Like the heart, lungs, and stomach, the nervous system is made up of specialized cells.

These include nerve

cells or neurons and glial cells or glia.
Neurons are specialized cell that transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells. There are
approximately 135 billion neurons within the human body, with roughly 120+ billion in the central nervous system
and 15 billion in the peripheral nervous system, such as sensory, and motor neurons.
Glial cells make up about half the total volume of the brain and spinal cord.
Neurons
Neurons also called the nerve cells are the structural and functional unit of nervous system.

Anatomy of neurons
Neurons, like other cells, have a cell body (called the soma). Various processes (appendages or branches) extend
from the cell body. These include many short, rootlike branching processes, known as dendrites, and a separate
process that is typically longer than the dendrites, known as the axon or nerve fibre. The length of a nerve cell can
vary from nanometers to meters.
Our body is composed of billions of nerve cells. Some nerve cells can be comparatively smaller by 0.1 millimeters
or can be longer by 1 meter. The size of nerve cells is usually based on their functions i.e how long electrical impulse
is transmitted within our body. They are found in the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves. For instance, the
nerve cell, which transmits the electrical impulse from our brain to the end of the toe finger may be in meters. The
size of the nerve cell even varies with the type of organism.
Cell body: Like other cell bodies, a neuron’s soma contains a nucleus and specialized organelles including, the
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria and other components. It’s enclosed by a membrane that
both protects it and allows it to interact with its immediate surroundings. Neurons need to produce a lot of proteins,
and most neuronal proteins are synthesized in the soma as well. The cell body contains genetic information,
maintains the neuron’s structure, and provides energy to drive activities.
Axon & dendrites: An axon is a long, tube-like structure. It joins the cell body at a specialized junction called the
axon hillock. Many axons are insulated with a fatty substance called myelin. Myelin helps axons to conduct an
electrical signal. It functions by carrying an electrical impulse from the cell body to the axon terminals and by
transmitting the impulse to another neuron, gland, or muscle. Neurons usually have one main axon.
Dendrites are branch-like structure that function by receiving messages from other neurons and allow the
transmission of messages to the cell body.

The basic functions of a neuron

Generally, all neurons have three basic functions. These are to:
• Receive signals (or information).
• Integrate incoming signals (to determine whether or not the information should be passed along).
• Communicate signals to target cells (other neurons or muscles or glands).
• These neuronal functions are reflected in the anatomy of the neuron.
Types of neurons
Neurons vary in structure, function, and genetic makeup. Given the sheer number of neurons, there are thousands
of different types, much like there are thousands of species of living organisms on Earth.

• There are 4 major forms of neurons based on their structure:

Unipolar neurons. Usually only found in invertebrate species, these neurons have a single axon.
Bipolar neurons. Bipolar neurons have two extensions extending from the cell body. At the end of one side is the
axon, and the dendrites are on the other side.
Pseudo-unipolar neurons. Are a type of neuron which has one extension from its cell body. This type of neuron
contains an axon that has split into two branches; one branch travels to the peripheral nervous system and the other
to the central nervous system.
Multipolar neurons are the most common type of neuron. Each multipolar neuron contains one axon and multiple
dendrites such as Purkinje cells.

• In terms of function, scientists classify neurons into three broad types:

sensory, motor, and interneurons.
Sensory neurons: Sensory neurons help you to:
Taste, smell, hear, see, feel things around you.
Sensory neurons are triggered by physical and chemical inputs from your environment. Sound, touch, heat, and
light are physical inputs. Smell and taste are chemical inputs. For example, stepping on hot sand activates sensory
neurons in the soles of your feet. Those neurons send a message to your brain, which makes you aware of the heat.
Most sensory neurons are pseudo-unipolar, which means they only have one axon which is split into two branches.
Motor neurons: Motor neurons play a role in movement, including voluntary and involuntary movements. These
neurons allow the brain and spinal cord to communicate with muscles, organs, and glands all over the body.
There are two types of motor neurons: lower and upper.
Lower motor neurons carry signals from the spinal cord to the smooth muscles and skeletal muscles.
Upper motor neurons carry signals between your brain and spinal cord.
When you eat, for instance, lower motor neurons in your spinal cord send signals to the smooth muscles in your
esophagus, stomach, and intestines. These muscles contract, which allows food to move through your digestive
tract. Most of motor neurons these are multipolar in structure.
Interneurons: As the name suggests, interneurons are the ones in between - they connect spinal motor and sensory
neurons. As well as transferring signals between sensory and motor neurons, interneurons can also communicate
with each other, forming circuits of various complexity. They are multipolar, just like motor neurons.
For instance, when you touch something sharp like a cactus, sensory neurons in your fingertips send a signal to
interneurons in your spinal cord. Some interneurons pass the signal on to motor neurons in your hand, which allows
you to move your hand away. Other interneurons send a signal to the pain center in your brain, and you experience
pain.
Neurons in the brain
In the brain, the distinction between types of neurons is much more complex. Whereas in the spinal cord we could
easily distinguish neurons based on their function, that isn’t the case in the brain. Certainly, there are brain neurons
involved in sensory processing – like those in visual or auditory cortex – and others involved in motor processing –
like those in the cerebellum or motor cortex.
However, within any of these sensory or motor regions, there are tens or even hundreds of different types of
neurons. In fact, researchers are still trying to devise a way to neatly classify the huge variety of neurons that exist
in the brain.
The thought is that a single neuron type should perform the same function, or suite of functions, within the brain.
Scientists would consider where the neuron projects to, what it connects with and what input it receives.
This is really the purpose of trying to classify neurons: in the same way as we can say that spinal cord sensory
neurons bring sensory input from the periphery to the central nervous system, we would like to be able to say that
the role of ‘neuron X’ in the hippocampus is to (for example) let you distinguish between similar but slightly different
memories.
So the answer to the question ‘What types of neurons are there?’ isn’t something we can fully answer yet. In the
spinal cord, it is pretty simple. But part of what gives the brain its complexity is the huge number of specialized
neuron types. Researchers are still trying to agree on what these are, and how they should be classified. Once we
can do that, we’ll be in a good position to delve even deeper into how the brain operates.

Grey & white matter

In terms of tissue, the CNS (brain and spinal cord) is divided into:
grey matter and white matter

The terms white matter and gray matter refer to different

components of nervous tissue found in the brain and spinal
cord, which make up the central nervous system
(CNS). Neurons, specialized cells which send and respond to
electrical impulses, make up a large portion of the nervous
system and are responsible for forming the basis of the CNS.
Neurons arrange themselves in very distinct ways within the
CNS, which makes the brain and spinal cord appear as areas
of either gray or white color. These differences are due to
the presence or absence of myelin, a fatty covering on the
axons of neurons. Gray matter refers to tissue which is made
up of nonmyelinated neurons, while white matter refers to
areas of myelinated neurons.
Grey matter
Grey matter comprises of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, glial cells, axon terminals, synapses, and capillaries. Because
of the abundant blood supply of this tissue, it’s actually more pink-colored than grey. In the brain, grey matter is
mainly found in the outer layers (cerebellum, cerebrum, and brain stem). While in the spinal cord it forms the core
‘butterfly’ shape.
The grey matter throughout the central nervous system allows enables individuals to control movement, memory,
and emotions.
Any damage to grey matter can result in loss of these cognitive functions of the body.
White matter
The white matter of your brain and spinal cord is composed of bundles of axons. These axons are coated with myelin,
a mixture of proteins and lipids, that helps conduct nerve signals and protect the
axons.
White matter's job is to conduct, process, and send nerve signals up and down
the spinal cord. Damage to the white matter of your brain or spinal cord can
affect your ability to move, use
your sensory faculties, or react
appropriately to external stimuli.

Glial cells
Glial cells were first identified by the 19th century’s leading neuroscientists as a supporting cells.
This is also reflected in the name “glial cell” derived from the ancient Greek word “glía” meaning “glue” in English.
At that time, glia were suggested to solely function as so-called “Nervenkitt” (the German word for nerve glue).
Although many studies have been performed to specify these further roles, the full properties of glial cells remain
unresolved.
Recent findings have made it clear that glial cells are more than just mere “Nervenkitt”.
Glial cells, also called neuroglia, are cell which are non-neuronal cells, do not have axon and dendrites, and are
located within the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
Scientists have shown that glia are, functionally, the brain's other half that provides physical and metabolic support
to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport.

