NPLEX - Nutritional Biochemistry

Water Soluble Vitamins

- rarely accumulate to toxic concentrations because they are readily eliminated through the urine
- storage is difficult, so they must be taken in through the diet quite regularly
- includes all the B vitamins and Vitamin C
Vitamin Deficiency Active Form Absorption Sources Biochemical Functions
B1 (Thiamin) - results in Beriberi - thiamine TPP is hydrolyzed to - milk - TPP is needed as a co-enzyme in rxns
- the symptoms of which may include pyrophosphate thiamine in the GI tract - wheat germ that involve the transfer of an activated
weight loss, emotional disturbances, (TPP) - it can then be absorbed - whole grain cereals aldehyde unit, as in oxidative
impaired sensory perception - aka. Thiamine in the jejunum or ileum - seeds decarbosylation of alpha-keto acids or
(Wernicke's encephalopathy), transketolase rxns
diphosphate - nuts
weakness and pain in the limbs, and - yeast
periods of irregular heartbeat. Swelling - role in energy transformtation
of bodily tissues (edema) is common
- legumes - synthesis of pentoses and NADPH (in
- diet of polished white rice which is - chicken pentose phosphate pathway)
thiamine deficient - fish & pork - membrane/nerve conduction
B2 - results in pallor, angular FMN & FAD - dietary FMN and FAD -milk & milk products - FMN & FAD serve as prosthetic
(Riboflavin) stomatitis, cheilosis, are hydrolyzed to - eggs groups attached to oxidoreductase
- oral-buccal cavity lesions riboflavin in the GI tract - green vegetables enzymes (aka flavoproteins)
- erythematous, greasy rash in so it can be absorbed in - organ meats - Eg. Succinate dehydrognease of
patches the duodenum and - legumes the Krebs cycle & ETC
- “shark skin” appearance jejunum - wheat germ - xanthine oxidase for the production
of uric acid
- fatty acyl-CoA dehydrogenase in
FA oxidation
- synthesis of the active form of
folate
-enzymes in choline catabolism &
glutathione reductase
B5 - unlikely - Coenzyme A - CoA is hydrolyzed to -virtually everywhere - the thiol group of CoA and ACP
(Pantothenic - ACP panthetheine, then - meats acts as a carrier of acyl groups
Acid) pantethenic acid in the - egg yolk
gut, then absorbed in the - vegetables - The attachment of CoA activates
jejunum - whole grains the compound for the production of
- legumes energy, protein acetylation, or FA
- mushrooms synthesis
- royal jelly
B6 - neuropathies - pyridoxal - PLP is - liver - PLP is a coenzyme of several
(Pyridoxine – - anemia phosphate (PLP) dephosphorylated in the - mackerel, salmon enzymes involved in amino acid
doxal, - - hyperhomocysteinemia gut to enhance - bananas decarboxylation rxns (eg.
doxamine) - many other diseases/sx: absorption in the small - vegetables Tryptophan  serotonin or glutamic
PMS, fibrocystic breasts, etc. intestine - eggs, chicken acid  gamma-aminobutyric acid
- B6 aids in the - wheat germ, yeast [GABA])
absorption of - legumes - and transaminase rxns in amino
magnesium acid metabolism

Vitamin Deficiency Active Form Absorption Sources Biochemical Functions

B12 - megaloblastic anemia methylcobalamin - absorption of food-bound
(Cobalamins) - macrocytic anemia B12 (which is by far the
- hyperhomocysteinemia - deoxyadenosyl- m/c form) requires
- also, neurological diseases cobalmin intrinsic factor
In the terminal ileum
- including dementia
- IF is released from gastric
parietal cells
- free B12 is absorbed
w/out intrinsic factor but is
very scarce in diet (but
common in supplements)
Biotin - no disease associated with Carboxybiotin - biotin is proteolytically
deficiency cleaved from its carrier
- seborrheic dermatitis has been protein for absorption in
proposed the jejunum
- inhibited by avidin –
found in raw egg whites
Folic Acid - megaloblastic & macrocytic -tetrahydrofolate - The polyglutamate
anemia (THF) forms of folate need to be
- neural tube defects (maternal hydrolyzed by conjugases
deficiency) into monoglutamate
- hyperhomocystenemia forms that can be
absorbed in the jejunum
- conjugase inhibitors are
in foods like cabbage,
lentils, legumes & oranges
Vitamin C - scurvy - Ascorbic acid - occurs in the ileum via
sodium-dependent active
(Ascorbic transporter
Acid)
- vit C enhances
absorption of iron
through chelation
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
- require fat for absorption in the gut
- can be stored in adipose tissue, because it is fat soluble
- liver - deoxyadenosylcobalmin is a coenzyme
- kidney for the conversion of methylmalonyl-CoA
- eggs to succinyl Co-A in gluconeogenesis.
