Riverside College, Inc.

Department of Physical Therapy

Physiology 2 Laboratory

MODULE 1: PULMONARY SYSTEM

LESSON 1 – PULMONARY CIRCULATION, PRINCIPLES OF GAS EXCHANGE, LUNG VOLUMES AND
CAPACITIES, PULMONARY SYSTEM ASSOCIATED CONDITIONS

The Respiratory System and Homeostasis

The respiratory system contributes to homeostasis by

providing for the exchange of gases— oxygen and carbon
dioxide—between the atmospheric air, blood, and tissue cells. It also helps adjust the pH of body fluids.

 Respiratory System Anatomy

TASK SHEET 1: PULMONARY SYSTEM

Upper Respiratory Lower Respiratory

Conducting

Respiratory

"Grape like
covering
 Functions of the Respiratory Passageways
■ Normal Respiratory Functions of the Nose
■ Functions:
■ ____________, ____________, and ____________the air
■ Detecting ____________
■ ____________: modifying speech vibrations
■ ____________: the hairs at the entrance to the nostrils are important for filtering
out large particles
■ ____________ by turbulent precipitation where air hits many obstructing vanes
■ ____________ or throat
■ a funnel-shaped tube functions as a passageway for air and food, provides a
resonating chamber for speech sounds, and houses the tonsils.
■ ____________ or voice box for Vocalization
■ Speech is composed of two
mechanical functions:
(1) Phonation
(2) Articulation

■ Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles

– Respiratory passageways is to keep
them open and allow easy passage
of air to and from the alveoli.
– To prevent the structures from
collapsing:
■ Trachea AKA ____________ have multiple cartilage rings
■ The walls of the bronchi have a less extensive curved cartilage plates
■ Bronchioles are kept expanded mainly by the same transpulmonary pressures.
■ Lungs
- are paired cone-shaped organs in the thoracic cavity that are separated from each other
by the heart and other structures of the _______________, which divides the thoracic
cavity into two anatomically distinct chambers.
- _____- broad inferior portion of the lung.
- _____- narrow superior portion of the lung.
- ___________ fissure- separates the superior lobe and inferior lobe in the left lung and the
superior lobe and the middle lobe of the right lung.
- ___________ fissure- separates the middle lobe and the inferior lobe of the right lung.
■ Alveolus
- The walls of alveoli consist of two types of alveolar epithelial cells (choices: Type I or Type
II):
■ The more numerous ________ alveolar cells form a nearly continuous lining of
the alveolar wall; main sites of gas exchange
■ The ________ alveolar cells (aka septal cells) are fewer in number containing
microvilli, secrete alveolar fluid and surfactant.
Pulmonary Ventilation
 4 Major Functions of Respiration
1. Pulmonary ventilation
2. Diffusion of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
3. Transport of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
4. Regulation of ventilation and other facets of respiration.

 Mechanics of Pulmonary Ventilation

DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Ventilatio
______________________
n - or breathing, is the inhalation and exhalation of air; involves
the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs.
External respiration. - exchange of gases between the alveoli and pulmonary
2. ______________________
capillaries. Pulmonary capillary blood gains O2 and loses CO2. -

3. Internal respiration.
______________________ - exchange of gases between systemic capillaries and tissue
cells. The blood loses O2 and gains CO2.

MOVEMENTS
■ Increase in the AP dimension
Pumphandle
– _____________ motion: upward and forward motion of the
sternum and upper ribs.
■ Increase in the transverse (lateral) dimension
Bucket handle motion: elevation and outward turning of
– _____________
the ribs.
■ Increase in the subcostal angle
Caliper.
– _____________ motion: flaring or outward opening of the
lower ribs (8-10)
■ Increase in vertical dimension
Piston
– _____________action:
.
movement of diaphragm and ribs
Pulmonary Ventilation is Influenced by:
a. ________________________________________
b. ________________________________________
c. ________________________________________
d. ________________________________________

A. Contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles (According to Guyton and Hall)

TASK SHEET 1: Pulmonary System

During normal (relaxed/quiet) inspiration

a. ___________________ contracts and pulls the lower surfaces of the lungs downward.
a. Phrenic nerves (C3,C4,C5); descends 1 cm (500 mL)
b. ___________________ raise the rib cage
During forced inspiration
a. *Diaphragm- descends 10 cm (2000-3000 L)
b. ___________________ lift the sternum upward, ____________, ________________
elevates the third through fifth ribs, ______________ lift majority of the ribs
and____________ lift the first two ribs.
During normal (relaxed/quiet) expiration
a. Diaphragm relaxes, and the _______________ of the lungs, chest wall, and abdominal
structures compresses the lungs and expels the air.
During forced expiration
a. Extra force is achieved by contraction of the ________________, which pushes the
abdominal contents upward against the bottom of the diaphragm, thereby compressing
the lungs.
b. ________________ depresses the rib cage
 Events during Inhalation
■ Before inhalation, the air pressure inside the lungs is equal to the air pressure of the atmosphere,
which at sea level is about ____ mm Hg.
■ The pressure of a gas in a closed container is inversely proportional to the volume of the container
 _________ law.
■ Before inhalation, it is about ___ mm Hg less than the atmospheric pressure, or about 756 mmHg
(atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg).
■ Air always flows from a region of higher pressure to lower pressure  inhalation takes place.

 Events during Exhalation

■ The pressure in the lungs is _______________ (choices: greater than or less than) the pressure
of the atmosphere.
■ Alveolar pressure increases: 762 mmHg. Air then flows from the area of higher pressure in the
alveoli to the area of lower pressure in the atmosphere.
■ Although intrapleural pressure is always less than alveolar pressure, it may briefly exceed
atmospheric pressure during a forceful exhalation, such as during a cough.

B. Alveolar Surface Tension

■ A thin layer of alveolar fluid coats the luminal surface of
alveoli and exerts a force known as ______________.
■ It arises at all air–water interfaces because the polar
water molecules are more strongly attracted to each
other than they are to gas molecules in the air.
■ During breathing, surface tension must be overcome to
expand the lungs during each inhalation.
■ The surfactant reduces its surface tension and secreted
by special surfactant-secreting epithelial cells called
_________________________.
– Condition: _____________________________.

Image
reference: Fairview Health Services

C. Compliance of the Lungs

■ Compliance refers to how much ___________________________________________________.
– High compliance: _____________________________.
 – Low compliance: _____________________________.
■ Two principal factors: elasticity and surface tension.

D. Airway Resistance
■ Airflow equals the pressure difference between the alveoli and the atmosphere divided by the
resistance.
■ During inhalation, the bronchioles enlarge  ______________ (choices: increased/decreased)
resistance.
■ During exhalation, airway resistance
___________________ (choices:
increases/decreases) as the diameter
of bronchioles decreases.
■ Any condition that narrows or
obstructs the airways increases
resistance:
– Asthma
– Chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD)
 Emphysema
 Chronic bronchitis Image reference: Medanta Medical Team

II. Pulmonary Capacities and Volumes

LUNG VOLUMES by Spirometer/respirometer (According to Guyton and Hall)

TASK SHEET 1: Pulmonary System

1. _________________________- volume of air

inspired or expired with each normal breath; Minute
Ventilation (6L/min); _____ mL
2. _________________________- extra volume of
air that can be forcefully inspired over and above the
normal tidal volume; _____ mL
3. _________________________- maximum extra
volume of air that can be expired by forceful expiration
after the end of a normal tidal expiration; _____ mL
4. _________________________- volume of air
remaining in the lungs after forceful expiration; ____ mL
LUNG CAPACITIES (According to Guyton and Hall)
1. _________________________- A person can breathe in, beginning
at the normal expiratory level and distending the lungs to the
maximum amount; ____ mL
2. _________________________- Amount of air that remains in the
lungs at the end of normal expiration; ____ mL
3. _________________________- Maximum amount of air a person
can expel from the lungs after first filling the lungs to their maximum
extent and then expiring to the maximum extent; ____ mL
4. _________________________- Maximum volume to which the lungs can be expanded with the
greatest possible effort; ____ mL

