Chapter 3

Implicit functions

it is often the case that in calculus and analytical geometry the equations of plane curves are
written as
f (x, y) = 0.
p
For example, the equation of a circle with radius 3 and centre at (0, 2) is

x2 + (y 2)2 = 3.

In this case, we can solve for y = y(x) = 2 ± (3 x2 )1/2 , but often this is not possible. It is
possible to write f (x, y) = 0, but we cannot solve for y = y(x) explicitly. In this case, y = y(x)
is an implicit function. In majority of cases we actually do not need to know the expression for
y explicitly in order to understand its properties. It is often enough to characterise the function
by its derivatives. How do we compute those derivatives? Let us consider di↵erent cases.

3.0.1 Case 1.
Suppose z = f (x, y), y = y(x). Using the chain rule, we know that

dz @f @f dy
= + .
dx @x @y dx

Suppose that f (x, y) = 0, so this gives us an implicit expression for y = y(x), so the above
result should hold. We have that z = 0 always, so dz/dx = 0 always. Therefore,

@f @f dy
0= + ,
@x @y dx
which gives
dy @f /@x
=
dx @f /@y
provided @f /@y 6= 0.

Example: Suppose f (x, y) = ax2 + bx sin y + 4cex y 3 + 3d ln x + gx + e = 0, where a, b, c, d, g, e

are constants. Find dy/dx.

39
Calculus of Several Variables (G5210) 2018-19 Lecture notes

Solution. It is clear that in this case we cannot solve for y = y(x) explicitly and then
di↵erentiate it. However, we can use the rule for implicit di↵erentiation derived above to
calculate dy/dx as
dy 2ax + b sin y + 4cex y 3 + 3d/x + g
= .
dx bx cos y + 12cex y 2
⌅

3.0.2 Case 2.
Consider know the case of functions of 3 variables. Suppose two of them, given as

f (x, y, z) = 0 g(x, y, z) = 0

are required to define implicitly y = y(x) and z = z(x). For example, from f = 0, we can
calculate y = y(x, z) and from g = 0, we get z = z(x, y), and we can solve these as simultaneous
equations, so y = y(x, z(x, y)) or y = y(x), and substituting this into the expression for z gives
z = z(x, y(x)) or z = z(x). Let us use the chain rule to calculate the derivatives for f and g as
follows:
df @f @f dy @f dz
= ·1+ + = 0,
dx @x @y dx @z dx
and
dg @g @g dy @g dz
= ·1+ + = 0.
dx @x @y dx @z dx
This gives us simultaneous equations for finding dy/dx and dz/dx. Solving these equations
yields, ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
dy @f @g @f @g @f @g @f @g
= /
dx @z @x @x @z @y @z @z @y
and ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
dz @f @g @f @g @f @g @f @g
= / .
dx @x @y @y @x @y @z @z @y

Example: Calculate dy/dx and dz/dx when

f (x, y, z) = x2 + sin y ln z + ez = 0 and g(x, y, z) = x y x = 3z = 0.

Solution. In this case, we cannot find explicit expressions for y = y(x) and z = z(x). However,
we can use the above formula to obtain the required derivatives. We have

fx = 2x, fy = cos y ln z, fz = sin y/z + ez

and
gx = 1 y x ln y, gy = xy x 1 , gz = 3.

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Therefore,
dy ⇥ ⇤
= [(sin y/z + ez )(1 y x ln y) (2x)( 3)] / (cos y ln z)( 3) (sin y/z + ez )( xy x 1 )
dx
and
dz ⇥ ⇤ ⇥ ⇤
= (2x)( xy x 1 ) (cos y ln z)(1 y x ln y) / (cos y ln z)( 3) (sin y/z + ez )( xy x 1 ) .
dx
⌅

3.0.3 Case 3.
Suppose now that we have a function of 3 variables given by the equation

f (x, y, z) = 0, (3.1)

which may define z = z(x, y) implicitly (not every function will, for example, x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1
is never satisfied for real x, y, z). Suppose we can solve the equation (3.1) to find (x0 , y0 , z0 ), i.e.
f (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 0, and near this point, the function f and its first partial derivatives are contin-
uous, and @f /@z = 0. Then, from the existence theorem, it follows that in the neighbourhood
of the point (x0 , y0 ), there exists exactly one di↵erentiable function z = '(x, y), which satisfies
f (x, y, z) = 0, and is such that z0 = z(x0 , y0 ).