- cheese - Methylcobalamine is a coenzyme in
the conversions of homocysteine to
- fish methionine and methyltetrahydrofolate
- milk
to tetrahydrofolate (THF)
- this helps maintain stores of
methionine & create tetrahydrofolate
needed in nucleotide & nucleic acid
synthesis
- large portion is met - functions as a coenzyme for
by synthesis in the carboxylase enzymes like pyruvate
normal flora of the carboxylase in gluconeogenesis and
gut acetyl-CoA carboxylase in FA
- liver synthesis
- soybeans
- egg yolks
- legumes
- tomato
- yeast
- liver - THF serves as a cofactor by acting
- alfalfa as a carrier of activated one-carbon
- green vegetables units: methyl-THF, methylene-THF,
- lima beans and formyl-THF
- yeast - THF is needed in amino acid
metabolism of serine, glycine,
methionine, & histidine.
- It also plays an important role in the
synthesis of purines & pyrimidines
- colourful fruits & - ascorbic acid serves as donor of
veggies – asparagus, reducing equivalents in hydroxylation
papaya, citrus, rxns to keep metal cofactors in the
broccoli, bell reduced state
- Ascorbic acid also helps to regenerate
peppers, kale, vitamin E and acts as an anti-oxidant
cantaloupe,
strawberries, Rxns that it participates in:
rosehips, cranberries, - converision of praline 
cabbage, spinach hydroxyproline and lysine 
hydroxylysine in collagen synthesis
- conversion of lysine  carnitine
- cholesterol  α-hydroxycholesterol for
bile acid synthesis, tyrosine synthesis &
catabolism & conversion of dopamine 
norepinephrine
- can lead to toxicity if they are taken in excess
Vitamin Deficiency Active Form Absorption Sources Biochemical Functions
Vit A - high levels are teratogenic & - retinol - retinol is found as esters - liver - retinol & retinoic acid act like
promote osteoporosis - retinal bound to protein - dairy steroid hormones to aid in the
(Retinol, - retinoic acid - hydrolysis occurs to - tuna, sardines differentiation & growth of
Retinoic Acid) - low levels night blindness & remove the protein, and - dark green & yellow epithelial cells
xerophthalmia esterase converts retinyl veggies - retinoic acid also participates in
esters to reinol that can - Beta-carotene from glycoprotein synthesis, which is
be absorbed into fruits and veggies is important in cell signalling.
micelles for absorption converted to 2 - retinol is needed in reproductive
in the duodenum and molecules of retinol processes & anti-body synthesis
jejunum. Retinol is re- - retinal is incorporated into the
esterfied for transport in visual pigment rhodopsin for vision
chylomicrons
Vit D - rickets in children - vit D is absorbed in the - most requirements - calcitrol works in conjunction with
- osteomalacia in adults 1,25-dihydroxy- jejunum or ileum in the are met by synthesis parathyroid hormone to maintain
Ergo- - strong risk factor for many forms cholecalciferol presence of fat and bile of D3 from 7- adequate calcium levels in the blood
calciferol [D2], of cancer (1,25-OH2) D3) salts dehydrocholesterol in by increasing the absorption of
sun-exposed skin Ca2+ in the intestines  stimulating
Chole- - excess levels can promote - aka. Calcitriol Ca2+ release from bone 
calciferol [D3] systemic calcification & Food sources: stimulating Ca2+ reabsorption in the
hypertension - liver, beef, veal kidneys
- eggs, fortified dairy
* RDA has been increased, and it is - fish oils
believed that far more ppl are
deficient than previously thought
- esp. in low-sun climates
Vit E - neurologic disease - absorption requires the - vegetable oils - Vit E is one of the most important
- cancer, atherosclerosis D-alpha presence of fat & bile - seed oils antioxidants against peroxidation of
Tocopherols Tocopherols & acids in the jejunum for - leafy green veggies polyunsaturated FA in cellular
- xs levels may  hypertension tocotrienols incorporation into membranes
chylomicrons
Vit K - hemorrhage & osteoporosis K1: plant sources- - vit K is required for the synthesis of
- may be a risk factor for cancer - Hydroquinone - vit K absorption requires leafy green veggies, blood clotting factors II, VII, IX & X.
