Instruction Manualand 012-0M71D

Experiment Guide for 3/94

the PASCOscientific
Model SE-9638

e/m APPARATUS

0 PASCO S5.oo

'0'0' roothill. O/vd.• nosevmo,CA 05747-7/00

Phone (9'0) 700-0000 • (010) 100-0005 • wwwpasco.eom l.•acn
012-0347ID
e lm Apparatus

Table of Contents

Section Page
Copyright, Warranty, and Equipment Return ii
Introduction
Equipment
Operation
Measuring e/m
Analysis of elm Measurement
Deflections of Electrons in an ElectricField.......
Two Simple Demonstrations
Diagram of Connections
Improving Experimental Results

s c tent/ftc
 e/m Apparatus

012-034710

Copyright and Warranty

Please—Feel free to duplicate this manual

subject to the copyright restrictions below.

Copyright Notice
The PASCO scientific Model SE-9638 e/m Apparatus
manual is copyrighted and all rights reserved. However,
permission is granted to non-profit educational institutions
for reproduction of any part of this manual providing the
reproductions are used only for their laboratories and are not
sold for profit. Reproduction under any other circum-
stances, without the written consent of PASCO scientific, is
prohibited.
Limited Warranty
PASCO scientific warrants this product to be free from
defects in materials and workmanship for a period of one
year from the date ofshipment to the customer. PASCO
will repair or replace, at its option, any part of the product
which is deemed to be defective in material or workman-
ship. This warranty does not cover damage to the product
caused by abuse or improper use. Determination of whether
a product failure is the result of a manufacturingdefect or
improper use by the customer shall be made solely by
PASCO scientific. Responsibility for the return of equip-
ment for warranty repair belongs to the customer. Equip-
ment must be properly packed to prevent damage and
shipped postage or freight prepaid. (Damage caused by
improper packing of the equipment for return shipment will
not be covered by the warranty.) Shipping costs for
returning the equipment, after repair, will be paid by
PASCO scientific.

Equipment Return

Should this product have to be returned to PASCO

scientific, will not be damaged in shipment, observe the following
for whatever reason, notify PASCO scientific by
letter or rules:
phone BEFORE returning the product.
the return authorization and shipping
Upon notification, l. The carton must be strong enough for the item shipped.
instructions will be
promptly issued. 2. Make certain there is at least two inches of packing
material between any point on the apparatus and the
NOTE: NO EQUIPMENTWILL BE inside walls of the carton.
ACCEPTED
FOR RETURN WITHOUT AN
AUTHORIZATION. 3. Make certain that the packing material can not shift in
When returning equipment for repair, the box, or become compressed, thus letting the
the units must be
packed properly. Carriers will instrument come in contact with the edge of the
not accept responsibility for
damage caused by improper packing.
To be certain the unit

ii
snønt't'C
012-03471 D elm Apparatus

Introduction

The PASCO Model SE-9638 e/m Apparatusprovidesa

simple method for measuring elm, the charge to mass ratio Helmholtz coils
of the electron. The method is similar to that used by J.J.
Thomson in 1897. A beam of electrons is accelerated
01m tube
through a known potential, so the velocity of the electrons is Mirrored
known. A pair of I-Iclmholtz coils produces a uniform and scale
measurable magnetic field at right angles to the electron
beam. This magnetic field deflects the electron beam in a
circular path. By measuring the accelerating potential (V),
the current to the Helholtz coils (I), and the radius of the
circular path of the electron beam (r), e/m is easily calcu-
lated: elm = 2V/B2r2. (The calculations are explained in the
operation section orthis manual.)
The e/m apparatus also has deflection plates that can be used
to demonstrate the effect of an electric field on the electron
beam. This can be used as a confirmation of the negative
charge of the electron, and also to demonstrate how an
Controls
oscilloscope works.
A unique feature of the e/m tube is that the socket rotates, Figure 1 The elm Apparatus
allowing the electron beam to be oriented at any angle (from
0-90 dcgrecs) with respect to the magnetic field from the
Helmholtz coils. You can therefore rotate the tube and the e/m tube. For example, you can use a small permanent
examine the vector nature of the magnetic forces on moving magnet instead of the Helmholtz coils to investigate the
charged particles. Other experiments are also possible with effect of a magnetic field on the electron beam.

Equipment

The e/m Tube—- The e/m tube (sce Figure 2) is filled with
helium at a pressure of 100 mm Mg, and contains an electron Helium Filled
gun and deflection plates. The electron beam leaves a visible Vacuum tube
trail in the tube, because some of.the electrons collide with
helium atoms, which are excited and then radiate visible
light.
Thc heater heats the Electron Gun
The clcctron gun is shown in Figure 3.
cathode, which emits electrons. The clcctrons arc accelerated
applied between the cathode and the anode.
by a potential Deflection Plates
positive with respect to the cathode and
The grid is held
to the anode. It helps to focus the
negative with respect
electron beam.

CAUTION: The voltage to the heater of the

.1

electron gun should NEVER excecd 6.3 volts.