Let us fix y at y = y0 , therefore, f (x, y0 , z) = 0. This implicitly defines z = z(x) in the

neighbourhood of x0 . From Case 1, we know that dz/dx can be calculated as

dz @f /@x
= ,
dx @f /@z

which is almost correct. Remember that we have fixed y, so this is not a total derivative dz/dx
but it is a partial derivative @z/@x, i.e. we have

@z @f /@x
= .
@x @f /@z
If we fix x instead of y, we will obtain
@z @f /@y
= .
@y @f /@z

This can be generalised for any function of n variables. Suppose that f = f (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = 0.
Then,
@xi @f /@xj
= , i 6= j, @f /@xi 6= 0. (3.2)
@xj @f /@xi

Example: Let x2 xz + z 2 + yz = 4. Find zx and zy at a point (x, y) = (1, 3).

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Solution. Using the formula (3.2), we have

@xi @f /@xj
= ,
@xj @f /@xi
so
2x z z
zx = , and zy = .
2z + y x 2z + y x
For x = 1 and y = 3, we have a quadratic equation for z, namely, z 2 + 2z 3 = 0, which gives
z = 1, 3. Therefore,
1 1
z = 1 : zx = , zy =
4 4
and
5 3
z = 3 : z x = , zy = .
4 4
⌅

3.1 Implicit function theorem

Let us consider a general equation with two variables x and y, which can be written in the form

F (x, y) = 0. (3.3)

If for any number x from a subset X this equation has a solution y = f (x), then it is said
that this equation implicitly defines the function y = f (x, y), x 2 X, and this function is called
an implicit function, which is defined by the equation (3.3). Therefore, an explicit function
y = f (x) is the solution of the equation (3.3) with respect to y, i.e.

8x 2 X : F (x, f (x)) = 0.

Now, let us look at the conditions on the function F (x, y), which lead to the equation (3.3)
define an implicit function y = f (x), as well as discuss the question about the continuity and
di↵erentiability of the implicit function.

Theorem 12 Suppose the following conditions are satisfied:

(i) The function F (x, y) is defined and continuous on the rectangle Q = {(x, y) : a < x <
b, c  y  d};

(ii) 8x 2 (a, b) : F (x, c) · f (x, d) < 0 (this condition means that the function F (x, y) has
di↵erent sings on the lower and upper sides of the rectangle Q);

(iii) for any x from the interval (a, b), the function F (x, y) is a strictly monotone function
with respect to y on the segment [c, d].

Then

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(1) in the rectangle Q, the equation

F (x, y) = 0 (3.4)
defines a unique implicit function
y = f (x), x 2 (a, b),
that is 8x 2 (a, b), the equation (3.3) has a unique solution with respect to y on the segment
[c, d];

(2) the implicit function y = f (x) is continuous on the interval (a, b).

Proof: (1) Let us choose an arbitrary value x from the interval (a, b), and consider for this
value of x the function F (x, y) in y variable on the segment [c, d]. This function is continuous on
the segment [c, d] (condition 1 of the Theorem), and has di↵erent signs at the end point of the
segment (condition 2 of the Theorem). Therefore, there exists y 2 (c, d) such that F (x, y) = 0.
Since F (x, y) is a strictly monotone function in variable y (condition 3 of the Theorem), this
value is unique (for a fixed x). Hence, 8x 2 (a, b), the equation (3.3) has a unique solution with
respect to y. Let us denote this solution as y = f (x).

This means that we have proved existence and uniqueness of the implicit function y = f (x),
x 2 (a, b), which is defined through the equation (3.3).

(2) Now we want to prove that the implicit function y = f (x) is continuous on the interval
(a, b), that is we want to prove that it is continuous at each point x0 2 (a, b). By definition, a
function is continuous if 8" > 0 9 > 0 such that
|f (x) f (x0 )| < " for |x x0 | < , (3.5)
and this is what we have to prove.

