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    DR M Shehata

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    Dr M Shehata

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    DR M Shehata

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    atrodution LWhat do Bislegists de 2 Ecosystem ales " Population | individual Organic system Disestive systern)) Organ (Stomach) v | _ Tissue ( Smooth muscle) | ‘ a: | Cell — (Smooth muscle cell ) ve : Orgonelle (mitrchondirra) v & Macromolecute { Protein) ¥ Monomer (-Amino_acid ) v Atoms (Carbon) | Figure 1: Levels of biological erganisation from atems , the smallest _ se components of tiving things, to the biosphere , the entive living planet Bielogists study every aspect of life at every level of tks organisations om Me atom that actually make up the molecules to the biogphere oc ecosystem eat maxe up the biog Why do we study Cells 2 | Altfoughs Living dtings may vary in appearance and size, all_are composed o¢ the loasic tbuilding blocks called Cells he Gell is the simplest unit of living matfer that can cacry en all the activities nece’ ary for lige. Leome of the simplest rganisms such as bacteria, algae consist of a single. cell. In contract cthe human body is made. og Arillionsoe cells live processes o¢ such complex erganisms clepend on the coordinated activities of the varieus cells a Atoms and Elements All_acts of the earth are made of 92 natural substances called Elemente fin_element i$ a substance that is ma Sodium is made of enly one Kind of sodium atoms. So, it is an element ercury are algo elements livingdead e of cnly one xind o¢ Atom, e.g ac kon none-Living Hung 4 are made. of element: Only 21 s¢ the 42 aaturally occuring elements am essential for life. The most commen elements in organisms are carbon (c), nitrogen (N ©) and hydrogen (#1). ‘hese ag the most important el ents to life. Other _clements eccur in living organisms in smaller quantitie. 3 these include phosphorus (P), prlassium (x), sedium (na) , sulphur (S), ion anesium (Mq) and chlorine (CL), evn calcium ( Ca’ Each clement is made up oF atoms. ost = e atom is the smallest sub-division of elements that retain the characteristic chemical _properhes of that element L Atoms can join ctogether. with ether atoms of the same element of with aisle of dit e lecules. | Compounds consist: nits called Molecules. scan combine in lm ipperent ways to form thousands of different substances called _ L compounds. A-esrnpaund contains different: afoms of elements that pin teqether. Atomic Structure a Electron shell Clevels of eneqty aod Boab Bar Ibi ap: Maximum number of 7 electron in each shell Nucleus ©! Proton (P*) © Neutron (n°) @ Electron ( e°) Ln tie gig abere,, the ater showing ie micleus and 4-elechen shells. [Atoms consict of the nucleus and clouds of clectrens that move round the nucleus. At the centre sf an afpm is fe nucleus- ‘The macleus contains Oo 4upes ticles — protons (+) which hav itive and neutrons (1) which are neg afively charged . the shells filled asitt electrons (e*) . Electrons are tiny particles which are. negatively charged, in fact with ingle (=) charge. ton equ umber Lec tres Sf lparticl el each oth re ( ely charged: e_qumber of pretons in the nucleus ives the atomic number of the atom. However, the weight of the atom is given bythe sum of th number of pretons and neutrons. , e sub-atomic particles digger alse in terms of their mass Pt L their is neqliqable fe has more weight elect ir_mass js in (atomic _mass unit) rather than gan What maxes ene element diferent from another 2 e al The_numbor of prefens in the nucleus of each of.an atom is the cause i ° eter has seclium. tern has Il_protens’, the hydrogen atom has 1 proton and 0 ea. proton (Pt) | u 4 | Oxgqen ate y cle an atom is call mic Theres i es ef HO mad Na are 1,2,11 ively. ne follows had nique atomic number. _lerotens and neutrons in the atomic nucleus- represent the clifgerent energy levels ef the electrons , not their physscal position. : third ond sulosequent held levels of eneray held inceased numbers ef leckons, each containing moe than the preceding levels. _Tihe biochemistry of lige depends upon the ability ofthe atoms 4» react lane combine with one anvther 4o preduce a wide range of molecules {the atomic. weight of an atom of an element. is the sum of the number o} _Tthe sirst energy level can hold only two electong and is filled first. The _{second energy level_can hold only eight electrons and_is filled next. The _ Ltequired for biological diversity . ee _ lhe atomic particles responsible for this are the electrons of the eutermost _lehell. An atom reacts when it does not have a complete number of electrons in ks outermest shell 3 ib le atom such on one election circulating electrons in the various shells ae al the nucleus . e shells around the nucleus of an atom ave also called Orbitals. 