Phyllo- the presence of fat and legumes, & soybean
quinone [K1], bile acids for absorption oil - it is a cofactor for the gamma-
in the distal ileum & carboxylation rxns of glutamic acid
Menaquinone colon K2: greatest residues in proteins to better bind
[K2] concentration Ca2+ (eg. In the kidney to prevent
provided by the kidney stone formation)
- Vit K is a cofactor in the synthesis of
bacteria of the colon
2 bone proteins (osteocalcins)
important in the bone matrix
MACROMINERALS
Mineral General / Deficiency Enzymes Absorption / Distribution Sources Biochemical Functions
Calcium Bone and tooth formation -99% is stored in bones Milk products, Egg yolks - major function is in the mineralization of
Blood clotting (fibrin) - most abundant cation in the body Grains, legumes, nuts both cortical (compact) bone and
Muscle and Nerve action Swiss chard, beet trabecular (spongy) bone
Metabolic reactions greens, spinach, rhubarb
Absorption of B12 Fiber may bind it - non-osseus Ca2+ essential in:
Decrease hypertension Oxalates & phytates have • Contraction of skeletal, smooth
Decrease colon cancer risk less available and cardiac muscle
Broccoli, mustard & • Membrane permeability
Rickets – bone turnip • Nerve signals
Tetany – blood Dolomite(may contain
• Blood coagulation
Osteoprosis lead)
• Enzyme regulation
Hypercalcuria
Phosphorus energy metabolism ATPase - 2nd most abundant mineral High protein foods - helps Ca2+ in mineralization of bone
regulation of enzyme activity Involved in glycogen - 90% in bones as hydroxyapatite- Milk, meat, fish, eggs - important constituent of DNA, RNA, cell
component of phospholipids breakdown Calcium phosphate Cereal grains membranes & the high-energy bonds of
acid/base balance Legumes, nuts ATP
hormonal controls  vit D and - long use of ant-acids binds P and Too much in softdrinks - enzyme regulation via phosphorylation or
PTH blocks absorption dephosphorylation
Weakness, loss of appetite, - intracellular buffer (acid-base)
fatigue and pain - oxygen delivery

Potassium (K) - major intracellular cation Ratio of Na/K+ critical for nomal cell Unprocessed foods: Insulin release
function Fruits, veggies and fresh Blood pressure/H20 balance
Prolonged V & D, diuretic drugs Inside cell Na/K+ = 1/10 meat Synthesis of glycogen,
(also an severe malnutrition Outside cell Na/K+ = 28/1 Bananas, Spinach protein and energy
electrolyte) Muscle weakness Vital for heart muscle
Bloating *water in cooking can
Cardiac arrest leach out K+
Weakness of resp mm:
breathing problems
Sodium (Na) - major extracellular fluid cation Major electrolyte – helps maintain Animal origin Body H20 balance
normal fluid and electrolyte balance Milk, meat, eggs Muscle contraction
Weakness
between intra and extracellular NaCl Nerve impulses
Headache compartments Glucose absorption
Muscle cramps Carrots, beef, leafy
shock greens
Magnesium General metabolism Binds to enolase or - 55% of Mg is found in bone, Nuts, legumes - cofactor for many enzymatic rxns
(Mg) Body has reserves ATP and puts it in - 27% in muscle & rest in extracellular Unrefined grains involving ATP: protein and FA synthesis,
Kidney can reabsorb it correct shape so it tissues Green veggies cAMP formation, RNA & DNA synthesis,
Protein and DNA synth. can function properly Chlorophyll activation rxns of B1  TPP & vitamin B6
Muscle relaxant Milk, cheese, meat  PLP
Vit D metabolism Seafood & muscle contraction
60% in bones Hard water
Low intake
Increased excretion
V & D, surgical trauma
Increase Ca intake
Excess alcohol excretion
Muscle weakness tetany like
state with tremors to convulsive
seizure
MICROMINERALS
Mineral General / Deficiency Enzymes Absorption / Distribution Sources Biochemical Functions
Iron (Fe)
Tiredness, headache,
depression, irritability
Pallor, dyspnea, palpiations,
reduced capacity for work or
prolonged exercise, behavior
and intellectual impairment,
reduced resistant to infection
and impaired temp regulation
Selenium (Se) Cells anti-oxidant protective
system
Arachadonic acid metabolism
T4  T3
Keshan disease
cardiomyopathy in kids and
women when intake low
Muscle pain, weakness
Loss of pigmentation