Consider a random " > 0 (such that f (x0 ) " c and f (x0 ) + "  d, and assume that function
F (x, y) for a fixed x is an increasing function in y (condition 3 of the Theorem). That means
that F (x0 , y) < F (x0 , f (x0 ) = 0) for y < f (x0 ) and F (x0 , y) > 0) for y > f (x0 ). In particular,
F (x0 , f (x0 ) ") < 0 and F (x0 , f (x0 ) + ") > 0. (3.6)
Let us consider the function F (x, y) on the lines y = f (x0 ) " and y = f (x0 ) + ". From the
inequalities (3.6) and using the fact that any continuous function preserves its sign, it follows
that in some -neighbourhood of the point x0 , the following inequalities hold
F (x, f (x0 ) ") < 0 and F (x, f (x0 ) + ") > 0.
This inequalities are denoted as + and in Fig. 3.1.
From these inequalities it follows that for any x from the -neighbourhood of the point x0 , the
solution of the equation (3.3), i.e. y = f (x) lies between f (x0 ) " and f (x0 ) + ". In other
words, within the -neighbourhood of the point x0 , the graph of the function y = f (x) lies in
the strip bounded by the lines y = f (x0 ) " and y = f (x0 ) + ", as shown in Fig. 3.1. This
means that
f (x0 ) " < f (x) < f (x0 ) + " for |x x0 | < .

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Calculus of Several Variables (G5210) 2018-19 Lecture notes

Figure 3.1: A graph of the function y = f (x) lies in a strip bounded by the lines y = f (x0 ) "
and y = f (x0 ) + ".

so the condition (3.5) is satisfied.

This concludes the proof of the Theorem. ⌅

Example: Prove that the equation

F (x, y) := 2y + sin y x = 0, (x, y) 2 R2
defines a unique implicit function
y = f (x), x 2 ( 1, +1). (3.7)

Solution. Let us choose an arbitrary value x and consider the function F (x, y) for this value
of x. Suppose, y = y1 = x/2 1, then F (x, y1 ) = 2 + sin y1 < 0. Suppose now that
y = y1 = x/2 + 1, then F (x, y1 ) = 2 + sin y2 > 0. Therefore, there exists y 2 (y1 , y2 ) such that
F (x, y) = 0. Let us denote this value of y as f (x). Thus, 8x, the equation (3.7) has a solution
y = f (x).

Since Fy = 2 + cos y > 0, the function F (x, y) is an increasing function for any values of y, and,
hence, the equation (3.7) defines a unique implicit function y = f (x), x 2 ( 1, +1).

As we have discovered earlier, in this case we cannot find this implicit function explicitly.
However, we can ”observe” this function by plotting the graph of the function x = 2y + sin y
as shown in Fig 3.2. ⌅

Theorem 13 Suppose the following conditions are satisfied:

(i) The function F (x, y) is defined and continuous in some neighbourhood of the point M0 (x0 , y0 )
(we will denote this neighbourhood as !);

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Figure 3.2: A graph of the function x = 2y + sin y.

(ii) in the !-neighbourhood, there exists a partial derivative Fy (x, y), which is continuous at
the point M0 ;

(iii) F (x0 , y0 ) = 0, Fy (x0 , y0 ) 6= 0.

Then there exists a rectangle

Q = {(x, y) : |x x0 | < d, |y y0 |  c; d > 0, c > 0},

which lies entirely inside the neighbourhood ! of the point M0 , in which the equation F (x, y) = 0
defines a unique function y = f (x), and this function is continuous whenever |x x0 | < d.

Proof: Without loss of generality, suppose Fy (x0 , y0 ) > 0 (see the second condition of the
Theorem). Since Fy (x0 , y0 ) is continuous at the point M0 (the second condition of the Theorem)
and sign preserving property of the continuous functions, it follows that there exists a rectangle

Q̃ = {(x, y) : |x ˜ |y
x0 | < d, y0 |  c; d˜ > 0, c > 0},

which lies entirely in the neighbourhood ! of the point M0 . In this neighbourhood, Fy (x, y) > 0,
and, hence, the function F (x, y) is an increasing function in y on the segment [y0 c, y0 + c]
for any x 2 (x0 d, ˜ x0 + d).
˜

Now, consider the function F (x0 , y) on the segment y0 c < y < y0 + c. Since this is an
increasing function on this segment, and taking into account that F (x0 , y0 ) = 0 (the third
condition), we have
F (x0 , y0 c) < 0 and F (x0 , y0 + c) > 0. (3.8)
Now let’s consider the function F (x, y) on the lower and upper sides of the rectangle Q̃, that is,
consider the functions F (x, y0 c) and F (x, y0 + c) for |x x0 | < d. ˜ Since these functions are
continuous (the first condition of the Theorem) and from the inequalities (3.8), there exists an
interval x0 d < x < x0 +d (d  d) ˜ such that on this interval F (x0 , y0 c) < 0, F (x0 , y0 +c) > 0,
and, hence,
F (x0 , y0 c) · F (x0 , y0 + c) < 0 for |x x0 | < d.

