sold on the economic market. Thus, capitalist society
produces and ideology where-in all its members perceive one another as

commodities. Further, capitalism encourages exploitation since the pursuit of capital
-- vs. the pursuit of morality, or love, or community -- is the dominant ideology: the
economic system pressures to get as much labor from one another for the least
amount of capital. Simply put, capitalism forces everyone to perceive one another as
commodities, objects for generating more capital.
Source: https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/engl_258/Lecture%20Notes/marxism.htm
Concept of Marxism
 Marxist concepts are diametrically the opposite to capitalism and some believe have
created a mentality of a society that is very much a ‘them and us’ one. Marxism
believes that capitalism can only thrive on the exploitation of the working class.
 Marxism believes that there was a real contradiction between human nature and the
way that we must work in a capitalist society.
 Marxism has a dialectic approach to life in that everything has two sides.
 Marxism believes that capitalism is not only an economic system but is also a political
system.
 The profit difference between what goods are sold for and what they actually cost to
make, Marxism refers to as a “surplus profit”.
 Marxism believes that economic conflict produces class (rich, middle and poor) and
inherently class produces conflict.
A Marxist analysis called ‘Polarisation of the Classes’ describes the historical

process of the class structure becoming increasingly polarised – pushed to two ends with
noting in the middle. It says that soon classes will disappear and be absorbed either into
the bourgeoisie or the proletariat.
Capitalism largely shapes the educational system, without the education system the
economy would become a massive failure as without education we are without jobs and
employment which is what keeps society moving. Education helps to maintain the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat so that there can workers producing goods and services
and others benefiting from it. Schools transmit an ideology which states that capitalism is
just and reasonable. Ruling class project their view of the world which becomes the
consensus view (hegemony).
Marxists believe that a key part in the control of the Proletariat is the use of alienation
in all aspects of society, including the family, the education system and the media. This
provides the Bourgeoisie with a supple mass of workers who do not mind working for the
external rewards of a constant wage.
Marxists believe that deviance is any behavior that differs from the societal norm. It is
seen as deviant because as a society, we do not accept it. Deviance can vary from simply
odd behavior to behavior that can harm society or is considered dangerous or
disrespectful.
Neo-Marxism is based on ideas initially projected by Karl Marx. Marx believed that
economic power led to political power and that this is the key to understanding societies.
Neo-Marxists believe the economic system creates a wealthy class of owners and a poor
class of workers. They also believe that certain social institutions such as churches,
prisons and schools have been created to maintain the division between the powerful and
the powerless.
Source:

https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/sociology/theories-in-sociology/marxist-concepts/
#:~:text=Marxism%20believes%20that%20there%20was,is%20also%20a%20political
%20system.
Features of Marxism:
According to Korsch there are few important features of Marxism:
1. All the tenets of Marxism are particular and not general. It has not built up any
general theory which is applicable in all places. Marx’s concept of “base” and
“superstructure is a real concept, but its application differs from place to place. The
only statements that are valid are particular descriptions of particular phenomena
at a given stage of history”.
2. Marxism is not science or philosophy. It is simply a critical and practical analysis of

existing society. Naturally it can be called a praxis. Marxism is based on exact and
verifiable knowledge. It can be empirically tested or verified. Hence it is an empirical
doctrine.
3. The central subject of Marxism is capitalist society. Marx scanned almost all the
important aspects of capitalist society by applying dialectical materialism.
4. Its chief aim is not simply to analyze the capitalist society, but to change it. Marx
has said that the philosophers have interpreted the world, but the real task is to change
the world or society. https://www.politicalsciencenotes.com/marxism/marxism-meaning-
features-and-principles/1225
In the Third World countries Marxism means a guide to national liberation movement.
Up to the end of the Second World War, Marxism was generally confined within anti-
capitalist and anti-exploitation thought. But during the fifties and sixties of the last century
almost whole of Asia and Africa was plunged in anti-imperialist struggle and the leaders of
the liberation movement were inspired by Marxism.
In several cases Marxism was synonymous with anti-imperialism and anti-colonialism.

In the light of Marxism (to some extent orthodox Marxism) colonial and imperial questions
were being interpreted and this considerably enhanced the scope of meaning and
definition of Marxism.
Particularly Lenin’s National and Colonial Questions were drafted in the light of
Marxism. The ill-designs and conspiracy of imperialist powers were not only interpreted in
the background of Marxism, but Marxism was treated as a powerful weapon to fight
imperialist powers. In this way the purview of Marxism has increased perceptibly.
Fundamental Principles of Marxism

It has been asserted that Marx in all his works followed certain fundamental principles and
Kolakowsky puts it more categorically in the following words. There are
certain “fundamental principles of Marx’s theory, from which he never departed. The
whole of his work, down to the last page of Capital, was a confirmation and elaboration of
these ideas”. Let us briefly state (following Kolakowski) these fundamental principles:
1. Both Hegel and Marx have dealt with a basic question – How is man to be reconciled
with him and with the world? Hegel was of opinion that mind of man passes through
history and finally comes to realize what is the world.

