MODULE 2

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 SURVEYING

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 INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY
• Surveying is the art of determining the relative
positions of points on, above or beneath the
surface of earth by means of direct or indirect
measurements of distance, direction, elevation etc.

• Main objective: preparation of plans and maps of its

area.

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 INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY
• Purpose of surveying:
– Preparing archaeological, geological and military maps

– Establishing property boundaries

– Measurement of quantities in cutting and filling using

contours

– Measurement of distance between two points

– Determination of relative position of points

– Layout of alignment of engineering structures

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 Primary divisions of survey
❑ Plane Surveying:
– Mean surface of earth is considered as a plane and spheroidal
shape is neglected
– All triangles are plane triangle
– All level lines are considered straight and all plumb lines are
considered parallel.

❑ Geodetic Surveying:
– Shape of earth is considered
– All lines are curved and triangles spherical
– Preferred when area of surveying exceeds 260 sq.km
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 CLASSIFICATION OF
SURVEYING
1) Based on objective of survey
❑ Engineering surveys
❑ Mine surveys (Archaeological survey)
❑ Geological surveys
❑Military survey

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 CLASSIFICATION OF
SURVEYING
2) Based on nature or field of surveying
❑ Land survey
a) Topographical survey
b) Cadastral survey (land survey)
c) City survey

❑ Hydrographic surveying or Marine surveying

❑ Astronomical survey

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 CLASSIFICATION OF
SURVEYING
3) Based on instruments used
❑ Chain surveying
❑ Compass surveying
❑ Plane table surveying
❑ Levelling
❑ Total station
❑ Theodolite surveying
❑ Tacheometric surveying
❑ Photogrammetric surveying
❑ GPS Survey

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 CLASSIFICATION OF
SURVEYING
4) Based on methods employed
❑ Triangulation survey
❑ Traverse survey

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 PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING
1. Fixing a point with reference to two control points:
o Let A & B be two given control points. Any other point,
say C can be located with reference to these points by
means of linear and angular measurement:

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 PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING

2. To work from the whole to the part:

o Primary control points are established with higher
precision

o Minor control points are established with less precision

o Prevent accumulation of errors

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 Instruments used in surveying

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1. Chain
• Used for measuring distance
• Types of chains
– Metric chain – 5,10,20 and 30m
– Gunter’s chain or Surveyor’s chain – 66 ft, 100 links
– Engineer’s chain – 100 ft, 100 links
– Revenue chain – 33ft, 16 links

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2. Passometer
• It is an instrument shaped
like a watch and is carried
in pocket or attached to leg
• It automatically registers
number of paces.
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3. Pedometer
• Similar to passometer
• Adjusted to the length of
pace of the person carrying
it.
• Registers total distance
covered.
4. Odometer
• Register number of revolutions of a wheel
• Odometer is fitted to a wheel which is rolled along the line
whose length is required
• Number of revolutions × circumference

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5. level
• To measure the level difference between points on the
ground
• To calculate how much cutting and filling is required in the
plot to initiate construction process

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6. Compass
• To indicate the north direction of the plot in the map
• To measure horizontal angles between points in the plot

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7. Pegs and arrow
• To mark the points on the ground during surveying

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Introduction to Levelling

• Levelling is a branch of surveying the object of which is:

– To find the elevations of given points with respect to a

given or assumed datum, and

– To establish points at a given elevation or at different

elevations w.r.t. a given or assumed datum.

• Levelling deals with measurements in a vertical plane.

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Terms & Definitions
• Datum: Any surface to which elevations are referred.
Mean sea level is the most common datum.

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 Terms & Definitions
• Elevation: The vertical distance above or below the datum

• Mean sea level: Average height

of sea for all stages of the tides.
It is derived by averaging the
hourly tide heights over a long
period of 19 years.