Figure 2 01mTube
and
Higher voltages Willburn out the filament
destroy the c/m tube.

octont///C
 elm Apparatus
012-034710

The Helmholtz Coils—The geometry of Helmholtz coils—

the radius of the coils is equal to their separation—provides Grid Anode
a highly uniform magnetic field. The Helmholtz coils of the
elm apparatus have a radius and separation of 15 cm. Each Cathode
coil has 130 turns. The magnetic field (B) pioduced by the
coils is proportional to the current through the coils (I) times
7.80 x 1()• tesla/ampere [B (tesla) = (7.80 x 104) 1]. Heater
The Controls—The control panel of the e/m apparatus is
Deflection Plates
straightforward. All connections are labeled. The hook-ups
and operation are explained in the next section.
Figure 3 Electron Gun
Cloth Hood—The hood can be placed over the top of the e/
m apparatus so the experiment can be performed in a lighted
room. 6.3 VDC or VAC for filament
Mirrored Scale—A mirrored scale is attached to the back of 150-300 VI)C accelerating potential (PASCO
the rear Helmholtz coil. It is illuminated by lights that light Model SF-9585 High Voltage Power Supply)
automatically when the heater of the electron gun is pow-
Meters:
cred. By lining the electron beam up with its image in the
minored scale, you can measure the radius of the beam path Ammeter with 0-2 A range to measure current in
without parallax error. Helmholtz coils (such as the PASCO Model SB-
9624 Multimeter)
Additional Equipment Nccdcd— accelerat-
Voltmeter with 0-300 V range to measure
Power Supplies: SB-9624
ing potential (such as the PASCO Model
6-9 VDC @ 3 A (ripple < 1%) for Helholtz coils Multimeter)
(PASCO Model SF-9584 Low Voltage Power
Supply)

Operation
the Helmholtz
Measuring e/m 6. Slowly turn the current adjust knob for
take care that
l. If you Willbe working in a lighted room, place the coils clockwise. Watch the ammeter and
hood over the elm apparatus, the current does not exceed 2 A.
up. When
2. Flip the toggle switch up to the e/m MEASURE 7. Wait several minutes for the cathode to heat
from
position. it does, you will see the electron beam emerge
field from
the electron gun and it will be curved by the
3, Turn (he current adjust knob for the Helmholtz beam is
coils the HelmholtzcoiJs. Check that the electron
to the position. the
parallel to the Helmholtz'coils. If it is not, turn
4, Connect your power supplies and meters
to the front tube until it is. Don't take it out of its socket. As you
panel of the e/jn apparatus, os sJiown in rotate the tube, the socket will turn.
Figure 4.
5, Adjust fhc power supplies to the following
levels: 8. Carefully read the current to the Helmholtz coils from
your ammeter and the accelerating voltage from your
voltmeter. Record the values below.
J fearer 6.3 or VOC
Llectrodes: ISOto goo VOC Current to I Iclmholtz coils I
Jlelmholf/, Coils: VDC jpplc be
less than Yo) Accelerating voltage —V

CA(TJ ION: The voltage to the heater

of the 9. Carelillly measure the radius of the electron beam.
election gun should NIP, exceed volts, Look through the tube at the electron beam. To avoid
voltages will burn out (he filament
nnd parallax errors, move your head to align the electron
destroy c/lii tube,
bcom the reflection of the beam that you can see
2
s c/ont/"c
 012-034711)
elm Apparatus

Current adjust knob Toggle Switch:

for Helmholtz coils Up for elm experiment.
Focus knob Down when using deflection plates.

+ IJpper
Lower
O O

DC
Ammeter
(0-2 A) Voltmeter Power Supply
(0-300 (Heater
VOC) 6.3 VOC or
VAC)
Power Supply
(Helmholtz
Coils 6-9 VOC, Power Supply
ripple < 1%) (Accelerating
Voltage
150-300VOC)

Figure 4 Connections for elm Experiment

on the mirrored scale. Measure the radius of the beam as you elm v/Br (3)
see it on both sides of the scale, then average the results.
Record your result below. Therefore, in order to detemine elm. it is only necessary to
know the velocity of the electrons, the magnetic field
produced by the Helmholtz coils, and the radius of the
Electron Beam Radius = r =
electron beam.
The electrons are accelerated through the accelerating
potential V, gaining kinetic energy equal to their charge
Analysis of elm Measurement times the accelerating potential. Therefore cv = 1/2 me,
The velocity of the electrons IStherefore:
The magnetic force (Fm)acting on a charged particle of
v = (2eV/m)L1 (4)
charge q moving velocity v in a magnetic field (B) is
given by the equation Fn = qv X B, (where F, v, and B are The magnetc field produced near the ans of a parr of
vectors and X is a vector cross product). Since the electron
beam in this experiment is perpendicular to the magnetic
(5)
field. the equation can be in scalar form as:
Fm= evB (1)
He:jn+'— by the equation:
where e is the charge of the electron.
A = -ur.for this forr.ula can be found tn most Introduc-
Since the electrons are moving in a circle, they must be v. t:xtä and magnetism.
experiencing a centripetal force of magnitude
Equations 4 and S can be plugged Tito equation 3 to get a
F, = mv2/r (2) final formula for e'm:
where m is the mass of the electron, v is its selocity, and r
the radius of the circular motion. Since the only force acung
on the electrons is that caused by the magnetic field, F = F ,
so equations I and 2 can be combined to give evB =
mv 2/r or