This realisation is truth. Hegel also speaks of Spirit and man understands it through his
realisation of the world. But Marx did not support the contention of Hegel. The opposite
view of Hegel was first formulated by Feuerbach and Marx borrowed it from him.
According to Marx man is not concerned with Absolute Idea or Spirit but with the stark
reality. This he tries to understand and explain in the background of his own life. He
always interprets the world around him.
2. Both Hegel and Marx thought that man was the product of self-knowledge and he goes
on reconciling with the world. But to Hegel the concept of self- knowledge is associated
with Spirit or Absolute Idea. Marx has rejected it and has laid down the famous doctrine
of alienation. That is, he tries to understand himself or the world around him through
the alienation. The theory of alienation is the product of the alienated labour. In fact,
alienation occupies a very important place in Marx’s theory.
3. In capitalist economy there is a division of labour which means that a labour produces a
single or small part of an article. The capitalist system has introduced this division of
labour to have better results. But its harmful consequence is with the passing away of
time man is gradually alienated from the whole production system and finally the
society.
He is ultimately converted into a machine. The division of labour no doubt helps the
progress of industry of capitalist society. But man is the victim of its harmful effects.
Again, this alienation is responsible for dehumanisation. According to Marx this
dehumanisation is the greatest evil of capitalist society.
4. The general meaning of alienation is that it is the “subjugation of man by his own work,
which has assumed the guise of independent things”. The entire economic process
including production and distribution is beyond the control of workers. They work just
like machine.
In other words, the workers are alienated from the mainstream of productive process
and from here the dehumanisation starts. Hence alienation and dehumanisation are
closely related and the entire capitalist system is absolutely responsible for this.
5. In the opinion of Marx, since alienation is the greatest evil of capitalist system the
workers must be freed from this evil. But he has warned us by saying that there is no
scope of freeing individuals from the curse of alienation because it is an integral part of
the capitalist system.
The only way is the curses of alienation are to be removed. But in a capitalist system
there is no possibility of freeing man from alienation.
6. If we go through Marx’s analysis we shall find that the only way of freeing man from
alienation is the establishment of communism or communist society.
In the words of Kolakowski:
“Communism puts an end to the division of life into public and private spheres and to
the difference between civil society and the state, it does away with the need for
political institutions, political authority and governments, private property and its source
in the division of labour. It destroys the class system and exploitation; it heals the split
in man’s nature and the crippled one-sided development of the individual”.
Hence communism and disappearance of alienation is almost same thing. That is why
it has been rightly observed that the transcendence of alienation and communism are

identical. The building up of a communist society will completely transform the
existence of men and women.
7. Only in communism man gets the full opportunity to flourish his latent qualities and this
makes him a perfect human being. In a capitalist society he is deprived of this. Man has
many good qualities and abilities.
Capitalism suppresses them. But in communism he gets full scope to develop them
and ultimately he arrives at the stage which he desires. Only in communism man frees
him from all sorts of exploitation and bondage.
Communism creates an atmosphere which ensures the “realization of freedom, not
only from exploitation and political power but from immediate bodily needs. It is the
solution to the problem of history and is also the end of history”.
8. The Utopian socialists “imagined” that communism could be achieved through the
repeated and fervent appeal to the capitalists. But Marx did not accept it. He thought
that only through an intense struggle against the bourgeoisie a communist society can
be finally built up. In his opinion the present age (when Marx was writing 1845-1883) is
quite ripe for an intense struggle.
It is the duty of the working class to fully utilize the situation. The contradictions within
capitalism have achieved the stage of maturity. There was maximum dehumanisation
and this is intolerable.
A worker is no more than a commodity. He gets no respect as a human being. In other
words, the capitalists treat him as a commodity. This is an unimaginable humiliation only
communism can save him and to achieve it workers will have to fight.
Kolakowski says:
“The proletariat is not a mere agglomeration of suffering, degradation and
misery but also the historical instrument by which man is to recover his
heritage.”
9. About consciousness Marx’s opinion is clear. He says that the consciousness of the
proletariat is not all. That is, it may be passive or active. If the consciousness is of the
former type emancipation from exploitation will not be possible because the passive
consciousness cannot do the job.
The consciousness must be active and must have a revolutionary spirit. The proletariat
must be prepared for all sorts of hazards. Workers must fight against these. Naturally,
consciousness of revolutionary category is the only way of emancipation. What Marx
means is that without struggle emancipation is not possible.
10. Marx also talked about various aspects of consciousness. For example, proletarians
will be conscious of their own class. Again, be conscious of the fact that only struggle
against the bourgeoisie is the way of freedom. Without prolonged struggle,
communism cannot be achieved. Moreover, communism can be protected through
continuous struggle.
Source:
https://www.politicalsciencenotes.com/marxism/marxism-meaning-features-and-
principles/1225 shared by Monalisa M.