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This means that we have constructed a rectangle Q = {(x, y) : |x x0 | < d, |y y0 |  c} in

which all conditions of Theorem 12 are satisfied.

From the Theorem 12, in the rectangle Q, the equation (5.7) defines a unique function y = f (x),
and function is continuous for |x x0 | < d. This conclude the proof of the Theorem.

Theorem 14 Suppose all conditions of Theorem 12 are satisfied, and suppose the function
F (x, y) is di↵erentiable at the point M0 (x0 , y0 ). Then, an implicit function y = f (x), defined
by the equation (5.7) is di↵erentiable at the point x0 , and its derivative at this point can be
found as
Fx (x0 , y0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = .
Fy (x0 , y0 )

Proof: Since the function F (x, y) is di↵erentiable at the point M0 (x0 , y0 ), then its change at
this point can be written in the form
F := F (x0 + x, y0 + y) F (x0 , y0 )
Fx (x0 , y0 ) x + Fy (x0 , y0 ) y + ↵1 x + ↵2 y,
where ↵1 and ↵2 are functions of x ! 0 and y ! 0, which are infinitesimally small for
x ! 0, y ! 0.

Consider x 6= 0 so small that | x| < d, that is x0 d < x0 + x < x0 +d, where (x0 d, x0 +d)
is the interval, where the implicit function y = f (x) from Theorem 12 is defined. Let y
denote the change in the implicit function y at the point x0 , i.e. y = f (x0 + x) f (x0 ) =
f (x0 + x) y0 . For x and y chosen in this way, we have
F = F (x0 + x, f (x0 + x)) F (x0 , y0 ) = 0
since F (x, f (x)) = 08x 2 (x0 d, x0 + d), and hence, we obtain
Fx (x0 , y0 ) x + Fy (x0 , y0 )[f (x0 + x) f (x0 )] + ↵1 x + ↵2 [(x0 + x) f (x0 )] = 0,
and it follows that
f (x0 + x) f (x0 ) Fx (x0 , y0 ) + ↵1
= .
x Fy (x0 , y0 ) + ↵2
Now let us take a limit as x ! 0 in the last expression. Since the implicit function y = f (x)
is continuous at the point x0 (from Theorem 12), then y = f (x0 + x) f (x0 ) ! 0 as
x ! 0. Therefore, ↵1 ! 0 and ↵2 ! 0 as x ! 0, and, since Fy (x0 , y0 ) 6= 0 (condition 3 of
Theorem 12), the limit of the right hand side of the last expression exists and is equal to
Fx (x0 , y0 )
.
Fy (x0 , y0 )
Since the limit of the RHS exists, that means that the limit of the left hand side exists, and
this limit is f 0 (x0 ) (by the definition of the derivative). Therefore, as x ! 0, we have
Fx (x0 , y0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = . (3.9)
Fy (x0 , y0 )

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This completes the proof of the Theorem.

⌅

Corollary. If function F (x, y) is di↵erentiable on the rectangle Q (see Theorem 13), then an
implicit function y = f (x) is di↵erentiable on the interval (x0 d, x0 + d), and its derivative
can be found using the following formula
Fx (x, y)
f 0 (x) = . (3.10)
Fy (x, y) y=f (x)

Corollary. If function F (x, y) is k-times di↵erentiable on the rectangle Q (see Theorem 13),
then the implicit function y = f (x) is k-times di↵erentiable on the interval (x0 d, x0 + d), and
in order to find f 00 (x), you need to di↵erentiate f 0 (x), and so on.