3
s ctent/ttc
 e 'm Apparatus
where:
V = the accclcrating potential
a = the radius of the Helmholtz coils
N = the number of turns on each Helmholtz coil• = 130
g, = the penneability constant = 47tx 10-7
I = the current through the Helmholtz coils
r = the radius of the electron beam path
Deflections of Electrons in an Electric
Field
IMPORTANT: Do not leave the beam on for long
periods of time in this mode. The beam will
ultimately wear through the glass walls of the tube.
You can use the deflection plates to demonstrate how the
electron beam is deflected in an electric field.
l. Setup the equipment as described above for measuring
em except:
a- the toggle switch to ELECTRICAL DEFLECT.
b. Do not supply current to the Helmholtz
coils.
c. Connect a 0-50 VDC power supply
between the
banana plug connectors labeled DEFLECT
PLATES
and LOWER).
012-03471
D
2. Apply the 6.3 VDC or VAC to the HEATER
and 150-
300 VDC to the ELECTRODESofthe ELECTRON
GUN (the accelerating potential). Wait several minutes
to warm up the cathode.
3. When the electron beam appears, slowly increasethe
voltage to the deflection plates from 0 V to
approxmately 50 VDC. Note the deflection of the
electron beam. Note that the beam is bent towards the
positively charged plate.
Two Simple Demonstrations
l. Instead of using the Helmholtz coils to bend the electron
beam, you can use a permanent magnet to show the
effect of a magnetic field on the electron beam. Just
provide the following power to the e/m apparatus:
HEATER: 6.3 VAC or VDC
VDC
ELECTRON GUN ELECTRODES:150-300
When the electron beam appears, use your permanent
magnet to bend the beam.
2. The socket for the e/m tube is designed so that the tube
can be rotated 90 degrees. The tube can therefore be
oriented so it is at any angle, from 0-90 degrees, with
respect to the magnetic field from the Helmholtz coils.
By setting up the equipment as for measuring elm, you
can rotate the tube and study how the beam deflection is
afTected.
 012-034710 elm Apparatus

DC Ammeter HelmholtzCoils
(0-2 A)

BLK

Power Supply
(6-9'IDC.
ripple < 1%)
50
BLK
Current Adjust
for Helmholtz Coils
Slide/ToggIe Switch
(elmMEASURE—ELECTRICAL DEFLECT)
Upper YEL WHT
Voltmeter
(0-300voc) WHT
Lower
ORG
YEL Deflectio
ORG elm Tube Plates
BLK
pin 11 pin 10
RED pin 6 Anode
ORG 15K Grid
15W
Focus Adjust Cathode
150-300 VOC Variable pin 2
Resistor —-Heater
5K
BLK pin 12 pin 1
BLK
or VAC
BLU

Power
Supply

Diagram of Connections for the

SE-9638 e/mApparatus

sctont//;c 5
 elm Apparatus
012-034710

Improving Experimental Results

Measurement of e/m

Notes

l) The greatest source of error in this experiment is the velocity of the electrons. First, the non-uniformity of the
accelerating field caused by the hole in the anode causes the velocity of the electrons to be slightly less than
their theoretical value. Second, collisions with the helium atoms in the tube further rob the electrons of their
velocity. Since the equation for e/m is proportional to I/N, and r is proportional to v, experimental values for
e/m will be greatly affected by these two effects.

2) To minimize the error due to this lost electron velocity, measure radius to the of the beam path.

3) To minimize the relative effect of collisions, keep the accelerating voltage as high as possible. (Above 250V
for best results.) Note, however, that if the voltage is too high, the radius measurement will be distorted by
the curvature of the glass at the edge of the tube. Our best results were made with radii of less than 5cm.

1.6A
1.25

— 1.2
o

o Best Voltage Range

1.15 at this current

1.1

100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Voltage
Error bars represent
Imm radius
deviation

4) Your
be higher than
theoretical, due to
the fact that both
major sources oferror

6
 Feed-Back
If you have any comments about this product or this
manual please let us know. If you have any sugges-
tions on alternate experiments or find a problem in the
manual please tell us. PASCO appreciates any cus-
1.7 tomer feed-back. Your input helps us evaluate and
Improve our product.
To Reach PASCO
For Technical Support call us at 1-800-772-8700(toll-
free within the U.s.) or (916) 786-3800.
scjent'f/C
Contacting Technical Support
Before you call the PASCO Technical Support staff it
would be helpful to prepare the following information:
• If your problem is computer/software related, note:
Title and Revision Date of software.
Type ofComputer (Make, Model, Speed).
Type of external Cables/Peripherals.
• If your problem is with the PASCO apparatus, note:
Title and Model number (usually listed on the label).
Approximate age of apparatus.
A detailed description of the problem/sequence of
events. (In case you can't call PASCO right away,
you won't lose valuable data.)
If possible, have the apparatus within reach when
calling. This makes descriptions of individual parts
much easier.
• If your problem relates to the instruction manual,
note:
Part number and Revision (listed by month and year
on the front cover).
Have the manual at hand to discuss your questions.
 Instruction Manual and 012-046950
03/99
Experiment Guide for the
PASCOscientific
Model TD-8553/8554A/8555

THERMAL
RADIATION SYSTEM
TDZ5S4A Radiation Cube
(Leslie's Cube)
O
o

TO-8555Stefan
Boltzman Lamp

TD-8553 Radiation Sensor

e PASCO

CA 95747-71"
S C ent ' C Pha.-g • FAX 786-8905
012aut,9SD
Thermal Radiation System