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 Terms & Definitions
• Bench Mark: It is a permanent point of reference whose
elevation w.r.t some assumed datum is known.
• There are 4 kinds of bench mark:
– GTS (Great trigonometric survey bench mark)
– Permanent bench mark
– Arbitrary bench mark
– Temporary bench mark

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Levelling Instruments
• Instruments commonly used in direct levelling
are:
– A level
– A levelling staff

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 Terms & Definitions
• Station: Point where level rod is held (not where level is set
up).
• Height of Instrument (HI): For any set up of the level, the
height of instrument is the elevation of plane of sight w.r.t
the assumed datum.
• Back Sight (BS): Back sight is the sight taken on a rod held
at a point of known elevation, to ascertain amount by which
the line of sight is above that point and thus to obtain height
of instrument
• Fore Sight (FS): Fore sight is a sight taken on a rod held at
a point of unknown elevation, to ascertain the amount
HI = Ele of BM + BS

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Ele = HI - FS
 Differential Levelling
• The operation of levelling to determine the elevation of
points at some distance apart so that one setup of level is
not adequate is called differential levelling

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 Line of Collimation Method
• Also called Height of Instrument Method
HI = Ele of BM + BS
Ele = HI – (FS or IS)
• Arithmetic Check:

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 Rise & Fall Method
• Difference in level between consecutive points is found by
comparing the staff readings on the two points for the same
setting of the instrument.

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 Problems
1. The following staff readings were observed successively
with a level, the instrument having been moved after third,
sixth and eighth readings:
2.228; 1.606; 0.988; 2.090; 2.864; 1.262; 0.602; 1.982; 1.044;
2.684m
Calculate the RL of points if the first reading was taken with a
staff held on a BM of 432.384m. Solve using HI method and
Rise and fall method

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 Problems (HI Method)
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. HI R.L. Remarks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Check

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 Problems (HI Method)
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. HI R.L. Remarks
1 2.228 434.612 432.384 B.M.
2 1.606 433.006
3 2.090 0.988 435.714 433.624 TP1
4 2.864 432.850
5 0.602 1.262 435.054 434.452 TP2
6 1.044 1.982 434.116 433.072 TP3
7 2.684 431.432
5.964 6.916 431.432
Check -6.916 -432.384

-0.952 -0.952 Checked

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 Problem (Rise & Fall Method)
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Check

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 Problem (Rise & Fall Method)
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
1 2.228 432.384 B.M.
2 1.606 0.622 433.006
3 2.090 0.988 0.618 433.624 TP1
4 2.864 0.774 432.850
5 0.602 1.262 1.602 434.452 TP2
6 1.044 1.982 1.380 433.072 TP3
7 2.684 1.640 431.432
5.964 6.916 2.842 3.794 432.384
Check -6.916 -3.794 431.432

-0.952 -0.952 -0.952 Checked

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 TOTAL STATION

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 INTRODUCTION

• A total station is an optical instrument used in modern surveying. It is a

combination of an electronic theodolite (transit), an electronic distance
measuring device (EDM) and software running on an external computer,
such as a laptop or data collector.
• Electronic distance meter (EDM) is a device used to measure the length
using electronic device
• They are highly reliable and convenient pieces of surveying equipment
and can be used to measure distances of up to 100 kilometers, accurate
distance measurements are displayed on an easy-to-read digital screen.

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TOTAL STATION 4

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CONCEPT OF EDM

• Total Station is an instrument in which the electronic theodolite, EDM, a

microprocessor with memory unit and a display unit are integrated
• This combination makes it possible to determine the coordinates of a
reflector by aligning the instrument’s cross hairs on the reflector and
simultaneously measuring the vertical and horizontal angles and slope
distances
• Microprocessor takes care of recording readings and necessary
computations related
• Data is transferred to a computer and used to generate a map

TOTAL STATION 3
7

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 CONCEPT OF EDM

• Most total stations use a modulated near infrared light emitting diode to
send a beam from instrument to a prism
• The prism reflects this beam back to the instrument
• The portion of wavelength that leaves and returns to the instrument is
assessed and calculates measurements
• Total Stations display the results in real time
• Fundamental quantities measured are Slope Distance, Vertical angle,
Horizontal angle

TOTAL STATION 3
8

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 WORKING
• Consider two points A and B , and we have to calculate the distance
between them. First a transmitter is placed at point A. Then a receiver is
placed at another point B. Now an electromagnetic wave is propagated
from A to B, reaches the reflector and return back to the EDM.
• Then the distance is measured with the help of time taken by the wave
for the emission and return. But measuring the transit time is little
tougher. Therefore a reflector is placed at B . The point A act as
transmitter and receiver. Thus the double transit time is calculated.
• The distance is measured by the phase difference between the
transmitted and
received signals.