Example: Find f 0 (x) and f 00 (x) for the following function

F (x, y) := 2y + sin x x = 0, (x, y) 2 R2 . (3.11)

Solution. The equation (3.11) defines a unique implicit function y = f (x), x 2 ( 1, +1),
and this function is di↵erentiable at each point (Theorem 14). We have
Fx (x, y) 1
f 0 (x) = = .
Fy (x, y) y=f (x) 2 + cos f (x)

Now, di↵erentiating f 0 (x), we obtain

1 sin f (x)
f 00 (x) = [f 0 (x)]0 = 2
( sin f (x))f 0 (x) = .
[2 + cos f (x)] [2 + cos f (x)]3
⌅

The above results can be generalised. Suppose that we have a general equation of the form

F (x1 , ..., xn , y) = 0.

Solution of this equation for y is a function of n variables y = f (x1 , ..., xn ).

Theorem 15 Suppose the following conditions hold:

(i) The function F (x1 , ..., xn , y) is defined and di↵erentiable in some neighbourhood of the
point M0 (x01 , ..., x0n , y 0 ) (we will denote this neighbourhood as !);

(ii) a partial derivative Fy (x1 , ..., xn , y) is continuous at the point M0 ;

(iii) F (x01 , ..., x0n , y 0 ) = 0, Fy (x01 , ..., x0n , y 0 ) 6= 0.

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Calculus of Several Variables (G5210) 2018-19 Lecture notes

Then there exists a parallelepiped

Q = {(x1 , ..., xn , y) : |xi x0i | < di , |y y0 |  c; di > 0, c > 0, i = 1, ..., n},

which lies entirely inside the neighbourhood ! of the point M0 , in which the equation F (x1 , ..., xn , y) =
0 defines a unique function y = f (x1 , ..., xn ), and this implicit function is di↵erentiable in the
parallelepiped {(x1 , ..., xn , y) : |xi x0i | < di , i = 1, ..., n}, and its partial derivatives are defined
as
@f Fxi (x1 , ..., xn )
(x1 , ..., xn ) = .
@xi Fy (x1 , ..., xn ) y=f (x1 ,...,xn )

The proof of this Theorem is similar to the proofs of the Theorems above.

If you do not remember the formula (3.10), here are the general guidelines for implicit di↵er-
entiation:

(1) Di↵erentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.

(2) Collect all terms involving dy/dx on the left hand side of the equation, and move everything
else to the right hand side of the equation.

(3) Factor dy/dx out of the left hand side of the equation.

(4) Solve for dy/dx.

Example: Find dy/dx by implicit di↵erentiation for the following equations

(1) x2 y + y 2 x = 2;

(2) x3 + y 3 = 64.

Solution. In both cases, we can either use the formula (3.10) or suppose we do not remember
it, and will have to use the above-given guidelines.

(1) Di↵erentiating the equation x2 y + y 2 x = 2 with respect to x we have

dy dy
2xy + x2 + y 2 + 2yx = 0,
dx dx

dy
(x2 + 2xy) = 2xy y2,
dx

dy 2xy y 2
= 2 .
dx x + 2xy

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Calculus of Several Variables (G5210) 2018-19 Lecture notes

(2) Di↵erentiating the equation x3 + y 3 = 64 with respect to x we have

dy
3x2 + 3y 2 =0
dx

dy x2
= .
dx y2

3.2 Implicit functions given by simultaneous equations

Consider m simultaneous equations given by

F1 (x1 , ..., xn , y1 , ..., ym ) = 0, (3.12)

F2 (x1 , ..., xn , y1 , ..., ym ) = 0,
..
.
Fm (x1 , ..., xn , y1 , ..., ym ) = 0.

Solutions of this system with respect to y1 , ..., ym

y1 = f1 (x1 , ..., xn ), . . . , ym = fm (x1 , ..., xn ) (3.13)

is called simultaneous equations of implicit functions defined by the simultaneous equations

(3.12). We want to discuss the questions of existence, uniqueness and di↵erentiability of implicit
functions given by (3.13). In order to address these questions, we need to introduce a very
important determinant.