Table of Contents

Section Page
Copyright and Warranty, Equipment Return ii
Introduction
Radiation Sensor
Thermal Radiation Cube (Leslie's Cube) ..
Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp
Experiments:
Experiment l: Introduction to Thermal Radiation
Experiment 2: Inverse Square Law
Experiment 3: Stefan-Boltzmann Law (high temperature) 13
Experiment 4: Stefan-Boltzmann Law (low temperature) 17
Teacher's Guide 19
Technical Support Inside Back Cover

i

Introduction
The PASCO Thermal Radiation System includes three
items: the TD-8SS3 Radiation Sensor, the TD-8554A
Radiation Cube (Leslie's Cube), and the TD-8555
Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp. This manual contains
operating instructions for each of these items plus
instructions and worksheets for the following four
experiments:
0) Introduction to Thermal Radiation,
Inverse Square Law,
(S' Stefan-Boltzmann Law* (at high temperatures),
@ Stefan-Boltzmann Law* (at low temperatures).
• The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the radiant
energy per unit area is proportional to the fourth
power of the temperature of the radiating surface.
Radiation Sensor
The PASCO TD-8553 Radiation Sensor (Figure l)
measures the relative intensities of incident thermal
radiation. The sensing element, a miniature thermo-
pile, produces a voltage proportional to the intensity of
the radiation. The spectral response of the thermopile
is essentially flat in the infrared region (from 0.5 to 40
pm), and the voltages produced range from the micro-
volt range up to around 100 millivolts. (A good
millivolt meter is sufficient for all the experiments
described in this manual. See the current PASCO
catalog for recommended meters.)
The Sensor can be hand held or mounted on its stand
for more accurate positioning. A spring-clip shutter is
opened and closed by sliding the shutter ring forward
or back. During experiments, the shutter should be
closed when measurements are not actively being
taken. This helps reduce temperature shifts in the
thermopile reference junction which can cause the
sensor response to drift.
NOTE: When opening and closing the
shutter, it is possible you may inadvertently
change the sensor position. Therefore, for
experiments in which the sensor position is
critical, such as Experiment 3, two small sheets
of opaque insulating foam have been provided.
when
Place this heat shield in front of the sensor
measurements are not actively being taken.
s ctent'ttc
Thermal Radiation System
In addition to the equipment in the radiation system,
several standard laboratory items, such as power
supplies and meters are needed for most experiments.
Check the experiment section of this manual for
infomation on required equipment.
If you don't have all the items of the radiation system,
read through the operating instructions for the equip-
ment you do have, then check the experiment section
to determine which of the experiments you can per-
form. (A radiation sensor is required for all the
experiments.)
The two posts extending from the front end of the
Sensor protect the thermopile and also provide a
reference for positioning the sensor a repeatable
distance from a radiation source.
Specifications
Temperature Range: -65 to 85 oc.
Maximum Incident Power: 0.1 Watts/cm2.
Spectral Response: .6 to 30prn.
2
Signal Output: Linear from 104 to 10-1Watts/cm .
Thumbscrew: Loosen to
Shutter Ring: Slide reposition Sensor or to
forward to open remove Sensor from stand
shutter
Shutter
Banana Connectors:
Connect to millivoltmeter
Figure I RadiationSensor
1
 Cube)
Thermal Radiation Cube (Leslie's
may be HOT!
The TD-SSS4A Radiation Cube (Figure 2) provides CAUTION: cube
four different radiating surfaces that can be heated
from temperature to approximately 120 The
cube is heated by a 100 light bulb. Just plug in
the cord. flip the toggle switch to then
tum the knob clockmse to vary the pou•r.
Turn00b
Measure the cube temperature by plugging your Socov•se to
to
ohmmeter into the banana plug connectors labeled •ON' to tun'
THER-MISTOæ The in one on power.
temperature,
comer of the cube. Measure the resistance, then
Table l, below, to translate the resistance reading into a
temperature measurement- An abbrevated versionof Use Oble on
this table is printed on the base of the Radiation Cube. back to
NOTE: For best results, a digital ohmmeter To
should be used (See the current PASCOcatalog
for recommended meters) VAC

> IMPORTANT: thelight

Figure2 RadiationCube (Leslie's Cube)
bulb, use a 100-Wattbulb. Bulbs of higher
povs•r could damage the cube.

Table t
Resistance versus Temperature for the Thermal Radiation Cube
Temp. Temp. Therm Temp. Tbenw Tcnp. Themr Ternp Therm Temp
Res (Q) CC)

-'07.sso 10 130
2X4S3 g.CS.O 107 131
1S'.s.ao 12 60 4339.7 2-157.6 132
1moso 13 21.736 61 9.121S 4209.1 logs-7 133
SS.6SS so 110 2041.7
53.297 39 63 s-'227
S I .04S 40
3±1.1 111 I.es€4 135
16 64 s.-vs SS 3.S43_g 112
I ".s—€so 4S.90S I S.66S 7.969.1 3.729.'
1.932S
17.•so
113 1.009
19 I s-;os 138
43.062 4-4
91
lis 1>1.7 139
3.4110 116 1.734.1
22 39.605 93
Is-so: IS.s:.Y4 141
23 3-'tss IIS 142
24 segss 1+10 i 123.0
l.sm.6
I CQOO)
s-;-us )
143
120
so 97
32>3 sss€l 121
12 l.cs.6
s-.022 s:
29.'SS 12043 100
3.422 30 s-vss 101 1.40.3.0
31
72-seo
so
103 2 CSI I-so
33 104
12s
129

2
 012 SD
Thermal Radiation System

Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp

IMPORTANT: The voltage into the lamp Banana Connectors:

should NEVER exceed 13 V. Higher voltages Connect to Power
will burn out the filament. supply-13 V MAX,
(2 A min, 3 A max)
The TD-S5S5 Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp (Figure 3) is a
high temperaturesource of thermal radiation. The
lamp can be used for high temperature investigations
of the Stefan-Boltzmann Law. The high temperature
simplifies the analysis because the fourth power of the
ambient temperature is negligibly small compared to
the fourth power of the high temperature of the lamp
filament (see Experiments 3 and 4). When properly
oriented, the filament also provides a good approxima- TD-8555
STEFAN-BOLTZMAN
tion to a pornt source of thermal radiation. It therefore
works well for investigations into the inverse square CAUTION
law. •voc

By adjusting the power into the lamp (13 Volts max, 2

DAD
A min, 3 A max), filament temperatures up to approxi-
mately 3,000 oc can be obtained. The filament
temperatureis determined by carefully measuring the
voltageand current into the lamp. The voltage divided Figure 3 Stefan-BoltzmannLamp
by the current gives the resistance of the filament.
EquipmentRecommended REPLACEMENT BULB: GE LampNo. 1196,
available at most auto parts stores.
ACIDC LV Power Supply (SF-9584) or equivalent
NOTE: When replacing the bulb, the leads
capable of 13 V @ 3 A max
should be soldered to mimmize resistance.