1One orbital can accommodate two electrons. au donate , receive or share electrons Llaround the nucleus. A complex atom, however,can have as manu as 106 energy Shull x VL erbital Pe TL = shell sae ae K- shell The electrons are shown fp be in shells around the nucleus. “these ; shells | shell is called the 1 ~ shell Each shell may contain one or more orbitals. within which electrons may be located. Extay atten of an element has-the came number of orbiting electrons ishich is almost equal tv the number of positively charged protons in te nucleus. For example , Oxygen is.an element with the atomic number of. 8 ar atomic weight o¢ 16. Tks nucleus contains @ protons and g neutrons. “there Lace % cireulating electrons outzide the nucleus. “Two of these electrons are. containéde inthe one spherical orbital of the ime sirst K—shell. The secencl [L=shell_which can accommodate as many aS @ elechong . In.che case of Oxyg lone of tie four (4) vrbitals of the second (Ql) chell is nobeccupied by a |pair of alectrons The third shell _called the M-shell may contain from 4 to 4 orbitals. In all there amos manyias F shells (K—@) that may be present around -the | T 4 Sit digcerent commen atoms are important in the structure of most molecules ii living ystems. na ot [no of litem ne oe (Ne Protons Neutrons |Weight deckons in lectrons ‘in ‘Atomic N3 orbital 2 jorbital 3 Hyd cogen Corben Ninogen Pheshorus Oxygen Sulphur eee as [For the first energy level, = 1 5 forthe second enerqy level sand go forth. Je “The-enerqy level elosest to-the nucleus ef an atom is the weakest and lowest (in | energy. Each successive level out frem-the nucleus is aoe jin energy and has a_ progressive higher capacity to held electrons. SOTOPES th 5000 atoms a “ 2 a Sa V. 3 Pay see B SS temic 2 bmi number umber | a lide neutrons carry ne electrical charge, but if tees affect their atemic weight. For example here are three forms of the hydrogen atom. “The mesb erecta ey has ene_proton in the nucleus and one electron 1n the outershell Another form (deuterium) has one proton and one neutron in the nucleus he third form (4citium) has ene proton and two neutrons iq dhe nucleus. All the three. forms beleng 4p the element: hy \rogen “because they all have ere lproton «As a result, Hy are called_isctopes_of hydrogen . Most elements have more “han Lone Ise pe es sample Carken_ has three 2) icotopes—2e, © respectively. | Op off isetapes. je Cobalt GO ishich releases rays and 6 used i chetitherapy becouse its rays disturb the preduction of the DNA of cancor cells ie Are cancer cells dies [selec la ll ale Tseinpes are atoms of the came slemant with the same qumber of pretons buk | digferent number of neutrons. For example, Carbon has three peaeesds carbon = 12., carbon = 13 and carbon ~14.. Chlorine hag tun isotopes : Chlerine-36 ond Chlorine ~ 34. RADIOACTIVITY | | Some atoms e inan unusual way because of extra neutrons. Forexample| 4he carbon — 14 atom is one that behaves strangely. Its nucleus is unstalole + J | Wbccouse of the extra neutrons in +he nucleus and tend 4» break dewn (decay) to_| ere sighle isotope. Radiation is given out curing this change. As a result icarbon ~ |4 is said +o be radioactive . oon = 14 atoms decay very slowly. Suppose you stact with 100 atoms of _ Le= 14. Agter 6000 years (in fact 500 years) there will be half of them left. “Apter another $200 years ,halg of the 50 atoms left will remain. 5700 years, lis calied the Hale ‘fe of C-14 Some radicactir xtoms decay much fast 4 Ahan carbon =14. The hale-lige of cobalt - 60 is 5 minutes. Because [radiation sfom radioactive isotopes can interfere with cell division, cobalt ~ 60 igetope is used in the treatment of cancer. ATOMS FORM MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS ITt ic xnown that the atoms of each element have a specific number of electron: around the nucleus. When the number of electrens in the outermest shell of an. element is the maximum number , the element is described ag unreactive. As a_ result, it wil wt easily combine with other elements. In nature , mest atems clo not exist alone. Instead, they combine to form molecules The molecules that ate formed exist on their own. |A molecule is a substance comprised of to or more atoms; semedimes two atoms st the same clement combine to form a molecule but mare typically atoms ef digcerent elements join ‘gether. molecule, atom. atom Hy ntn0 Phas «| \ ‘compound | molgoule _eleeule For example , when hydrogen and oxygen ceack , a chemical compound censisting of two atoms of hydrogen and ore of oxygen. The molecule of water is he “smallest of unit ef the compound water. (srs fe asi Talam ae dle tl whe’ i Tydiogena Ton “The chacterists of compounds are always very diggerent: from those of the elements that comprise them, For example, what happens when you join the clement (Na) Sodium the silvery metal that explodes when it comes tn contact [with