Definition 16 The determinant given by

@F1 @F1 @F1
@y1 @y2
··· @ym

@F2 @F2 @F2

@y1 @y2
··· @ym

=
··· ··· ··· ···

@Fm @Fm @Fm

@y1 @y2
··· @ym

is called the Jacobian. We will abbreviate this as

D(F1 , ..., Fm )
= .
D(y1 , ..., ym )

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Calculus of Several Variables (G5210) 2018-19 Lecture notes

Theorem 16 Suppose the following conditions hold:

(1) functions
F1 (x1 , ..., xn , y1 , ..., ym ), ..., Fm (x1 , ..., xn , y1 , ..., ym )
are defined and di↵erentiable in some neighbourhood ! of the point M0 (x01 , ..., x0n , y10 , ..., ym
0
);

@Fi
(2) partial derivatives (i, j = 1, ..., m), which are the entries of the Jacobian , are con-
@yj
tinuous at the point M0 ;

(3) F1 (M0 ) = 0, ..., Fm (M0 ) = 0, and

D(F1 , ..., Fm )
(M0 ) = 6= 0.
D(y1 , ..., ym ) M0

Then, there exists a parallelepiped

Q = {(x1 , ..., xn , y1 , ..., ym : |xi x0i | < di ), i = 1, ..., n; |yj yj0 |  cj , j = 1, ..., m; di > 0, cj > 0},

which lies entirely in the neighbourhood ! of the point M0 , in which the simultaneous equations
(3.12) defines unique simultaneous equations for implicit function, and these implicit functions
are di↵erentiable on the parallelepiped

{(x1 , ..., xn ) : |xi x0i | < di , i = 1, ..., n}.

Proof: For m = 1, the result follows from Theorem ??. For m > 2, this Theorem can be
proved by induction.

We will prove the Theorem for m = 2. In this case, we have two simultaneous equations

F1 (x, y1 , y2 ) = 0, (3.14)
F2 (x, y1 , y2 ) = 0,

where x = (x1 , ..., xn ). The point M0 has coordinates x0 , y10 , y20 , where x0 = (x10 , ..., x0n ), and,
from the condition 3, we have
@F1 @F1
(M0 ) (M0 )
@y1 @y2
F1 (M0 ) = 0, F2 (M0 ) = 0, (M0 ) = 6= 0. (3.15)
@F2 @F2
(M0 ) (M0 )
@y1 @y2

Since (M0 ) 6= 0, it means that some entries of the Jacobian are not equal to zero. Without
@F1
loss of generality, let us assume that (M0 ) 6= 0.
@y1

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Calculus of Several Variables (G5210) 2018-19 Lecture notes

Consider the first equation in (3.14) in the neighbourhood of the point M0 as the equation with
respect to y1 :
F1 (x, y1 , y2 ) = 0. (3.16)
@F1
Since F1 (M0 ) = 0 and (M0 ) 6= 0, for the equation (3.16) all conditions of Theorem 16 are
@y1
satisfied, which means that in some parallelepiped with a centre at M0 , the equation (3.16) has
a solution with respect to y1 , i.e.
y1 = f (x, y2 ). (3.17)
Moreover, f (x0 , y20 ) = y10 , f (x, y2 ) is a di↵erentiable function, and its derivative @f /@y2 can be
found as
@F1
(x, y1 , y2 )
@f @y2
= .
@y2 @F1
(x, y1 , y2 ) y1 =f (x,y2 )
@y1
Substituting the function (3.17) into the second equation of (3.14), we obtain the following
equation
F2 (x, f (x, y2 ), y2 ) =: g(x, y2 ) = 0. (3.18)
We will now be considering this equation as an equation to be solved with respect to y2 in some
0
neighbourhood of the point M0 (x0 , y20 ). We need to check that all conditions of Theorem 16
are satisfied.

Since functions F2 (x, y1 , y2 ) and f (x, y2 ) are di↵erentiable functions, then g(x, y2 ) is a di↵eren-
0
tiable function in some neighbourhood of the point M0 , so the first condition of Theorem 16 is
satisfied.

Now, the partial derivative


@g @F2 @f @F2
(x, y2 ) = · + (3.19)
@y2 @y1 @y2 @y2 y1 =f (x,y2 )

(3.20)
2 0 1 3
@F1
6 @F2 B @y2 C @F2 7
=6 B C 7
4 @y1 @ @F1 A + @y2 5 y1 =f (x,y2 )
@y1
(3.21)
✓ ◆ 1
@F1
= ·
@y1 y1 =f (x,y2 )

0 @Fi
is continuous at the point M0 , since partial derivatives , i, j = 1, 2, which form the Jacobian
@yj
0
are continuous at the point M0 , the function (3.17) is continuous at the point M0 , and the fact
@F1
that (M0 ) 6= 0. This means that the second condition of Theorem 16 is satisfied.
@y1