R-R
ref
For small temperature changes, the temperatureof
the tungsten filament can be calculated using a, the
temperature coefficient of resistivity for the filament:
where,
I — Temperature
R — Resistance at temperature T
T — Reference temperature (usually room temp.)
R = Resistance at temperature T
— Temperature coefficient of resistivity for the
filament(a = 45 x 100 for tungsten)
is not
For large temperature differences, however, a
constant and the above equation is not accurate.
For large temperature differences,therefore,deter-
mine the temperature of the tungsten filament as
follows:
(D Accurately measure the resistance (R ) of the tung-
sten filament at room temperature (about 300 0K).
Accuracy is important here. A small error in Rref
will result in a large error in your result for the fila-
ment temperature.
@ When the filament is hot, measure the voltage and
current into the filament and divide the voltage by
the current to measure the resistance (R-r).
@ Divide R.r by Rrfto obtain the relative resistance
(RT/Rrf).
@ Using your measured value for the relative resistiv-
ity of the filament at temperature T, use Table 2 on
the following page, or the associated graph, to de-
termine the temperature of the filament.

3
s c •ent'f•c
 2

,、
5 7
6
、
8, ,0
3

9
0

Temperature versus Resistivity fo「Tungsten

R 0

180

Temperature(Kelvin)
 EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
— Radiation Sensor, Thermal Radiation Cube — Window glass
— Millivoltmeter — Ohmmeter.

NOTES:
@ If lab time is short, it's helpful to preheat
the cube at a setting of 5.0 for 20 minutes before
the laboratory period begins. (A very quick method is to preheat
the cube at full power
for 45 minutes, then use a small fan to reduce the temperature
quickly as you losser the
power input- Just be sure that equilibrium is attained with the fan
off.)
Part I and 2 of this experiment can be performed simultaneously.
Make the measure-
ments in Part 2 while waiting for the Radiation Cube to
reach therrnal at each
of the settings in Part l.
@ When using the Radiation Sensor, always shield it
from the hot object except for the few
seconds it takes to actually make the measurement- This prevents
heating of the thermo-
pile which will change the reference temperature and alter the reading.

Radiation Rates from Different Surfaces

Part 1
@ Connect the Ohmmeter and Millivoltmeter as shown in Figure 1.1.
@ Turn on the Thermal Radiation Cube and set
the power switch to "HIGH". Keep an eye on
the ohmmeter reading. When it gets down to
about 40 kQ, reset the power switch to 5.0. (If
the cube is preheated, just set the switch to 5.0.)
@ When the cube reaches thermal equilibrium—
the ohmmeter reading will fluctuate around a
relatively fixed value—use the Radiation
Sensor to measure the radiation emitted from
each of the four surfaces ofthe cube. Place
the Sensor so that the posts on its end are in
contact with the cube surface (this ensures that
the distance of the measurement is the same for
all surfaces). Record y•ourmeasurements in the
appropriate table on the follmsångpage. Also
measure and record the resistance of the ther-
mistor. Use the table on the base ofthe cube to Ohmmeter
determine the corresponding temperature.
@ Increase the power switch setting, first to Figure 1.1 Equipment Setup
6.5, then to 8.0, then to "HIGH". At each
setting, wait for the cube to reach thermal equiliYium, then repeat the measurements
of step I and record your results in the appropriate table-

5
s c 'ent'ftc
 cjnittcd
radiationsummarizing your
Use the Radiation Sensor to cxatnine the relative magnitudes table
a
ofpapcr. make listed below.
sonous objects around the mom. On a separate sheet questions
answ er the
obscrsations. Make measurements that will help you to

and record
Radiation cube window
Place the Sensor S cm from black sensor and bulb. Does
0Cwindow glass between the
thtiereading. place a
glxss effectively block thermal radiation? repeat the
Lamp) and
e the Stefan-Boltzmann with other
black surface. Repeat
instead octhe
measurements ocstep l. but using the bare bulb
matcnals.

Radiation Rates from DifferentSurfaces

Data and Calculations power Setting
10.0
Power Setting S.()
Posver Setting 5.0 Power Setting 63 0 Thenn. Res.
Therm. Res• Temperature
Therm. Res. Therm. Res. Tetnpcrature
Temperature Temperature Sensor
Sensor Reading
Sensor Surface
Sensor Surfncc
Rending
Surface Rending (mV)
Surface Reading
(mV)
(mV)
Black
Black
Black White
White
White
White
Polished
Polished
Polished Aluminum
Polished Ali'l"inum
Alujiiinum
Alurnjnum
Dull
Dull
Dull Aluminum
Dull Aluminum
Alumjnum

SC'enti/tc
 0124u69SD Thermal Radiation System

Questions (Part 1)
CDList the surfaces of the Radiation Cube in order of the amount of radiation emitted. Is the order
independent of temperature?
@ It is a general rule that good absorbers of radiation are also good emitters. Are your measure-
ments consistent with this rule? Explain.

