THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

MANAGEMENT OF INFORMATION
SYSTEMS (LIS 3021).

STUDENT I.D : 14046644.

LECTURER: MRS MWILA.
23/03/2017

QUESTION: Employee motivation is increased by altering the three components of the

expectancy theory. Use the expectancy theory to explain how you would increase student
motivation to complete assignments and tests to a high standard, to participate in the discussion in
class and also to read prior to the class.
Motivation is probably the most important factor that educators can target in order to improve
learning. However, this essay aims at using the expectancy theory to explain how a course
coordinator would increase student motivation to complete assignments and tests to a high
standard, to participate in the discussion in class and also to read prior to the class. It is very
important to understand the key terms of our topic so as not to divert from the main aim, hence,
defining these key terms such as motivation and expectancy theory. Thereafter, the essay will
discuss in detail how the three components of the expectancy theory which are expectancy,
instrumentality and valence relates to student’s motivation to complete assignments, tests to a high
standard, to participate in the discussion in class and also to read prior to the class. Further, when
all the necessary angles are uncovered, the conclusion will be drawn.

Many scholar have defined motivation in different ways. Wiseman and Hunt (2001) defined
motivation as the force that creates the energy for a goal holds that energy or desire throughout the
task and channels a particular behaviour towards that goal. Furthermore, motivation is described
as one’s determination and drive that triggers behavior towards the desired goal (Romando, 2007).
Thus, in simple terms motivation can be defined as the act or process of providing a motive that
causes a person to take some action. Expectancy theory on the other hand is a cognitive process
theory of motivation that is based on the idea that people believe there are relationships between
the efforts they put forth at work, the performance they achieve from their efforts and the rewards
they receive from their efforts and performance (Lunenberg, 2011).

However, with regards to students, very little if any learning can occur unless students are
motivated on a consistent basis. Student motivation is enhanced when these factors pertinent to
students are present, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to the learning arena. Intrinsic motivation
is a response to needs that exist within the learner, such as curiosity which is the need to know,
and feelings of competence, involvement or the desire to be involved, challenge or figuring out
the complexity of a topic and social interaction or creating social bonds (Eggen and Kauchak,
1994). In contrast, extrinsic motivation is as an outward force in the form of expectation, praise
and rewards powers students in the classroom. It exists when individuals are motivated by an
outcome that is external or functionally unrelated to the activity in which they are engaged
(Spaulding, 1992). Extrinsic motivational factors include compliance or to meet another’s
expectation, to do what one is told, recognition or to be publicly acknowledged, competition and
work avoidance or avoid more work than necessary (Walker, 2004). Hence, expectancy theory can
be used to motivate people either extrinsically or intrinsically.

According to Vroom (1964) expectancy theory is based on four assumptions. One assumption is
that people come to school with expectations about their needs, motivations, and past experiences.
These influence how individuals react to school. The second assumption is that an individual’s
behavior is a result of conscious choice, that is, students are free to choose those behaviors
suggested by their own expectancy calculations in achieving certain academic goals. The third
assumption is that students want different things from school such as best results, just to graduate
and some as sign of prestige. The fourth assumption is that students will choose among alternatives
so as to optimize outcomes for them personally. Further, the expectancy theory is based on three
key elements; expectancy, instrumentality and valence. A student with a positive level of
expectancy believes that exerting effort will result in a positive outcome for them. If the same
student has a high level of instrumentality, they would believe that their rewards (outcome) are
based on task performance. Finally, if a course coordinator offers rewards that the student values
(valiance) such as an “A” grade, then the student would be considered to be a motivated one.

Expectancy is the individual’s belief as to whether or not the outcome is possible. Many seemingly
“unmotivated” students display “learned helplessness” where they simply stop trying or pretend
to lack abilities (Bruns, 1992). Therefore, a course coordinator can alter or improve a students’
perception of their ability to learn the material and concepts being presented. This can be done by
explaining to students what types of behaviors go along with learning such as reading,
understanding the meaning behind the reading, and actively asking questions about the reading
and various meanings. In doing this course coordinators can explain how to do these tasks like
taking extra time to read and re-read material, expand the breadth of their reflection about the
meanings, and be more active in the classroom. Therefore, a good course coordinator does not
only make clear what is expected of students but also help them attain that level of performance.
Therefore, they should try to increase the belief that students are capable of performing
successfully. Ways of doing this include giving students options when selecting an assignment, by
varying teaching methods and also by providing a well organised course outline.

Davis (1993), points out that students can be motivated to complete assignments and tests to a
high standard if they are given options in the class. In addition, students can motivated by giving
them a sense of autonomy and helping them develop skills for self-directed learning. Encouraging
autonomy increases motivation among students in the classroom. Whether it’s allowing students
to select an assignment topic, student motivation is increased if they feel they have control over
their outcomes and supporting their self -belief that those outcomes can be achieved. For example,
by mentioning to them previous students of similar ability who might have made it in the same
field. This greatly motivates them to complete assignments and tests to a high standard. However,
if students view an assignment as something they can accomplish they will not be motivated to
even start to work on the assignment. Hence, course coordinators can adjust the assignment, break
the assignment into parts, or redesign the assignment entirely to improve a student’s motivation
towards the assignment.

Furthermore, course coordinators should also vary their teaching methods. Instead of the traditional
lecture, they can incorporate academic activities that get students to actively participate in the class
and allow for more immediate feedback. Incorporating problem based learning, collaborative
learning, experiments and the use of technology allows for greater student participation.
Discussions or students’ presentations can break the monotony and minimise passive observations.
Students respond positively to a well-organized course. Therefore, it is important to be mindful of
the fact that how the course coordinator structures the course and the teaching methodology can
greatly affect students’ motivation to learn. By providing students with a basic framework of
expectations and guidelines, students often remark that they feel empowered and are able to shape
their semester. The course outline should clearly state the learning objectives, course goals and
students’ expectations for the course and this allows a course coordinator to capitalize on a students’
initial curiosity with enthusiastic introduction of the course. A clear path gives a struggling student
a sense of motivation, especially if they feel that they are being provided with the effective tips and
support to overcome the obstacles in their way (Svinicki, 2005).