wator, with 4he element chlorinea deadly yolow qos which uns used 4 Kill reops in World War One (wul1), dhe result is a crystalline solid called Sedium chioricle (Nach) which 1s table salt. {scale i aamiaetnelailatlide sh THE ENERGY WITHIN THE ATOM atoms gossess enerqu ice electrons ore attracted ioe. ated ly charged Bs Nou tay aa crahu’slecirensiare mph ulledtininahetnusleus Tt uses energy to overcome attractive gorces and Keep electron sn oucleus. Electrons have energy of position ,which is called Potential Energy LE). Electrons also have eneray due to their metion er Kinetic Energy { Ke) CHEMICAL BONDS Atoms in the molecules are held together by chemical bend s. Atoms come together and averlap using energy. to form bend. Rewever, ence is also needed tp break the bonds. wolecule of hydro 2 maxing and. Loreaing of these chemical bonds involves energy. These chemical Mids cme in. dhveerhynes_ + tonic covalent and the weaker hydrogen lend Asclated atoms are usually unstable because their outer electron shell is ast Ml. They therepore,, form chemical lends with other atoms so that their outer wls are filled and they reach a stable state 1 2ae bes Te st wT} ~ me . = Es tte eae) | ~ Sa In ionic bonding, electrons are transferred between atoms 40-form 1006. ‘An ion ig an atom that carries on electric charge ; sometimes iE may be a group. of-atoms that carries an electric charge and so ik still wan ions Electric charges result srom the transfer of electrons between atoms, either by Losing or, gaining electrons a $ i [Losing electrons (e°) |The sodium atom (Na) is « quod example: if just has one elector in iks outer hell Tt can combine obtain a full outershell by losing Ahis electron to anether atom. The result ig a sodium ion. Gaining electrons (e") The chiorine atom (CL) has seven electrons in jes outersholl . TF can teach the gull | shell bu, accepting (ust one electron from another atom 5 ik then kecomes « chloride} ion ce = d is formed when on atom of sodium transfers its eutershell electron of chloride. Having given up an electron sodium be positively d and having received an electron , chlorine becomes negatively- charged . site charges , 60 they attra er. The force of action between them is strong, it is called an Tonic bond sxamole : Hydroq (2) Carbon ato At) “sia { (Methane) Polar Covalent Bonds Example ! Woter (1,0) < ate @ “wt j fay +.) E f@) ; | AY we] i1.@ a. ao eee Water watele (0) + fear molecule | 0. | au i In covalent bending , electrons are shared belween ofsms tp form a molecule.—fh 2 olen ‘the hydrogen _melecu! Hdiggerat slements farming a Valent eomptund as in fe metfane molecule (0 The ndeogon aforn bas only one. electrons ctx shell can tld “bor olechens, so £ fulle When tom Hatems get clase 2 sragh their shells ox then they can share dlectans. ecause the atoms share electrons arrangement referred +> as owalent bending) results in filled eutormost sell. ie is a sheng fore of attraction hiding thartegetber. This force is called the Covalent Bend Covalent bend_is 480 shongect chenicat bend, I bo chans are shared betueen atoms fp form molecule Most atoms use this tyse o¢ bond when they come together. Tt perms a. ston 4 and stable link between thems we hydreqen atoms albne have ene electron ina 1 erbital There mare 40 ype8 of covalent: bende namely: Non prlar and Polar valent bonds - jon-blar covalent bonds Coiglent bonds that are formed between identica\ atoms: as in (x) oy dh diogen 4 gas (Ha) are the strongest because thelr electrons are lly’ shared... Stace the electrons are equally distributed between the-hio ese molecules are saiel 4p be Nona ee ¢ Hydrogen and Metiane) lar rt hoo ps stun dlggorent atoms hoveer the e be pulled teuards one atom ‘han the other. ‘The side of the cule. towards: which the electrons are pulled is electrically negative in comparisen odie ether end. Gach a malecule is caid tv be polar (ire it hos Ja. positive ani a. negative form). Moms of oni gen, aitregen and phespherus Strongly attract electrons and therefore are called Elechoneqative ortoms uthen wrt, othor atoms Water ‘is the most abundant molecule in the beedy and. here ‘it sonves aS 4he Layer of water molecules = with = ends pointing towards the positive ten. Non polar substances suchas cil have no charge on their mol do not dissolve in water and are therefore called Hyslrophebic 3. Water is a liquid af con temperature . le with molecules as small as 4 are usual opm) demperatue. Water if a Liquid af nt. 0 Tsendiing: One a0 molecule. can n bondls wits up to four other Ha molecules. sempecatuce HaS is a gas af reom temperature, Th re i a Ss action between its pretons. 