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 WORKING

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PRINCIPLE

• Total station can measure horizontal and vertical angles as well as

slope distances.
• Distance can be determined by calculating the number of
wavelengths travelled.
• Using the vertical angle,the total station can calculate the horizontal
and vertical
distance components of the measured slope distance.
Total station measures three parameters when aimed at the object:-
1) Horizontal angle
2) Vertical angle TOTAL STATION 4
1

3) Slope distance
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 ADVANTAGES
• Field work is carried out very fast.
• Accuracy of measurement is high.
• Manual errors involved in reading and recording are eliminated.
• Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate.
• Even corrections for temperature and pressure are automatically
made.
• Computers can be employed for map-making and plotting contour
and cross-sections.
• Contour intervals and scales can be changed in no time.
• User friendly interface
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 Disadvantages
•Vertical elevation accuracy is not so accurate as using conventional
survey level and rod technique
•Visibility is very important
•More expensive
•Awareness on battery maintenance

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 APPLICATIONS
• Total stations are mainly used by land surveyors and civil engineers,
either to record features as in topographic surveying or to set out
features civil engineering projects like dams, bridges, tunnels etc.
• Contouring, mapping and area measurement through suitable
software and connection to computer
• Mining applications : Record absolute location of tunnel walls,
ceilings
• Fixing 3D coordinate of stations with respect to a reference station
• Measurement of horizontal and vertical angle and sloping distances

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 Accuracy
❑Angle accuracy – 1’’ to 0.1’’
❑Distance accuracy- 1mm to 0.01mm

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 PARTS OF A TOTAL STATION

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 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

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 INTRODUCTION

GPS is a system developed by the US Department Of Defence

(D.O.D) for military as well as Civil operations. The D.O.D sustains
it. The Global Positioning System provides quickly, accurate and
inexpensively to determine the time, position and velocity of any
object on the globe at any time with the help of signals from
satellites put in earth centered orbits.

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 Attractions of GPS

•The relatively high positioning accuracy from tens of metres down

to the millimetre level.
•The capability of determining velocity and time to an accuracy
commensurate with position.
•The signals are available to users anywhere on the globe in the air,
on the around, or at sea.
•It is a positioning system with no user charges, that simply requires
the use of relatively low cost hardware.
•It is an all-weather system, available 24 hours a day.
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TOTAL STATION 9

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 Attractions of GPS

•The position information is in three dimensions, that is vertical as

well as horizontal information is provided.
•It is suitable for all classes of platform : aircraft (jet to helicopter),
ship, land (vehicle-mounted to handheld) and space (missiles and
satellites).
•Able to handle wide variety of dynamics.
•Real time positioning, velocity and time determination capability to
an appropriate accuracy.
•The positioning results were to be available on a single global
geodetic datum.
•Highest accuracy to be restricted to a certain class of user.
•Resistant to jamming (intentional and unintentional).
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TOTAL STATION 0

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 Attractions of GPS
•Redundancy provisions to ensure the serviceability of the system.
•Passive positioning system that does not require the transmission of
signals from the user to the satellites.
•Able to provide the service to an unlimited number of users.
•Low cost, low power, therefore as much complexity as possible
should be built into the satellite segment.
•Total replacement of the transit satellite and other terrestrial navaid
systems.

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TOTAL STATION 1

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 Applications of GPS
•Land, Sea and Air Navigation and Tracking including on route as
well as precise navigation, collision avoidance, cargo monitoring,
vehicle trucking, search and rescue operations, etc.
•Surveying and Mapping on land, at sea and from the air includes
geophysical and resource surveys, GIS data capture surveys, etc.
•Military Applications : Although these are largely mirrored by
civilian applications, the military Global Positioning System are
generally developed to military specifications and a greater
emphasis is placed on system reliability.
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TOTAL STATION 2

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 Applications of GPS
•Recreational uses on land at sea and in the air.
•Other specialized uses such as time transfer, attitude
determination, spacecraft operations, atmospheric studies etc.
•Most useful in marine and air navigation, transport management
and several kinds of automation.
•Easy collection of data on specified profile and cross sections.
•Plotting of contours from collected data.
•Local property mapping and locating boundaries.