CNS
1. Astrocytes
The most common type of glial cell in the CNS is the astrocyte or astroglia. The "astro" part of the name is because
the cells have projections that make them look star-shaped.
Forming the blood-brain barrier (BBB): The BBB is like a strict security system for the brain. It only lets in substances
that are supposed to be in your brain while keeping out things that could be harmful. This filtering system is essential
for keeping your brain healthy.
Regulating neurotransmitters: Neurons communicate using chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. Once
the message is delivered, neurotransmitters hang around until an astrocyte recycles them.
Cleaning up: Astrocytes also clean up what's left behind when a neuron dies, as well as excess potassium ions
(chemicals that play an important role in nerve function).
Regulating blood flow to the brain: For your brain to process information properly, it needs a certain amount of
blood going to all of its different regions. An active region gets more blood than an inactive one.
Synchronizing the activity of axons: Axons are long, thread-like parts of neurons and nerve cells that conduct
electricity to send messages between cells.
Brain energy metabolism and homeostasis: One of the most important roles of astrocytes is to regulate metabolism
in the brain by storing sugar (glucose) from the blood and providing it as fuel for neurons.
Glymphatic pathway: Regulate extracellular fluid transport known as the glymphatic pathway. The glymphatic
pathway has only recently been described and functionally represents the brain’s lymphatic system, although no
anatomical structure equivalent to the peripheral lymphatic system is present within the brain parenchyma.
2. Oligodendrocytes
Oligodendrocytes look like spikey balls. On the tips of their spikes are white, shiny membranes that wrap around
the axons of nerve cells and form a protective layer, like the plastic insulation on electrical wires. This protective
layer is called the myelin sheath.
The sheath is not continuous, though. There's a gap between each membrane that's called the "node of Ranvier."
This node helps electrical signals spread efficiently along nerve cells.
The signal actually hops from one node to the next and increases the velocity of the nerve conduction while also
reducing how much energy it takes to transmit it.
At birth, you only have a few myelinated axons, but the number keeps growing until you're about 25 to 30 years old.
Myelination is believed to play an important role in intelligence.
Oligodendrocytes also provide stability and carry energy from blood cells to the axons.
3. Microglia
Microglia are tiny glial cells ("micro" means small). They act as the brain's own dedicated immune system. The brain
needs its own immune system because the blood-brain barrier isolates the brain from the rest of your body.
Microglia are alert to signs of injury and disease. When they detect a problem, they charge in and take care of it—
whether it means clearing away dead cells or getting rid of a toxin or pathogen.
When microglia respond to an injury, it causes inflammation as part of the healing process.
Sometimes, the response causes problems. For example, in Alzheimer's disease, microglia are hyper-activated and
cause too much inflammation. The response may lead to amyloid plaques and other brain changes related to
Alzheimer's.
4. Ependymal Cells
Ependymal cells make up the thin membrane lining the central canal of the spinal cord and the passageways
(ventricles) of the brain (ependyma). They also make cerebrospinal fluid and have an important role in the blood-
brain barrier.
Ependymal cells are very small and line up tightly to form the membrane. Inside the ventricles, they have little
hairlike projections (cilia) that wave back and forth to keep the cerebrospinal fluid circulating.
Cerebrospinal fluid delivers nutrients to and eliminates waste products from the brain and spinal column. It also
serves as a cushion and shock absorber between your brain and skull.
The fluid is also necessary to maintain homeostasis of your brain, which means regulating its temperature and other
features that keep it operating as well as possible.

PNS
You also have glial cells in your peripheral nervous system (PNS), which is made up of all the nerves in your body
that are away from your spine (like your arms and legs).

The three types of glial cells in the PNS are:

1. Schwann Cells
Schwann cells are named for Theodor Schwann, the physiologist who discovered them.
They function a lot like oligodendrocytes by providing myelin sheaths for axons. However, Schwann cells are found
in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) rather than the CNS.
Instead of being a central cell with membrane-tipped arms, Schwann cells form spirals directly around the axon. The
nodes of Ranvier sit between them, just as they do with oligodendrocytes, and assist in nerve transmission in the
same way.
Schwann cells are also part of the PNS's immune system. When a nerve cell is damaged, it can "eat" the nerve's
axons and provide a protected path for a new axon to form.
2. Satellite Cells
Satellite cells get their name from the way they surround certain neurons, with several "satellites" forming a sheath
around the cellular surface.
We're just beginning to learn about satellite cells but many researchers believe they're similar to astrocytes.
However, they're found in the PNS, not the CNS.
Satellite cells' main purpose appears to be regulating the environment around the neurons, keeping chemicals in
balance.
The neurons with satellite cells make up clusters of nerve cells in the autonomic nervous system and the sensory
system called ganglia.
Satellite cells deliver nutrition to the neuron and absorb heavy metal toxins, such as mercury and lead, to keep them
from damaging the neurons.
Like microglia, satellite cells detect and respond to injury and inflammation, but their role in repairing cell damage
is not yet understood.
It's also thought that satellite cells help transport several neurotransmitters and other substances.

3. Enteric glial cells

Enteric glial cells are found in the nerves in the digestive system.

Important: Glia do not fire action potentials, and because of this, were previously thought to be little more than
housekeepers that ensured neurons could function properly. This view is now shifting, and astrocytes in particular
are recognized as key components of synapses that can influence how we process information.