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Calculus of Several Variables (G5210) 2018-19 Lecture notes

Finally, we have
0
g(M0 ) = F2 (x0 , f (x0 , y20 ), y20 ) = F2 (x0 , y10 , y20 ) = F2 (M0 ) = 0,

which follows from (3.15), and

✓ ◆ 1
@g 0 @F1
(M0 ) = (M 0) · (M0 ) 6= 0,
@y2 @y1
which follows from the expressions (3.15) and (3.19). Therefore, conditions 3 and 4 of Theo-
rem 16 are satisfied.
0
According to Theorem 16, in some neighbourhood of the point M0 , the equation (3.18) has a
unique solution with respect to y2 :
y2 = f2 (x), (3.22)
and, moreover, the function f2 (x) is di↵erentiable. Substituting this solution into (3.17), we
obtain a di↵erentiable function

y1 = f (x, f2 (x)) =: f1 (x). (3.23)

Therefore, in some parallelepiped with centre at the point M0 , simultaneous equations (3.14)
have a unique solution of the form (3.22), (3.23), that is, they define a unique pair of implicit
functions given by (3.22) and (3.23), and functions f1 (x) and f2 (x) are di↵erentiable. This
completes the proof of the Theorem for m = 2. ⌅

3.2.1 Guide to calculating derivatives of implicit functions y1 = f1 (x)

and y2 = f2 (x)
Let us consider the system (3.14). Substituting y1 = f1 (x) and y2 = f2 (x) gives

F1 (x, f1 (x), f2 (x)) = 0,

F2 x, f1 (x), f2 (x)) = 0.

Di↵erentiating these equations in each of the variables xi (i = 1, ..., n) yields


@F1 @F1 @f1 @F1 @f2
+ · + · = 0,
@xi @y1 @xi @y2 @xi y1 =f1 (x),y2 =f2 (x)


@F2 @F2 @f1 @F2 @f2
+ · + · = 0.
@xi @y1 @xi @y2 @xi y1 =f1 (x),y2 =f2 (x)

These linear simultaneous equations with respect to @f1 /@xi ⌘ @y1 /@xi and @f2 /@xi ⌘ @y2 /@xi
uniquely define these derivatives since the determinant of the Jacobian is
D(F1 , F2 )
= 6= 0
y 1 , y2
at the point M0 , and from the continuity property, it follows that it is not equal to zero in some
neighbourhood of the point M0 .

Dr Yuliya Kyrychko 52 y.kyrychko@sussex.ac.uk

Calculus of Several Variables (G5210) 2018-19 Lecture notes

If functions F1 (x, y1 , y2 ) and F2 (x, y1 , y2 ) are k-times di↵erentiable in the neighbourhood of

the point M0 , then implicit functions y1 = f1 (x) and y2 = f2 (x) are also k-times di↵eren-
tiable. Their second order derivatives can be found by di↵erentiating @f1 /@xi ⌘ @y1 /@xi and
@f2 /@xi ⌘ @y2 /@xi , and so on.

Example: Prove that simultaneous equations

x2 + y 2 + z 2 3 = 0,
x+y+z 1=0

in the neighbourhood of the point M0 (1, 1, 1) uniquely define implicit functions y(x) and z(x).
Find first and second order derivatives of these implicit functions.

Solution. First, let us show that simultaneous equations define a unique pair of implicit
function. The functions

F1 := x2 + y 2 + z 2 3,
F2 := x + y + z 1

are di↵erentiable in any neighbourhood of the point M0 , and their partial derivatives
@F1 @F1 @F2 @F2
= 2y, = 2z, = 1, =1
@y @z @y @z
are continuous at the point M0 . Moreover,
D(F1 , F2 ) 2 2
F1 (M0 ) = 0, F2 (M0 ) = 0, = = 4 6= 0.
D(y, z) M0 1 1
Therefore, all conditions of Theorem 16 are satisfied, which means that the given simultane-
ous equations define a unique pair of implicit functions in some neighbourhood of the point M0 .