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TOTAL STATION 3

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 Applications of GPS
•Site surveys.
•Topographic surveys etc.
•Determining coordinates of photocenters in aerial mapping, layout
works etc.
•Exploration of mineral wealth.

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TOTAL STATION 4

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 Advantages of GPS
•Using geodetic receivers, point positioning to an accuracy of 1 cm can be displayed by
the user equipment.
•GPS Survey can be carried out in any kind of weather – rain, fog or poor visibility
without any hindrance during day or night.
•There is no need for intervisibility of stations or points surveyed and hence control
stations can be located advantageously.
•Global Positioning System together with Geographical Information System is a
dynamic and spatially related information capable of processing and routing and
weapons aiming.

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TOTAL STATION 5

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 Disadvantages of GPS
•High cost of GPS survey comes in the way of realizing the full potential of this
surveying.
•Difficulties in defining datum heights with reference to mean sea levels and real time
data processing and control are also part of the process.

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TOTAL STATION 6

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 LOAD BEARING &
FRAMED STRUCTURE

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 LOAD BEARING STRUCTURE FRAMED STRUCTURE

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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LOAD-BEARING STRUCTURE AND FRAME STRUCTURE
LOAD-BEARING STRUCTURE
Almost all the walls are load bearing
walls.
Almost all the walls should be provided
with foundation
Load bearing walls are taken deep into
the subsoil foundation.
Any load bearing wall should
have minimum thickness of 200
mm.
Wall are usually constructed of bricks
or stone
In load bearing structure, load
transfer path is from slab to walls
and walls to footing and footing to
sub soil
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FRAME STRUCTURE
None of the wall are load bearing.
They serve the same purpose as
partition or screen.
None of the walls are provided with any
type of foundation. Walls do not go
below the plinth beam.
Only column are taken deep into subsoil
and provided with foundation footing.
Exterior wall subjected to weathering
elements are generally 200 mm thick.
All other wall can be 100 mm thick or
even thinner.
Column supporting beam supporting slab
are all of R.C.C.
In framed structure, load transfer path
is from slab to beam, beam to column
and column to footing and footing to
sub soil
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LOAD-BEARING STRUCTURE AND FRAME STRUCTURE

LOAD-BEARING STRUCTURE FRAME STRUCTURE

Suitable only when hard strata Suitable for any type of soil
are available at shallow depth

3 to 4 storey buildings can only Multi storey buildings can be constructed.

be constructed

Load bearing structure is less resistant to Framed structure is more resistant to

Earthquake Earthquake

Limitations for openings in walls. Large openings in walls are possible.

It is not flexible in design as you It is flexible in design as you can shift

can’t remove/shift walls the location of walls

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 BRICK MASONRY

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 BRICK MASONRY
• Arrangement of laying bricks and bonding them with mortar
to build up a structure.
• Transmits superimposed load without failure
• Used for foundations, walls, floors, etc.

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 TERMS USED IN BRICK MASONRY

• Stretcher : A masonry unit laid flat on its bed along the length of
a wall with its face parallel to the face of the wall. (19 x 9 cm)
• Header : A masonry unit laid flat on its bed across the width of a
wall with its face perpendicular to the face of the wall. ( 9 x 9 cm)

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 TERMS USED IN BRICK MASONRY

• Course : complete layer of brick laid on the same bed.

Thickness of a course = thickness of a brick + thickness of one
mortar joint
• Frog : depression provided in the face of a brick, used to
form a key with mortar to prevent sliding of brick
• Bed : Bottom surface of a brick when it is laid flat ( 19 x 9 cm)
• Bat : Portion of a brick cut across the width of brick
• Closure : Portion of a brick cut longitudinally with one long
face uncut
• Quoin Brick : corner brick arranged in a brick masonry
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 BRICK MASONRY ARRANGEMENT

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 Different types of Bat and Closures

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 Different conditions for good bond
1. Vertical joints shouldn’t be too continuous
2. Min no: of vertical joints for good bonding
3. No: of brick bats should be minimum

4. Length of one brick should be equal to two times

the width of brick + thickness of mortar joint

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 STRETCHER BOND
• All bricks are
laid as
stretchers on
the faces of the
walls
STRETCHER BOND
• Only for wall
thickness half a
brick
• Used in one
brick partition
wall
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 HEADER BOND
• All bricks are laid as headers on the faces of walls
• Pattern is used when the wall thickness is one brick
• Overlap is kept equal to half the width of brick by
using ¾ brick bats in each alternate courses.