2 electron: the hydreqen-atoms . “Therefore , it forms ne hydrogen, ond hence ib ik 0. gas at room temperature | sa TMater hae a Big mating and bilgi substance lela mb) [we ae ae | Water (1.0), 12 of 100" tote | Liquid Hydrogen Sulphice Be = 85% -6r Ere Gas CS) Ammonia (Nig) | 1 —38 -33 s, -|aGse ‘Methane (CH) 16 = 132° = 16e 18 Gos Coren Monoxide | 28 = 144° Palas: 1g Gas (co) melts at Bc = beils at 160° These a very unssual. melting : f SE ete ee vious pai ad beilin ol Becca made up of molecules that are of a similar: size to wate «|e ean be seen trom Ate table, ie sulestances sist wt c umald ca at 0°00 une o sole “ ee logical The reason Huot: HO. ca high mip and _b.p is that there ave a forces: of attrack 0 between the melecules. “These attractions ace_hulregen bonds. ottibHinn betoeden RBtalestas Melt and is need wercome pie eae ee eae aa thus allowing the mdecules te move er_vice—versa.. Water alse femains _ ature @ much larger range than any [other cubstance made 4m such small molecules. Che forces of attraction between -ife molecules of oe H.0_ ave ver shong - So, fo (ot of energy is. overcome tem and molecules e for ma. gas. * «| Water and Temperature 15.1 Specigic heat capacity of Water Tp energy is. supplied “4 0. subslance the molecules will have-mure Kinetic energy and the temperahire of the substance will cise. in liquid HO some of Re energy ques int breaking de hydrogen ben; | Atha mole Bir ether, sand bnly part. into _ increasing He demperstue.o iquid. This i uhy tb requires a. lot enacay ie yale tie temperature of Lea gk. ater ey I" co 1 hte ba oss inlets eae nds. The quantity of heat in calories required to rise the temperatures of Tatu Abuough Pico) Substance Specific Heat (calories) Water 1.00 Ethyl alcohol (Ethanol) 0.6 Sugar (Sucrose) 0-8 Iron Ort Satt_(Nact) Oat [one Calary is degined os fe emeunt of head will mise He ure se gram of water by 41°C tw specific an alechol, Sgn in the. “able aod_it is approximately 0.5 calories will raise the. temperature of 1g of an atechol by 1°C. Tk is ten times that of Ln The ‘a specipic heat of water is a conseq hydrogen bendis We bods in water tend to restrict the movement of +e melecules in erder rte kinetic. O, 4 ‘increase sufficie a empocetwe_ to sse_by PC ‘6 necessary girs fp breale & number fie it bonds (alding ie molecules trgelfar: | “What does ‘the high spec gic heat of water mean in biological terms ? Te means that the temperature of wetter will rise more slouwlythan the temperature of almest any ether material. In contrast, the temperature {ull rap mote ously as heat ts removed. As a wsult, oxanisms that live in-eceans or-large bodies. of fresh werter Live jn an in eaviveomert cae of weer is relatively constant. [5.2 Yapin aaitangcsWaderhas a high latent heat of vaperisadien. A lot of heat energy is needed tp evaporate water. When wader evaporates froma. Surface, ik draws heat energy out of the material underneath creating. a cooling efgect | Napert2ation ef evaporation. is -the. che “corn ot i quid-te a gis. Watter_ |has a high heat of vaporization. ih Alliteshels he chute cthiescod sant bieclatieaeremmy kay nfl died |(Ahe quantity of heat in calories required te convert 1 gram of liquid te La gram_of gas) 1 Liguid Heat required (in calories), Water ak O°C ihe 546 Water at 100°C 2 540 Ammonia. Tid 5) Ether 4 At water's boiling point it taxes 540 calories to change ene. gram of Ligui water inte vapeur, almost 60 times as for ether and twice as much as for ammonia » Hydrogen bending is alee responsible for usrter’s “high heat of vaporization . Te order fara weer molecule: +e break frum its fellow molecutes, the H-be have to be broxen. “This equines heat energy + As a. consequence, when wcter {owporetes. as -fotn fie Surface ef spur ain or leag of @ plant the escaging cy a arent deal of heat aumy with them. “Thus , eva; thas a cceoling “eppect - j Seaaiot Fan ‘the surface of a plant or animal ic one of the principl | these organisms hos evslved_a mechanism for lowering the bad Aemperature. For example sweating in mammals . | 6. Density and Freezing Properties of Water Weight = Nelume x Denstty 410 qmms = 10 x (for liquid ) 10 grams. = 20. ¥ 0.5 -( fr ice) oh the amount of bonding betueen 420 meecules AL BC, dhe freori ing paint of uater, the molecules are atranged ino {dita “hexagonal. “crystalline. netunrk in which each water motecute is Lnydregen-beoded ts four ethers. Me the temperatures just above O° C_some of the bond's are_broxen producing ae Ths js CSSA 4 ‘she 4enperature of cnbeby—sf open body. of-uater such as a pond, lake ‘or river 18 affected by the temperature at air above the water, reached where the water nearthe Surface. freezes . “the ite so formed than nats onthe surface where it the. wecter urther heat loss. Consequentti id water in hi Fe as life can survive. 