Questions (Part 2)
(D Do different objects, at approximately the same temperature, emit different amounts of radiation?
@ Can you find materials in your room that block thermal radiation? Can you find materials that
don't block thermal radiation? (For example, do your clothes effectively block the thermal
radiation emitted from your body?)

Absorption and Transmission of Thermal Radiation

Questions
(D What do your results suggest about the phenomenon of heat loss through windows?
@ What do your results suggest about the GreenhouseEffect?

7
s c lent'/tc
0124U69SD
Thermal Radiation System

Experiment 2: Inverse Square Law

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
— Radiation Sensor
— Stefan-BoltzmannLamp, Millivoltmeter
— Power Supply (12 VDC; 3 A), meter stick.

Align axes of filament and Sensor

Top View
x
Power Supply
(13 V MAX!)

Millivoltmeter Meter Stick

Align zero-point of meter stick

with center of filament

Figure 2.1 Equipment Setup

(D Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 2.1.

a. Tape a meter stick to the table.
b. Place the Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp at one end of the meter stick as shown. The
zero-
point of the meter stick should align with the center of the lamp filament-
c. Adjust the height of the Radiation Sensor so it is at the same level as the filament of
the
Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp.
d. Align the lamp and sensor so that, as you slide the Sensor along the meter
stick, the axis
of the lamp aligns as closely as possible with the axis of the Sensor.
e. Connect the Sensor to the millivoltmeter and the lamp to the power supply as indicated
in the figure.
@ With the lamp OFF, slide the sensor along the meter stick Record the reading of the
millivolt-meter at 10 cm intervals. Record your values in Table 2.1 on the following page.
Average these values to determine the ambient level of thermal radiation. You will need to
subtract this average ambient value from your measurements with the lamp on, in order to
determine the contribution from the lamp alone.
J Turn on the power supply to illuminate the lamp. Set the voltage to approximately 10 V.

9
s ctent'/tc
 012-046950

IMPORTANT: Do not let the voltage to the lamp exceed 13 V.

AdJust the distance between the Sensor and the lamp to each of the settings listed in Table 2.2.
At each setting. record the reading on the millivoltmeter.

JMPORTANT: Make each reading quickly. Between readings, move the Sensor away
from the lamp, or place the reflective heat shield between the lamp and the Sensor, so that
the temperature of the Sensor stays relatively constant.

x Ambient Radiation Level x Rad l/X2 Rad - Ambient

(cm) (cm •2)
(cm)
10 2.5
20 3.0
30
3.5

SO 4.0
4.5
70
5.0
80
90
6.0

7.0
Average Ambient 8.0
Radiation Level
9.0

Table 2.1 J0.0

Ambient Radiation Level J2.0
14.0
1
16.0

18.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0
40.0
45.0

50.0

60.0
70.0

80.0

2.2 900
Radiation Lovel vorsus Distanco

10
012-0469SD
Thermal Radiation System

Calculations
(D For each value of X, calculate l/X 2. Enter your results in Table 2.2.
@ Subtract the Average Ambient Radiation Level from each of your Rad measurements in
Table 2.2. Enter your results in the table.
@ On a separate sheet of paper, make a graph of Radiation Level versus Distance from Source,
using columns one and four from Table 2.2. Let the radiation level be the dependent (y) axis.
@ If your graph from part 3 is not linear, make a graph of Radiation Level versus l/X 2, using
columns three and four from table 2.2.

Questions
(D Which of the two graphs is more linear? Is it linear over the entire range of measurements?
@ The inverse square law states that the radiant energy per unit area emitted by a point source
of radiation decreases as the square of the distance from the source to the point of detection.
Does your data support this assertion?
@ Is the Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp truly a point source of radiation? If not, how might this
affect your results? Do you see such an effect in the data you have taken?

s c jent/f'c
 012-0469.SD Thermal Radiation System

Experiment 3: Stefan-BoltzmannLaw (high temperature)

EQUIPMENTNEEDED:
— Radiation Sensor —Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp
— Ohmmeter — Ammeter (0-3 A)
— Voltmeter (0-12 V) —Millivoltmeter
— Ohmmeter — Thermometer.

Introduction
The Stefan-Boltzmann Law relates R, the power per unit area radiated by an object, to T, the
absolute temperature of the object. The equation is:

4.
R=oT =5.6703 x 10 4
m 2K

In this experiment, you will make relative measurements of the power per unit area emitted
from a hot object, namely the Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp, at various temperatures. From your
data you will be able to test whether the radiated power is really proportional to the fourth
power of the temperature.
Most of the thermal energy emitted by the lamp comes from the filament of the lamp. The
filament temperature can be determined using the procedure given on pages 3 and 4 of this
manual.

Ammeter
Power Supply
(13 V MAX!)

Millivoltmeter
Voltmeter
6 cm

Figure 3.1 Equipment Setup

sctont//tc
Thermal Radjaoon System
012-046950

Procedure

IMPORTANT: The voltage into the lamp should NEVER exceed 13 V. Higher voltages
will burn out the filament.

(D BEFORE TURNING ON THE LAMP, measure the room temperaturein degrees

Kelvin, (K= OC + 273) and the resistance of the filament of the Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp
at room temperature. Enter your results in the spaces on the following page.
@ Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 3.1. The voltmeter should be connected directly to
the binding posts of the Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp. The Sensor should be at the same height as
the filament, with the front face of the Sensor approximately 6 cm away from the filament.
The entrance angle of the thermopile should include no close objects other than the lamp.
@ Turn on the power supply. Set the voltage, V, to each of the settings listed in Table 3.1 on
the following page. At each voltage setting, record I, the ammeter reading, and Rad, the
reading on the millivoltmeter.