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 HEADER BOND

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 ENGLISH BOND
• All wall thickness
• Strongest
• Alt. courses of headers and stretchers
• A queen closer is kept after the first header
in each header course to stagger the vertical
joints of successive course.
• No continuous vertical joints
• ¼ or ¾ bat can be used.
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11/30/2023 ENGLISH BOND (1 ½ thick)
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 ENGLISH BOND

ENGLISH BOND
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 FLEMISH BOND

• Stretchers and headers are laid in same course

• Header in any course is centrally supported over
a stretcher below it
• Closure are inserted next to quoin header
• Header and stretchers appear in the same
course alternatively on the front and back faces

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FLEMISH BOND
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 BASIC INFRASTRUCTURE
SERVICES

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 MEP
• Mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) system
s are an important part of building services and
can have many different functions.
• They must satisfy multiple objectives and criteria
for
• design,
• installation,
• commissioning,
• operation,
• and maintenance.

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 Components of MEP

Mechanical
• Mechanical systems most commonly relate to heating ventilation
and air conditioning systems,
• They can also relate to transportation systems such as
lifts and escalators, elements of infrastructure,
industrial plant and machinery, and so on.
• Heating ventilation and air conditioning can be used in buildings to:
• Maintain internal air quality.
• Regulate internal temperatures.
• Regulate internal humidity.
• Heating, cooling, ventilation and exhaustion are all key areas to
consider in the mechanical planning of a building.
• water cooling/heating, humidity control or air filtration may also be
incorporated.
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 Components of MEP
Electrical
• Electrical systems include:
• Power supply and distribution.
• Information and telecommunications systems.
• Control systems.
• Security and access systems.
• Detection and alarm systems.
• Interior and exterior lighting.
• Clearly there is a great deal of overlap
between mechanical and electrical systems
• Mains power is typically distributed through insulated
copper wire concealed in the building's subfloor, wall
cavities and ceiling cavity. These cables are terminated
into sockets mounted to walls, floors or ceilings.
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 Components of MEP
Plumbing
• Plumbing refers to any system that allows the
movement of fluids, typically
involving pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks and
other apparatus.
• Plumbing systems might be used for:
• Heating and cooling.
• Waste removal.
• Potable cold and hot water supply.
• Water recovery and treatment systems.
• Rainwater, surface and subsurface water drainage.
• Fuel gas piping.

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 HVAC
• HVAC refers to Heating Ventilation and Air
Conditioning, which can be used
in buildings to:
– Maintain internal air quality.
– Regulate internal temperatures.
– Regulate internal humidity.
• It is sometimes extended to include
other services, such as refrigeration (HVACR).

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 HVAC
• Internal air quality can be maintained by a combination of
introducing ‘fresh’ air into the building, extracting ‘stale air’
and by filtration.
• Ventilation may be natural, mechanical, or mixed mode (a
hybrid system).
• Mechanical (or ‘forced’) ventilation tends to be driven by
fans.
• Natural ventilation is driven by ‘natural’ pressure differences
from one part of the building to another. Natural
ventilation can be wind driven, or buoyancy driven.
• ‘Mixed-mode’ ventilation uses both natural and mechanical
ventilation, for example, allowing the opening of windows,
but also providing a mechanical air distribution system.

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 ELEVATORS

• Elevator or lift is an appliance designed to transport

persons or materials between two or more levels in
a vertical or substantially vertical direction by means
of a guided car or platform.
• Elevators are used in buildings having more than
three storeys.
• They are either electric traction elevators or hydraulic
elevators.
• Electrical traction elevators are used exclusively in tall
buildings.
• Hydraulic elevators are generally used for low-rise
freight service which rises upto about six storeys.
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 ELEVATORS
• Various types of lifts are passenger lift, hospital
lift, goods lift, service lift, fireman’s lift.
• The important considerations of design of lift
system are
– number of floors to be served,
– Floor to floor distance,
– Population of each floor,
– maximum peak demand.
• The location of elevators should be such that it
can be easily accessed.