7 eae hous fish, bacteria and other nisms Li i actuall inthe water nahi remains Tau! ee “Cohesion and Adhesion of Water Malecutes The attration between molecules of -similar substances is called. Gohesien.. ding gives uator ceneiderable cohesive properties thus water {molecules stick: tog eae pt ae attracted t other polar molecules . The attraction bekueen molecules of digporent substances is called Adhesion. Thus, water molecules also stick 4© other surfaces such ag the sides of Its facia sea ett Se > a aaa s Diese “the cohesion of liquid water iS sponsible gor tte surface tension. Water {molecules have a much strenger attraction 4o other water wolecules than Lo molecules in the air. An air~ intecgace (waterface) ‘ab an oir-water intertace , 0.4 co dhe surge wa pond, a unter melecule on _ below it but not with air molecules above-it = ‘The unequal distribution of hydregen bonds preduces a force called Surface Hee All of he budtegen bonds in water at the surface and deuonward resulting the the water to cling or stick dogetier forming a. i Fill of elastic skin that is diggicull te break. “The result is Sone. aquatic organisms can walk in wafer and oan remain, suspended. Ae undersice of the stin. e cohesion of Liquid unter, as a result , is responsible for iks urface fension.. Water. has a qreater surface. tension than other Liq ¢ adhesien of liquid varfer fe cther gubslanceg such as glass. espensib tor capillary action. Ip a. alse tubo with a narrow! diamete placed ‘a beaker of unter, dhe unter uill rise in tfe dube above 4 olen of wit in the beater beause the adhesien of valor bth gos curface.drasing fie force of grav usb d devon - it_upward._is st The _nacrower ectrostatic ater_and the alas: igher Ke wafer rises . [Caplllarity s¢ water is one a biol allows high trees “fo -ransp ‘water gram stheir_covts to their leaves charge distibution within a mo 2 Tn water —_e erere lightly _neqedive 1on the other. Organic Molecules [Organic meecsles or organic. compound s Compounds that contain the clement carken are classified as Oraanic and all-cthers a8 ‘inorganic. The buman body containg lar. Calls contain erganic molecules: | a Carbon has four electrons 1 outermost shell and +this allows {b to hond with as many aS feurether atoms. Merever, because these leonds are leovalent, they afe quite ctrong. Usually, carben lends 4 nitrogen oxygen nydregen or anether carbon atom. The ability op carben +o bond with other ____|earbon atoms maxes carben chains ef yarieus lengths and shapes possible - Jong chains containing ferg-el_50 or more carkon atoms are usually sound “in livin z 10 42 carbon bending cometimes results in ring ‘compounds of biological significance. | Lc | a eating sat hase King. cxmpound (Benzene). a—-—¢ Nua an a m aes t # Small_melecules have functional groups sila ‘The small organic molecules in living orqanicms such as sugars, amino acids, satty acids jand cucleotides all have a carlaon backbene but in addition iwi functional _greup$ such as the hydroxyl , carboxyl , phosphate ups. “These functional groups determine the characterss of small equnie Molecules: One characteristic of Sone ecganic mdecule vf some importance. is whether ib is Iydrophiltc_o hydrophobic. Aldel hyde qrup R= Gah Ketone group: ons eau R- OH Alcohol _qreup C=O Carbtny\ aqmup a ~ OH tc or. h Re 0 r = on Phosphate group OF _Hydeophilic molecules have 68 . CARBOHYDRATES [Carbohydrates are widely dlisiributed in plans and animals where ‘hey fulgil both structural and _metaloctic rules. Glucose _is synthesized fiom_carben dioxide and water. in plants ancl | (Oe + 4,0 hls gt CettyOe +, Stored as starch 3 Asimals can sxpitesize sme carbohydrates fom sats and proteins. Bubthe bulk of animal | carloohydrates. is aaa plants. | Biomedical Amportance The sugar( glucose) is die mect important carbohydrate , eg the brain [needs carbehydmates.. Ik ic absorbed ‘intosthe Dood becauée it is alsog major quel of the goetus of mammals. [Solid sugar sfurm-crystade -ondodiecelvein water toform asaweot — aide: fasting solution. Sugars fall into 4we groups namely _menessac and Mssachaides. Glucose + Glucose. ———» Maltose. Glucose + Fructose ———> Sucrose Glucose + Galactsse ——> lactose Sugars ate one form of carbohydrates, The etfer form is _polyssacharides. «| Carbohydrates are divided into Hee main classes namely , monosaccharide: disaccharides and polysaccharides Classigication of Carbchydrates They. are classigied as follows : | Monessacharides “These are carbshydetes that cannot be had rely see Into simpler carbehydi However, they can be sub-divided ‘inte crieses (with 3 carben atems) H esseb: “the sunctional grup a ok | 1 a= c OH it [Aetvoses (4 carbon atoms), pentoses. (Siearben atoms) hexoses (6), heptoses(#) ond_octases (2) depending en the numberof carbon atoms they possess. Dissacharides These produce uo. molecules of monossacharicles when hydrelysed . For. example maltose yjelds glucose. and glucose. | Oligossacharides These _uield fuse toten monossacharide unite when hydrolysed. For exam maltotriose . Sk | Palyssacharides | these veld more dian ten melecules ef monossacharides ufen hydinly | Foc example, starch’. uC Monossacharides contain enly carbon, hydregen and exygen inthe ratio