In order to calculate the first order derivatives of these implicit functions, we di↵erentiate the
simultaneous equations in x, and obtain
dy dz
2x + 2y + 2z = 0,
dx dx

dy dz
1+ + = 0,
dx dx
which we can now solve to find dy/dx and dz/dx. Multiplying the second equation by 2y and
adding it to the first equation gives
dz dz y x
2x 2y + 2(z y) =0 =) = .
dx dx z y
Now, from the second equation, we have
dy dz y x x z
= 1 = 1 = .
dx dx z y z y

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Calculus of Several Variables (G5210) 2018-19 Lecture notes

At the point M0 , we have

dy dz
= 1, = 0.
dx M0 dx M0
In order to find the second order derivatives, we di↵erentiate dy/dx and dz/dx in x, which gives
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
dz dz dy
1 (z y) (x z)
d2 y dx dx dx
2
= 2
dx (z y)

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
y x y x x z
1 (z y) (x z)
z y z y z y
=
(z y)2

(z 2y + x)(z y) (x z)(y 2x + z)
= ,
(z y)3

and, at the point M0 (1, 1, 1), we have

d2 y
= 1.
dx2 M0

Similarly,
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
dy dz dy
1 (z y) (y x)
d2 z dx dx dx
=
dx2 (z y)2

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
x z y x x z
1 (z y) (y x)
z y z y z y
=
(z y)2

(x 2z + y)(z y) (y x)(y 2x + z)
= ,
(z y)3

and, at the point M0 (1, 1, 1), we have

d2 z
= 1.
dx2 M0

Example: Consider a system of simultaneous equations given by

x2 y 2 u3 + v 2 + 4 = 0,
2xy + y 2 2u2 + 3v 4 + 8 = 0.

Dr Yuliya Kyrychko 54 y.kyrychko@sussex.ac.uk

Calculus of Several Variables (G5210) 2018-19 Lecture notes

Show that this system defines unique implicit functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) in the neighbourhood
of the point M0 (x, y, u, v) = M0 (2, 1, 2, 1), and find their first order derivatives in x and y.

Solution. The functions

F1 := x2 y 2 u3 + v 2 + 4,
F2 := 2xy + y 2 2u2 + 3v 4 + 8

are di↵erentiable in the neighbourhood of the point M0 , and their partial derivatives
@F1 @F1 @F2 @F2
= 3u2 , = 2v, = 4u, = 12v 3
@u @v @u @v
are continuous at the point M0 . Furthermore,

D(F1 , F2 ) 3u2 2v 12 2
F1 (M0 ) = 0, F2 (M0 ) = 0, = = = 128 6= 0.
D(u, v) M0 4u 12v 3 8 12
M0

So, indeed, the simultaneous equations define unique implicit functions u(x, y) and v(x, y).

In order to find @u/@x and @v/@x, we di↵erentiate the equations in x, and obtain
@u @v
2x 3u2 + 2v = 0,
@x @x

@u @v
2y 4u + 12v 3 = 0.
@x @x
Multiplying the first equation by 6v 2 and adding it to the second equation gives
@u @u 6xv 2 y
12xv 2 + 2y + (18u2 v 2 4u) =0 =) = 2 2 .
@x @x 9u v 2u
Now, from the first equation, we have
@u 6xv 2 y
@v 3u2 2x @v 3u2 2x 4x 3uy
= @x =) = 9u2 v 2 2u = .
@x 2v @x 2v 2v(9uv 2 2)
Finally,
@u 13 @v 7
= , and = .
@x M0 32 @x M0 16

Similarly, we can find partial derivatives of u(x, y) and v(x, y) in y. Di↵erentiating the given
simultaneous equations in y gives
@u @v
2y 3u2 + 2v = 0,
@y @y

@u @v
2x + 2y 4u + 12v 3 = 0.
@y @y

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Calculus of Several Variables (G5210) 2018-19 Lecture notes

Multiplying the first equation by 6v 2 and adding it to the second equation gives

@u @u x + y + 6yv 2
2x + 2y + 12yv 2 + (18u2 v 2 4u) =0 =) = .
@y @y 9u2 v 2 2u
Now, from the first equation, we have
@u x + y + 6yv 2
3u2 + 2y 3u2 + 2y
@v @y @v 9u2 v 2 2u 4y + 3xu + 3uy
= =) = = ,
@y 2v @y 2v 9u2 v 2 2u
and
@u 5 @v 1
= , and = .
@y M0 32 @x M0 16
⌅

Dr Yuliya Kyrychko 56 y.kyrychko@sussex.ac.uk