LMPORTANT: Make each Sensor reading quickly. Between readings, place both sheets
of insulating foam between the lamp and the Sensor, with the silvered surface facing the
lamp, so that the temperature of the Sensor stays relatively constant.

14
012-0469SD Thermal Radiation System

Data and Calculations

(D Calculate R, the resistance of the filament at each of the voltage settings used (R = VA).
Enter your results in Table 3.1.
@ Use the procedure on pages 3 and 4 of this manual to determine T, the temperature of the
lamp filament at each voltage setting. Enter your results in the table.
O* Calculate T4 for each value of T and enter your results in the table.
a separate sheet of paper, construct a graph of Rad versus f. Use Rad as your dependent
variable (y-axis).
*In place of calculations (Dand , some may prefer to perform a power regression on Rad
versus T to determine their relationship, or graph on log-log paper and find the slope.
Questions
(D What is the relationship between Rad and T? Does this relationship hold over the entire
range of measurements?
@ The Stefan-Boltzmann Law is perfectly true only for ideal, black body radiation. A black body is
any object that absorbs all the radiation that strikes it. Is the filament of the lamp a true black
body?
(3) What sources of thermal radiation, other than the lamp filament, might have influenced your
measurements? What affect would you expect these sources to have on your results?

= 4.5 x 10-3K-'

T (room temperature) — K (K = OC +273)

R (filament resistance at =

Table 3.1
Data Calculations
1 Rad
(Volts) (Amps) (Ohms) (K)

I .00

2.00
3.00
4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00
9.00

10.00

11.00

12.00

scjent/ftc 15
 012-0469SD
Thermal Radiation System

Experiment 4: Stefan-BoltzmannLaw (low temperature)

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
— Radiation Sensor — Thermal Radiation Cube
—Millivoltmeter — Ohmmeter.
Introduction
In experiment 3, you investigated the Stefan-Boltzmann Law = ST4) for the high
n temperatures attained by an incandescent filament. At those high temperatures (approxi-
mately 1,000 to 3,000 K), the ambient temperature is small enough that it can be neglected
in the analysis. In this experiment you will investigate the Stefan-Boltzmann relationship at
much lower temperatures using the Thermal Radiation Cube. At these lower temperatures,
the ambient temperature can not be ignored.
If the detector in the Radiation Sensor were operating at absolute zero temperature, it would
produce a voltage directly proportional to the intensity of the radiation that strikes it. How-
ever, the detector is not at absolute zero temperature so it is also radiating thermal energy.
According to the Stefan-Boltzmann
law, it radiates at a rate, Rdet
ST 4. The voltage produced by the
sensor is proportional to the radia-
tion striking the detector minus the
radiation leaving it. Mathemati-
cally, the sensor voltage is propor-
tional to R -R rad-Rae, -
T 4). As long as you are careful to Ohmmeter
shield the Radiation Sensor from
the Radiation Cube when measure-
ments are not being taken, TJetwill
be very close to room temperature Millivoltmeter Heat Shield
(reflectiveside
toward cube)
Procedure Figure 4.1 Equipment Setup
(D Set up the equipment as shown in
Figure 4.1. The Radiation Sensor should be pointed directly at the center of one of the
better radiating surfaces of the cube (the black or white surface). The face of the Sensor
should be parallel with the surface of the cube and about 3 to 4 cm away.
With the Thermal Radiation Cube off, measure R , the resistance of the thermistor at room
temperature. Enter this data in the space on the following page.
O) Shield the sensor from the cube using the reflecting heat shield, with the reflective side of
the shield facing the cube.
O) Turn on the Radiation Cube and set the power switch to 10.
6) When the thermistor resistance indicates that the temperature is about 12 c o above room
temperature, turn the power down so the temperature is changing slowly. Read and record
R, the ohmmeter reading, and Rad, the millivoltmeter reading. The readings should be
taken as nearly simultaneously as possible while briefly removing the heat shield. Record
these values in Table 4.1.

17
s c /ont/"c
 ThcrmaJ Radiation Systcm
012-0469SD

IMPORTANT: Make each reading quickly, removing the heat shield only as long as it
takes to make the measurement. Take care that the position of the sensor with respect to the
cube is the same for all measurements.

6) Replace the heat shield, and turn the cube power to 10. When the temperature has risen an
additional 12-15 c o, repeat the measurements of step 5. Repeat this procedure at about 12-150
intervals until the maximum temperatureof the cube is reached.

Data and Calculations

Room Temperature: R —

Table 4.1

Data Calculations
Rad T4-T
(Y) (K)