of Tene carkon , 4s hudragen and one oxygen (1C : 24:10) . Their empicical, ws formular_is (CHC where N= the number of carbon atoms. bh ‘Manntsachatides clea hava certain ceacfiy ups present. To be a _ _|monossacharide, the molecule must contain_acacbonyl_group (C=) and atleast tu hydroxy! groups (oH All_monossacharides have names that end ink - ose. All monosaccharides gre reducing sugars Menessacharides can exist ag chains or fing ‘ “The _cimplest form of monossacharides is a -riose GG Qlyceraldehyde or e—ol 2,3 dihydioxy propanol . c ) Saroyr ao i ae 1 i H a Ay y ‘t Dihudro yacetone or 4,3 dihydroxy propanene . | ay : Se - | H seh A “Trivge contains three carbene . Trioseg have a backbone of three carbens a. cahony! group and two hydroxy! groups. |The structures above chow -wo important trioses : glyceraldehyde a and ldihydrexyacetone . They ate Structural _isemers of dichitionsie LAS ean lee seen from Re Structures glyceraldehyle hag a carbexy! qmup iat the end tf the molecule. This maxes jt an Aldese. is sugar with an aldehyde. group is callecl_an Aldose . A sugat with o Ketone areup is called a Retese Tricses exist only.as chains 5 hey are too chert te form rings = Dihydrony acetone has a carboxy! grup away from “the end op the molecu This rakes A & Ketose. H- C=O 7 My z c N : < cHAOR en = Sa : 4 Dextrorotatery Levorota tory or D~ Glycecalishyde or_L~= Glycoraldehyde oe P| Sterenisomers: When a carbon atem is connectedoand surrounded by different gormul units , 1 is called an Asymmetric carbon atom . | As a matter of fact, a carken atem that is connected or boncled ‘tess than four diggorent: groups (formula units), 4s called a Nen=Asy “carbon atom . Tn monosaccharides , all the carlon atoms attached. The remaining carton atom is ei _- which case He menosactharide is caltect an aldo su (grup, when i is-calted o Keto sugar. Types of Isomerisin 4. Structural Tsomeriem 2. Stereoisomerism & ee R='c -H bese 1 "ceo ions ae oe ei H Glyceraldehyde. Dihydroxuacetane. as Se taet paledantreeae lsidistarrat we Figure. 2.1 Meas! La bea a-'c=0 3 NN ys a eee eae ee wee S 5 3 bw fa mn 4 — Levorotatery - Qiyceratdehyde Dextrorotatery - Glyeeraldehyle or _L— Glyceraldehude 8c _D = Glyceraldehyde Stereoisomers _ 7 : See A Number of isomers inany compound = 2°" , where A= ie-the number e¢ carbon dtoms ih the same compound aldehyde compounds). * Tn Ketones , the number of isomers_ie given ‘by less | Sugars exhibit various forms of Tsemerism . Ag the shape of an organic molecule is crucial, the umy the atoms are locranged inthe molecules is ag impertent-as the type and the _numbe of atoms regent. Molecules with the same atoms but arranged in. SOMet Sai __ es of icomerigm: diy Structural isomerism, and (Gi) Stewo isemerism » bf Structurgl isemers have the same number and type ef atoms fut atoms are connected disecently. One. op-thisYis two molecules w dhe formula C3HeOs_ in high pe Os is at a digferents {place in the two molecules and - ict _dipferently sith molecale with carbo or at are qua on the endl of the molecules , cal Ketones. Moleailes with the carbonyl qroup at the end_are called _ Aidehydes - Stereoisemers have the came number of atoms and See a atoms pe tes a ates Uae ad RL the Same aes er then a carben_atem is cenne asymmetric _carben atoms -olleuss the formation of Stereoisemers - @ dumber of possible storeeicomers of a conpeund depends upen 3 ee ee the umber of dsemers_is given by oe “of isomers. is given by OTe ‘nis de D and £ Tsomerigm. he designation sf a suqar isomer as a. Der iks alpeimaae asthe L fecm_is Aetermined_b y ibs special relationship +o the pat cent compound of the carbohydrate family. The Land D forms of this Sugar are shown in their respective diagrams on the previous page Figure el [the orientation of the 0) aroui cacken_atom adjacent to ithe terminal alechol Group , or primacy aleohol_atem , fer exam ple Carbon ~ 2 determines: whether the sugar belongs -p He D or | isemer in glyceraldehyde. a hen the OH on thie carken ie on -the right, risa member lne the _D= iemer 3 when it ic on the left, ik is a ee L- Lisomer. | Nest of the monpgsacharides winalé fe: of He D- isomer and and enzymes ee be. for ‘hele asian are. speci fic Se s the compound. “When a, beam of pelariss assed ake _an_optical. isomer , ib will be retated either +p He ie ee ee aa Hexoses The structure i a i $ etructure of Gluense ean be presented in B ways. (Cals) 1. Straight chain H-'c=0 EERO 2 Nagi oapiate Peco t 1 Kk H | » ‘ 2 uri on Higa elie ss ar, at eee ot i es 5 et " Ht 1 H-c—# \ # Galactese (Aldose) Glacose’s conversion zi dg sion gormohomns Se ott © Ti Sbiaight chain form te ES Oi 1 Glmevse's cing form is call eal Pyranese - as * Tn water, chains bend te produce a ring form Fructese in its cing form _MaKes a Furanose Ring. Galactese in its Bag, form makes @ Fuyranese Ring . al 2-9 fructose have a carbonyl. group en carben-2 