Instrumentality is an individual’s estimate of the probability that a given level of achieved task
performance will lead to various work outcomes (Hancock, 1995). Therefore, a course coordinator
can try to increase the belief that high performance in assignments, tests, participation in classroom
discussions and reading prior to the class will result in valued rewards. According to the reward
theory of attraction people find it satisfying and gratifying to be in a relationship that gives them
more reward and pleasure (Myers, 2010). This can also apply to students, at times they work hard
by motivating themselves intrinsically so that at the end they can be rewarded either by a monetary
reward or just to acknowledge their hard work publicly in order for them to be recognized by
fellow students. For instance, this can motivate other students extrinsically who have not been
rewarded for not working hard towards a particular goal. Hence, course coordinators can do this
by measuring the student’s performance accurately by taking note of students who actively
participate in class and keeping records of students who score high marks in assignments and tests.
Course coordinators could help students understand how their performance in the course is
connected to desirable outcomes. For instance, the course coordinator could clearly describe the
rewards that will result from successful performance such as money, awarding of certificates, and
other prizes or by either securing an enabling environment where students with good performance
can do there internships. This can be facilitated by coming up with a departmental policy on how
students can be awarded on the basis of their performance.

According to the standard theory, development organizations, commercial organizations and

individuals can more clearly plan their standard strategy if the standards are clearly
defined. Therefore, in order to level the playing field for their students, course coordinators will
have to help their students to set higher standards for themselves, as well as teach the students to
self-advocate and recognize the costs of the choices they make (Payne, 2003). This can motivate
students to perform well in their assignments, tests and read prior to the class. Furthermore, this
can also help students to plan well on how they can reach the set standards. In addition,
communication of student’s progress is also important to increasing their motivation to
learn. Grades are a primary source of feedback in the classroom but course coordinators can
increase feedback by explaining the results of student’s current effort good or bad.
However, students also need to perceive the course coordinators’ evaluations and feedback as
equitable that it is fair or motivation will plummet.

Valence is the strength of student preference for a particular reward and it is characterized by the
extent to which a person values a given outcome or reward. In accordance with expectancy theory
each student has different values and views rewards differently. To some student earning an “A”
grade may be their primary reward, to others developing skills for future employment may be most
important. Therefore, course coordinators should assess each student’s differences and develop
outcomes that match their desires and their motivation to learn. Thus, compensation from good
performance either by direct cash or paying of part of academic fees, recognition by lecturers, or
any other reward might have more or less value to individual students. It is important therefore to
note that valence is not the actual level of satisfaction that an individual receives from an outcome,
but rather it is the expected satisfaction a person receives from a particular outcome (Pinder, 1987).

However, rewards can affect both the students who have received the reward and the student who
are watching when others are being awarded for the past performance. Unlike expectancy and
instrumentality, valences can be either positive or negative. If the student has a strong preference
for attaining a reward valence is positive. For example, if a student views it as being good and also
being more valued than other outcomes. On the other hand, valence is negative if for example, a
student perceives it as being an outcome that would lead to dissatisfaction. However, if the student
is indifferent to a reward, valence is zero this happens when a student believes that the reward they
receive for their effort has no value to them. For instance, the student may receive a reward of
academic trip in the mid of the academic term when everyone is preparing for mid-year exams
(Gerhart, Minkoff and Olsen, 1995). Furthermore, course coordinators can try to increase the
expected value of rewards resulting from desired performance. Ways of doing this include
distributing rewards that student’s value. For example, giving those who have performed well such
as performance certificates, and individualize rewards.

In conclusion, motivation is important and the ways a course coordinator would use expectancy
theory to increase student motivation to complete assignments and tests to a high standard, to
participate in classroom discussions and also to read prior to the class are by giving students
options when selecting an assignment, varying teaching methods and also by providing a well
organised course outline. Course coordinators would also use the variables of the expectancy
theory to motivate their students and these variables are expectancy, instrumentality and valence.
It can be said that student’s motivation to learn comes either intrinsically or extrinsically. Students
are motivated intrinsically if they have interest in the course and if they enjoy learning the course.
Extrinsic motivation on the other hand comes about as a result of the result attached to a certain
level of performance. However, the ways mentioned above are relatively effective to motivate
students. As a course coordinator, it is essential and useful to acquire more knowledge of student
motivational rationale and effective methodologies and also to have a strong belief and take time
to build relationships with their students in order to motivate them to learn.
 REFERENCES

Bruns, J. H., D.A. Ed. (1992). They can but they don't: helping students overcome work inhibition.
New York: Penguin Books.
Cheryl, L. Spaulding. (1992). Motivation in the classroom. The United States: McGraw-Hill.

Eggen, P. D. & Kauchak, D. (1994). Educational psychology: classroom connections. The United
States: Macmillan.
Hancock, D. R. (1995). What Teachers May Do to Influence Student Motivation: An Application
of Expectancy Theory. Oxford: new York

Myers, D. G. (2010). Relationship Rewards. In Social Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Pinder, C. C. (1987). Valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory. In R. M. Steers & L.

Walker T. D. (2004). What every teacher should know about student motivation.

California: Corwin Press.

Wiseman, D. G., & Hunt, G. H., (2001). Best Practice in Motivation and management in the
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Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.