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 ESCALATORS
• Escalators are power driven, inclined and continuous stairway
used for raising or lowering passengers.
• These are used to move large number of people from floor to
floor of buildings.
• Escalators are installed at commercial centres, shopping malls,
airports, railway stations and in other public buildings where
heavy people movement is expected.
• These stairs have continuous operation without the need of
operators. Escalators with electronic sensors are also available
which operate automatically only when people approach to use it
so as to save energy.
• Escalators have large capacity with low power consumption.
Escalators are in the form of an inclined bridge spanning between
the floors.

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 RAMPS
• Ramps are sloping surfaces used to provide an easy
connection between the floors or access from ground to
the floors.
• They are especially useful when large number of people
or vehicles have to be moved from floor to floor.
• They are usually provided at places such as garages,
railway stations, stadiums, town halls, offices etc.
• As per the prevailing building bye laws, ramps are to be
provided in all public buildings and residential
apartments for the use of physically challenged persons
in lieu of steps/stairs.
• It is also provided in hospitals to facilitate movement of
stretchers & wheel chairs from one floor to other floor.

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 FIRE SAFETY FOR BUILDINGS
• Buildings need to be designed to provide an
acceptable level of fire safety and minimize
the risks from heat and smoke.
• Building services can present a major ignition risk.
• Plant rooms, boiler houses and kitchens and so on
should be sited where their threat is minimized.
• Once a fire is detected (either by occupants or by
automatic means), it is necessary to communicate
the location of the fire to (other) occupants and to a
control and response centre such as the fire and
rescue service.

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 FIRE SAFETY FOR BUILDINGS
• Forms of detection include:
– Optical smoke alarms.
– Ionization smoke alarms.
– Multi sensor alarms.
– Heat alarms.
– There may also be other sorts of detectors, such as carbon
monoxide detectors.
• Sprinklers are designed to extinguish small fires or contain
growing fires until the fire and rescue service arrives.
• The primary goal of fire safety efforts is to protect building
occupants from injury and to prevent loss of life and
prevent property damage.

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 FIRE SAFETY FOR BUILDINGS
Fixed Fire Extinguishing Systems/ Installations:
• Portable firefighting equipment like fire
extinguishers, as well as mobile firefighting
equipment like fire tenders and other vehicle-
mounted fire fighting appliances can be used
for tackling fires whether inside a building or in
the open land.
• For tackling fires inside building or in specific
areas, fire extinguishing systems installed
permanently within the premises will be
required for providing adequate fire protection.

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 FIRE SAFETY FOR BUILDINGS
Some of them are stated below:
• System/ Installations based on water
– Hydrant Installations
– Automatic sprinkler installations
– Automatic water spray installations
• Systems/ Installations based on foam
– Automatic foam installations using low expansion
foam
– Automatic foam installations using medium
expansion foam
– Automatic foam installations using high expansion
foam
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 FIRE SAFETY FOR BUILDINGS
Some of them are stated below:
• Systems/ Installations using CO2

– Automatic CO2 installations (High Pressure Type)

– Automatic CO2 installations (Low Pressure Type)
• Systems/ Installations using dry powder

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Energy Efficient buildings
• Efficient use of electricity, water and other resources
• Use of high thermal mass material to slow down the heat
flow transfer
• Site and room orientation
• Cool roof for energy efficiency
• Water proofing and insulating slab
• Installation of rainwater harvesting and solar panels

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Smart buildings
• Building which converges all the features like HVAC (heating
ventilation and air conditioning), lighting alarm and security
into single IT managed networks
• Air conditioning, heating and exhaust working only when the
room is occupied
• Advanced form of CCTV cameras
• Fire and theft alarm
• Biometric lock system

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Green buildings
• Construction of building using materials which are less
harmful to the environment
• Reuse of construction waste of a demolished building to built
a new one
• Significant use of natural materials like bamboo, jute etc for
construction
• Energy efficiency construction
• “GRIHA” the green bilding rating system followed in india
and “LEED” the green building rating system followed in the
world

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