Decrease Se in plasma
Decrease Glutathione
peroxidase levels in RBC
Chromium
(Cr)
Manganese General metabolism
(Mn) Body has reserves
Kidney can reabsorb it
Low intake
Increased excretion
V & D, surgical trauma
Increase Ca intake
Excess alcohol excretion
Muscle weakness tetany like
state with tremors to
convulsive seizure
Muscle weakness tetany like
state with tremors to
convulsive seizure
Mineral General / Deficiency
Fluorine, &
- Fe-containing - found as constituent in Hb, Meat, fish, poultry - O2 Transport on Hb
enzymes, myoglobin Broccoli, Cabbage, - Storage of O2 on muscle myoglobin
transferrin in blood Orange, Tomatoes - Cofactor in ETC to make ATP
- ferritin in liver, Toxicty Legumes - Activation of O2 in WBCs to kill
spleen or bone Hemosiderosis – excess storage of (Cheese, Eggs, Milk are bacteria
marrow iron in liver as hemosiderin  can be less bioavailable) - B-caroteneVitamin A
lethal - Detoxification
- Neurotransmitter synthesis
Bone marrow becomes hyperplastic
Synthesis of carnitine, purines, and
Damage to liver and pancreas  collagen
leads to metabolic problems
Hb needs iron to bind O2
* Ferrous form when O2 bound
Glutathione - found in high amounts in KI, HT, LV, Food content reflected - component of the enzyme glutathione
peroxidise pancrease and Muscle in soil content peroxidise which helps destroy free
Organ meats>muscle radicals
Type I iodothronine meats>cereals>diary - provides protection against heavy
5-deiodinase (T4 products metal toxicity through detox pathway
T3) Lost in milling and (P450)
boiling
* Note:
Se levels inversely related to cancer
mortality
- involved in detox of certain
carcinogens
- chromium is thought to be stored - Chromium combines with nicotinic acid
with iron in KI, LV, muscle, spleen, and amino acids to form glucose
Heart, pancreas & bone tolerance factor (GTF)
- GTF aids in the formation of disulfide
bridges between insulin & its receptor
 improves the effectiveness of insulin
& enhances glucose uptake
Binds to enolase or 60% in bones Nuts, legumes Protein and DNA synth.
ATP and puts it in Unrefined grains Muscle relaxant
correct shape so it Green veggies Vit D metabolism
can function Chlorophyll
properly Milk, cheese, meat
Seafood
Hard water
Enzymes Absorption / Distribution Sources Biochemical Functions
- distributed in hard calcified tissues - promotes mineral precipitation to form
Fluoride (F)
Copper (Cu) Rare – babies on parenteral
nutrition and then cow’s milk
Iron & Vit C inhibit absorption
Psychomotor retardation
Pallor, anemia, osteoporosis
Menke’s Kinky hair
syndrome  defective Cu
absorption and transport
Slow growth, seizures, brain
degeneration, hypothermia,
stubby white hair
Zinc (Zn)
Cause:
Excess alcohol
Malabsorption syndromes
Surgery, burns
KI disease
Acrodermatitiis enterpathica
Sx:
Impaired growth,
development, sexual maturity
and functioning of immune
system
Loss of hair and taste
Poor wound healing
See page 159 for discussion of Other Non-Vitamin Anti-Oxidants
like teeth and bones apatite in a protein matrix
* see biochemical - found in either the cuprous (+1) or - copper is an important co-enzyme for
functions for co- cupric (+2) forms in muscle, bone, several oxidases like cytochrome aa3 in
enzyme actions liver, kidney, or brain tissue the ETC
- enzymes in estrogen degradation
- cytosolic SOD for the defense against
Wilson’s disease  inability to free radicals
excrete Cu in bile
Anemia and liver damage Synthesis of collagen
Penicillamine chelation Synthesis of noradrenaline
Synthesis of melanin
Iron transport mechanism
Stinulates Hb synthesis
Cofactor in >70 Levels in brain, HT, LU and muscle Oysters - Taste perception
enzymes are constant Meat, poulty, eggs, - Night vision
dairy - Normal growth – works in conjunction
95% in muscle and bones Grain products > fruits with vitamin A
Superoxide
dismutase
and veggies
Lost in milling - Reacts with insulin
-Carbonic
anhydrase - Binds to hormones
-Alcohol Fibrous unleavened - Immune system
dehydrogenase bread is a problem - collagen synthesis
- Alkaline - needed to mobilize iron in the liver
phosphatase
-DNA polymerase
-Glutamate
dehydrogenase