III. Alveolar Ventilation

■ 70% of the TV (____ mL) reaches these areas (alveoli, alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts, and respiratory
bronchioles) is called alveolar ventilation.
■ “Dead Space”- some of the air inspired fills the respiratory passages where gas exchange does not
occur.
■ ____ mL - Normal amount of dead space air that remains in the conducting airways
■ ______________ Dead Space: area where gas exchange does not occur.
■ ______________ Dead Space: the alveoli themselves are non-functional or partially functional
because of poor blood supply.
LESSON 2 – PULMONARY CIRCULATION, PRINCIPLES OF GAS EXCHANGE, LUNG VOLUMES AND
CAPACITIES, PULMONARY SYSTEM ASSOCIATED CONDITIONS

 Nervous and Local Control of the Bronchiolar Musculature

– “Sympathetic” ______________ (Choices: Dilation/Constriction) of the Bronchioles
■ Norepinephrine and epinephrine by sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal gland
medullae.
– “Parasympathetic” ______________ (Choices: Dilation/Constriction) of the Bronchioles
■ Vagus nerves secrete acetylcholine
■ Histamine and slow reactive substance of anaphylaxis

■ Mucus Lining the Respiratory Passageways, and Action of Cilia to Clear the Passageways
■ All the respiratory passages (nose to the terminal bronchioles) are kept moist by a layer
of ______ that coats the entire surface that traps small particles out of the inspired air 
“Power stroke” by the _____ is always toward the pharynx  swallowed or coughed out.

■ Cough Reflex
– Sensitive areas: bronchi and trachea, larynx and
carina, and the terminal bronchioles and alveoli.
– Afferent nerve impulses: ______________
nerves  medulla of the brain.

■ Sneeze Reflex
– Involves the nasal passageways instead of the
lower respiratory passages.
– Stimulus: irritation in the nasal passageways
– Afferent impulses pass: ______________ nerve
 medulla

■ Regulation of Respiration
TASK SHEET 1: PULMONARY SYSTEM
I. MEDULLA OBLONGATA
A. ____________________________
– Location: Dorsal Medulla (Nucleus Tractus
Solitarius)
– Function: Inspiration
– Inspiratory Ramp Signal: Inhale: 2 seconds on;
Exhale 3 seconds off
■ Inspiratory ramp
■ Two qualities:
– Control of the rate of increase of the ramp signal
– Control of the limiting point at which the ramp suddenly ceases.

B. ____________________________
 – Location: Ventro-Lateral Medulla (Nucleus Ambiguus and Nucleus Retroambiguus)
– Pre-Bötzinger complex- sets the basic rhythm of breathing
– Function: Primary: Expiration; Secondary: Inspiration

II. PONS
■ A. ____________________________
– Location: Upper Pons (Nucleus Parabrachialis)
– Function: Controls the rate and depth of breathing (Normal RR: 12-20 cpm)
: Limits inspiration by “SWITCHING OFF” the inspiratory ramp signal
■ B. ____________________________
– Location: Lower Pons
– Function: Prevents the “SWITCHING OFF” of
the inspiratory ramp signal

III. CHEMICAL CONTROL

■ A. CENTRAL CHEMORECEPTORS
– Location: ______________
– Stimulus: Increased Hydrogen ions
■ B. PERIPHERAL CHEMORECEPTORS
– Location: ______________________
– Stimulus: Increased CO2, decreased O2,
acidosis

IV. INFLATION REFLEX

■ Stretch-sensitive receptors called ______________ - located in the walls of bronchi and
bronchioles.
■ Stretch/overinflation  impulses to vagus nerves to inspiratory and apneustic areas  exhalation
begins Lungs deflate and the stretch receptors are no longer stimulated.
■ AKA ________________________- a protective mechanism for preventing excessive inflation of
the lungs.