Orji, Nkwachukwu (2009). The study if Politics: Logic, Approaches and Methods. Eugene
Nweke and Nkwachukwu Orji. (eds.) A Handbook of Political Science, Department
of Political Science, Ebonyi State University.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270214497_The_Study_of_Politics_Logic_Ap
proaches_and_Methods
References:
https://www.quora.com/What-is-normative-approach-of-political-science
Ellen John, M A Political Science, University of Delhi (2018)
https://www.politicalsciencenotes.com/political-science/study-of-politics-various-
approaches/715
https://www.quora.com/search?q=traditional%20approach%20in%20politics
Ebuka Chijioke, BSc Political Science & International Relations, University of Abuja (2018)
http://magadhmahilacollege.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Approaches-to-the-Study-of-
Political-Science.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/FaimaMoHammad/traditional-and-modern-approaches-of-
political-science-48133683
posted 12th September 2013 by political
sciencehttp://spupugps.blogspot.com/2013/09/traditional-approaches.html

https://www.edouniversity.edu.ng/oer/lecturenotes/
approaches_to_the_study_of_politicsDr Efanodor Harriet O. (Published 2017)
http://www.kkhsou.in/main/polscience/approaches_polscience.htmlCopyright 2011
KKHSOU
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313505827_InstitutionalismSeptember
2014Vivien Schmidt31.86 Boston University
http://udel.edu/~jdeiner/strufunc.htmlSpring, 1999
https://www1.udel.edu/htr/American/Texts/pluralism.html
https://www.thoughtco.com/pluralism-definition-4692539
http://dooy.info/ext/pluralism.htmlCopyright (c) 2010 Andrew Basden? Last updated: 7
February 2001 copyright, email. 17 June 2010 .nav, .end, rid unet. 7 September 2017 rid
counter.
https://www1.udel.edu/htr/Psc105/Texts/power.html
https://cla.purdue.edu/academic/english/theory/marxism/terms/
https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-is-marxism-392686

Course Code: ____ Description:____________________Time/Day: ______
Class No._______ I.D. No. ________________ Score: _______ EPS: ____
Name_______________________________________Date: ___________
1. Define normative approach in a simplest term.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. What is your opinion of the idea of Plato that in order to be an ideal state all individuals
must be ideal that is they must possess virtues such as morality and various ethical
qualities? Support your response.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3. Complete the table below to show the meaning of the different approaches in
studying politics.
Approaches in Studying
Political Science Definition/Meaning
Normative
Traditional
Structural- Functional
Pluralism
Elitism
Marxism
4. Discuss the pros and cons of traditional approach in Political Science.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
5. Was the argument of the structural functionalist that a fifth, international penetration,
should be added to the list of four major challenges to political systems, such as the
agents of international penetration that would include: other nations, international
organizations, multinational corporations, prominent individuals, ideological
movements, guerrillas, militaries, and technological sources such as radio
broadcasts.) convincing? Explain your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
6. List in the diagram below the differences of pluralism and elitism. On the overlapping
parts, write the similarities.
Pluralism Elitism

6. Predict the outcome if Marxism will be adopted in the Philippines?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 1

JOCELYN T. SORREDA, Ed.D.

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 2

After studying the module the students are expected to:

Lesson 1. Meaning of Political Science

Lesson 1 – Meaning of Political Science

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 3

Lesson 2 - Political Science as a “Science”

Lesson 3 - Scope of Political Science

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 4

Lesson 4 - Objectives of Political Science

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 5

3. The study of political science seeks to gather knowledge and understanding of

The different forms of government, organizational structure and functions of

Studying the advantages and disadvantages of the different form of government

Lesson 5 - Methodologies in Political Science

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 6

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 7

Lesson 6 - Relationship of Political Science with other Studies

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 8

3. Geography – Geopolitics (a science concerned with the study of the influences of

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 9

5. Psychology – Psychology is the foundations of Political Science. Many political

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 10

Lesson 7 – Task of Political Thinkers

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 11

Lesson 8 – Careers in Political Science

Lesson 9 - History of Political Science in the Philippines

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 12

Valenzuela, Edwin E. 2012 . Understanding Basic Concepts in Political Science.

Valenzuela, Edwin E. 2016. Understanding Basic Concepts in Political Science. 2nd

Laurente, Reynold R. 2006. Essentials of Political Science 2. Manila: Philippines, Rex

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 13

1. Complete the table below to define Political Science.

b. Modern Political Scientist

2. Justify whether Political Science is a “science” or “not a science”.

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 14

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 15

Evaluate their career if related to political science or not.

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 16

After studying the module the students are expected to:

Lesson 1: Power and Authority

Lesson 1 – Power and Authority

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 17

In government, the term authority is often used interchangeably with power.

In general, authority is exercised to get things done through others. It is attached

The Difference between Power and Authority

1. Power is defined as the ability or potential of an individual to influence others and

The Three Types of Authority

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 18

2. Traditional authority indicates the presence of a dominant personality. This leader is

All three forms of a2uthority exhibit a specific weakness or problem

1. Charismatic leadership can be problematic because it is somehow based on some

Modern societies rely on legal-rational authority in terms of finding a common

COMPILATION OF LESSONS: PA 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 19