lecule, and are therefore ealled Keteses —_|Hexoses axist in three sorms , the. straight chain the ring form and a __ehain form. To form the link, a carbony! group reacts with one of the roups el i ain carkon ace stilt numbered as they were i Straight chain form . “the earben: ene (1) is alumys_ in drawn on the right handside Fructose Ns of isomers : Q** Qe ae 26-2 es Asomers of Hexoses D and L isomers; these differ from He total number of isemers - __carbeo adjacent Olsen caren adjacent: todha terminal grup “onthe right maces Naine 2: D = Glycoraldehycle BA Namé i= Glyceraldehute You have to distinguish between two dnings i 1. Determination of the number of possible isomers of hexoses _la- Determination whether the hexoces' sugar iss D or 1 isomer. [The more important isomers found usith alucose are as follows | Dand L isomerism. — Sait | ae zs a Te Ss Pyranese (hexagon) Furanose (pentagon ) |“Two -tupes of fings can be formed ._A ring @f si atoms i called _o [Puranose ring whereag a ring of give atoms is called a Furanose ring. 3 he puranose ring ig the more stable tintepormed for aldeses (qluace ctue mafe_stable'ring}formed gor aldeses (qluone_ and galactose) while the puranose ting 18 more stable for xetoses (gructose) HOH Glucoguranese. (Fe Shvcse ci = I I 40H ———? * f- OK 4 y Tot C 7 2) se 4 # CHO et — i on R Frietofurancse Fructo pyranose. (iis not table) ~ Moha and’ Beta (a and B) CHD c X = Glucose: B - Glucose (alpha- glucose) (beta — glucose) Once a ing has. formed the hydroxide groups attached te the carbon in Glucese Forms two isomers . If the hydride group en ana 1 is below! ithe ring, this will gorm on alpha- glucose ydtxide group on carb foc ae beta- qlucise . Epimers. Pentoses Ha "c=0 1 4 —"c =0H T N16 rt =O 4 Ribose (Cs HioOe) c— OH {Fig 11 ‘The siruckure of tui common _pentoses shown aloove.. [Pentases are menoscacharides uit fire carbon ater “hey_have He simp _igormular Con Os , carbony! group and atleast two “hydroxide Pontoses exists in beth chain. and_cing form. [essa ene MER cirdeiural german. cA Rio mpetant eand slaose and deoxyribose in beth te straight chain and cing ¢ Both devxuribese and cibese are stable in the form of the turancse ring. i os Fiqure one also shows the small diggerence in structure between ov ribose molecule and a deoxycibose molecule . [The deoxyribose molecule hasmone less oxygen on carbon - 2. This very small _diggerence has gar reaching eonsequences in te same cell « es form RNA and deoxyribose Sugars form DNA. [RNA anc DNA have very different functions jn the cell: DISSACHARIDES Two _monossacharide molecules can be joined +> makea discacharide. | molecule = forming a bend between two monossacharide molecules by {eliminating a molecule of vater | | | | Ci. 0. GH 0, ae anor citi, + 10 or Dehydration reaction Sergei aa — / This ‘ype of reaction where a bend is formed) by the elimination of o water (0) molecule is called _a Condensation. a = Glucose piper ¥ IFA Glycosichic tend, Lactose. Sucrose While a 1-2 4s from he carboa atom = ued monegacharide to carben- 2 of Hw second monosaccharide - > & ~ glucose = fructose ~ [teeing 185" and invert Se ch ‘ructse 2-2 Glycocidic bond The hydrogen. bond stabilizes the helical shape of Re Amylose J | 4 [Starch is sound in tuo forms, both aes fom _xX-glucese resideres- Starch isa polymer formed from x - glucose monomers. Starcl. caw. exist in two forms : a. coiled polymer ora helical shape wittout branches dA ik as called Amylose. It has another form called Amylopectin A[n_amylose Ane alpha glucose molecules are joined loy 1-4 dycosides Hbonds. “The angle formed between ce C-0-c bende , or between the rings_is Similar to the angle of water molecules about 107°. wo eels On NN a 2 ering ua ida _(folac-am iao.acid ) 4 A molecule that hasa_pesitive end and a negative end ‘x called a Zwitkerion . contain. twp reactive grup and amine gop anda. ae grup. ‘There, ave 20° common amine ocicls foun an organisms ,and these clipper rem one another esition of he ofber chad. to carbon 2 which is alled “the R= ans he. te gup varies in. ates prom atom founc. c und an, CH dan este cng sy sacl Tyga Mest _bakteria sor L ~ stereoisomers of amino acids, while d= alanine L = alanine Carbon 2's jpined 42 four diggerent_qoups in amine actds except aiyane “Tuc tneans that all amino acids except glycine can mae. stere vis soMerS - “AL common amine acids in_mammaliqn sqjanisms are L -amine acids [rather than D~amino acids, but D- amine acids a found nthe 1 UL 1a. + Fatah hi means Hat amino de 1a He properties of an pertis dand Such substances ate called A i Ab the PH of be cell about neutral , bol the amine group and the |carhory! grup are Awnized « = cook > coo + e 18 pod! charged at the offier e ion au cae A Zwitterion is a molecule witha positive, grup and anegative : qup , it 4s a double ion. Nie ; es = : Se iston=potar COOH oo Al sloutcal solution te form [PPh ? nay = 3 Atling 1 tie sain =f ptm ions | tons in | in excess COO COOR Dipolar = (Amphion) a Roles of Amino and Carboxylic groupS_of Amino Acids . [While the R~ groups of different amine acids vary, the amino and aarkoxylto _gfoups ave commen “ all. These. qeups aie important doc tuo reasons» t e. | 1. As chow in Figure 4 above, they tend to disassociate when dissolved inte water < that many amino acid mdecules become dipslar ions, each containing negatively chargeal carboxyl (C007) and gositvely charged amico~[NHs*) groups. These ions givea. edution of amino acids abugfering” effect ie a solution which balances changes in pH and ‘tends remain at, or close 4p, nuetral_pHt. Tn neutral aqueous solutions, amino acids uth non-polar R- qPups exist _as digslar ions called Amphions in which the carboxyl donates a hydragen on sthaugh che amino group - v Amino acids can therefore ackas donors and acceptors of hydregen- tons ond are here said to be Amcheteric. An Amphoterie substance is a cubstance that has beth acidic and basic 1 orepertios « ft Amino acids change when the elt is varied. In acidic solution ashere the +7 ten concentation is high, dhe negelive carbonyl (00) group it able 4 bind Some of the hydrogen tons. forming gations while inan alkaline solution amino acids donal hudragen ion” f from the gxsitive amino (NHZ) grup to he exress hydroxyl (OH) ions forming water molecules an 4 ons: The ability sg Substances: such as amine aciels 4p contre fructuations in | pl is cated Buftering Copacity. ; |The equilibrium geint for the reaction legends en the bye 8 | concentration | -———_—___—_____— | | k=amine aed a= amine acid, (peptide) Ca pepticte) 4 | [fee amino rr peptide a dipeptides (sth one peptide bond) | Short chains have 9 amino acids ¢. Hormones Leng chains can have ten thousands ( 10,000), of amino acids. | eC : nit * a ages H. L 0 F N—c—c + T 4 on t Ls d=-amino acid Atpeptide eT aU, RO Re LH. poy 5 |} oO [| GN=3c— ¢ = NO Cee + H.0_ LW 1 LA leet oH | H a i ta ary cat peptide = veil . par Hence : Tripeptides + amino acid ——> Polypeptide Tso amine cid molecules con pin agether in a condensation reaction in ich a molecule of water js climinated. A dipeptide is sormedl and ‘the bord between the tuo amino acid residues ts called the peptide bond Additional amino-acids tan react vith a dipeptide to ferm fitst a tripeptide and then a polypeptide. When on_amino group (Ni) is joined to carbon 2, the amine acid is called a - amino acid (alpha amino acie ) ISOMERISM __ LYSINE The chemical structure of Lysine ane its igomerism. re { Cu,+ CH, + CAy+ CR, — NR, ) &-g3eup Ws | S side chain | ee a ¥ t ou 4 OH o oO oO oH oO Z Z t 1c iS 2c | I T ica i aca ! #— ¢ — Np e—E—A Ch eS . oe '—¢ — T eee fF ie cu qe ly I § Ny NA, a X —amino aciel B-amino acid Y=amino acid (Alpha amino acid) (Beta amino acid) Gamma. amine acid ) 4 ae amino acid (Delta amine acid) NR, E~ amine acid (Epsiton amino acid ) Carbon ~ 2 Carbon — 3 Carbon — 4 | Carben - S Carbon — 6 | PosiTIoN oF NK, RARE AMINO ACIDS. Net all amino acids are alpha amino acids. Any molecule cornining beth and an amine. group is an Amino acid. Alpha amino a carboxylic grou acids have the amine group en carben-2 but other amino acids have urther away from the carken- 2. fhe emine group on carbon 6. These amino acids clo not join together to make proteins , but some of the have important functions in_organtsms . For example, @ ~alanine és the building bleck for Vitamin 85 which is one of the chemicals used by cl as neurotransmitters . T Classigication of R- gro mine aciels R=grup: at | charged un-charged (neutral) = ees Polar Nen=pelar Example ¢ Example: Sane erie __ Atanine auch as luteal sich as Lysine ; se acid / Ok Si di O. N—=C (CHCl, C Co ee ae 1 OH eee : = 4 SN-e— Cc ITH oe i oH ¥ CRarOt { fe t | # Tne diggereat R= groups give each amino acid slightly different gogectyes. Fase R~ qnups a very imporfant: leuse ey a1 unageected wfan “Re amico acids join > make a pulytooptide and contribute toward dee poperties o¢ “He puly— eoplide. ta. diegerent R~ gnups can be cassigied according 4p whole ey are dorged or uncharged (rexhal), uncharged paar ot cencpolar, a8 Re PH of he coll. Some of He R~ groups wall havea gositive. or. negative charge a as fhe Pe ete coll. “These ax called domed. groups. An example ofan amino acid with a polar R—Greup is Serine , which has 1) up within les mi An example of an amine att oe a non-polar qrup is Manine, die [R-qoup f wtih ie dingle methyl que. —~ ea Polypeptides C-terminal, aera depending on the amino acid residues present A chain e¢ amine acid cca Hin. Argether to fan a _pelymner, ai is e ly (The polypeptide has a backbone dhat cuns-the lengt@ of the macto~ _ [molecule As the only digeerences between the algha_amino e-acid are the R—gnups. his loacxboone. “The polypeptide baccbone is flexible and ean

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