O) Using the table on the base

of the Thermal Radiation Cube,
degrees Centigrade corresponding determine T the temperature in
to each of your thermistor
each value of T , determine Tk, resistance measurements. For
the corresponding value
Enter both sets ofvalues in in degrees Kelvin (K = oc + 273).
Table 4. I, above. In the
same manner, determine the room tem-
Q) CalculateT 4 for each value of
TKand record the values
in the table.
CO Calculate T each value OCT and
record your results in
COOn sheet 0Cpaper, construct the table.
a graph 0CRad versus
T a-T 4. Use Rad as the
depen-
Questions
What does your graph indicate about
the Stefan-Boltzmann
(2) Js your graph a straight line? Discuss law at low temperatures?
any deviations that
exist.
18

s c 'ent'f/c
 0120469SD
Thermal Radiation System

Teacher's Guide
Experiment 1: Introduction to Thermal Radiation

Notes on Questions Notes on Questions

Part 1
(D In order of decreasing emissivity, the surfaces are
Black, White, Dull Aluminum, and Polished Alumi-
num. This order is independent of temperature;and
within the temperature range tested, the ratio of
emissions between sides is almost constant. The
norrnalized percentages are as follows: (Black is
defined as 100%)
Normalized
Surface
Emissions
Part 2
(D Yes. All sides of the Leslie's Cube are at the same
temperature, but the polished side emits less than
10%as much radiation as the black side.
Materials that block thermal radiation well include
aluminum foil, styrofoam, etc. Materials that do not
block radiation as well include air, clothing, etc. All
materials will block radiation to some degree, but
Standard
there are strong differences in how much is
blocked.
Error

Notes on Questions
Black 100
Absorbtion and Transmission of Thermal Radiation
White 96.86
(D Heat loss through (closed) windows is primarily
conductive. Although the glass tested transmitted
Dull 20.23
some infrared, most was blocked.
Polished 738 A greenhouse allows light in, but does not allow
much heat to escape. This phenomenon is used to
@ Measurements are consistent with the rule, The bet- grow tropical plants in cold climates.
ter reflectors (poorer absorbers) are poor emitters.

Experiment 2: Inverse Square Law

Calculations

(J (3)
30 30
2.0(.0229L.2• (I A-1 )
Je2 - 9.822989L-J
25

s 20 s 20
15

10 c 10

5 5

o
o 10 20 30 50 00 o 0 02 0.04 0 06 o.oa 0.1 0.12 O.14 0.16
Dictanco (cm) 1/Ø2
19
oC/ont/'tc
Thermal Radiation System 012-046950

Notes on Questions Suggestion:

The largest part of the error in this lab is due to the
(D The graph of Radiation versus l/x is more linear,
non-point nature of the Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp.
but not over the entire range. There is a distinct
You can approximate a much better "point" source
falloff in intensity at the nearer distances, due to the
non-point characteristics of the lamp. (A graph of with a laser and a converging lens.
Radiation versus l/x using only data points from
IOcm or more is nearly linear.)
@ If we use data from distances that are large com-
pared to the size of the lamp filament—so that the Laser •poiß• Source
filament is effectively a "point"—then this data sup-
ports the hypothesis. lens and
For best results, use a short-focal-length
completely
@ The Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp is not truly a point make sure that the sensor is always
source. If it were not, then there would be a falloff within the beam.
in light level for measurements taken close to the
lamp. This falloff can be seen in our data.

temperatures)
Experiment 3: Stefan-Boltzmann Law (at high

Notes on Procedure Notes on Questions

of
data shows a power
Part I (D A power regression of our points
only those
4.36. However, an analysis of
(S Between readings, place the insulating material be- 15000shows a power
with temperature greater than
tween the lamp and the sensor. For best results use low-temperature
of 4.01. This inaccuracy in the
both sheets, with the aluminum sides facing away infrared by the
points is due to absorbtion of the
from each other. Remove the sheets for only l) This absorbtion
glass lamp bulb. (See experiment
enough time to take each measurement. temperatures, where
is more significant at the lower
percentage of the en-
the infrared makes up a larger
tire output.
Calculations

14 First fit uses all data pants,

higher.
5.521363E-14 • ) second uses only those 1500K or
100
12 9.979700E-l
f(x) = 5S21363E-14 • (x A4363701E+0 )
g 10
8.141230613 • (xUD06331E+O )
Rh2= 9.974766E-l
10

200 400 600 000 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Temperature (K) 0.1
100 1000 10000
Temperature (K)

20
s c'ønt't'c
012-046951) Thermal Radiation System

The lamp filament is not a true black body. If it
were, it would be completely and totally black at
room temperature. It is a fairly good approximation,
though, as long as the temperature is high enough
that the emitted light is much greater than the inci-
dent light.
(3) Any other thermal source in the room would influ-
ence the results, including the warm body of the ex-
perimenter and the room itself. These introduce
some error, but it is small as long as the tempera-
ture of the lamp is high compared to the tempera-
ture of these other sources.

Experiment 4: Stefan-Boltzmann Law (at low temperatures)

Notes on Procedure Calculations

O Make sure that the Thermal Radiation Cube has 18
been off for enough time to be at equilibrium with
16
the room before making this measurement.If the
14
cube has been turned on recently, use another ther-
mometer to make the measurement. s 12
G) Use ridiculous precautions with this experiment. It
Z 10
is impossible to have too much insulation between 8

the cube and the sensor between measurements. For c 6

our experiments, we use two foam sheets covered 4
123S36-SE-9•x
with aluminum tape, and an air gap between the 2 R A2 -9.881626E-1
sheets. We never removed this heat shield for more
than 5 seconds while taking a measurement.

Difference in
Notes on Questions
0) The linearity of this graph indicates that the Stefan-
Boltzmann equation is correct, even at low tempera-
tures.
@ The graph should be straight, with some statistical
variations.

21
s c / enti/tc
 Technical Support
Feed-Back
If you have any comments about this product or this
manual please let us know. If you have any sugges-
tions on alternate experiments or find a problem in the
manual please tell us. PASCO appreciatesany cus-
tomer feed-back. Your input helps us evaluate and
improve our product.
To Reach PASCO
For Technical Suppon call us at 1-800-772-8700(toll-
free within the U.s.) or (916) 786-3800.
Contacting Technical Support
staff it
Before you call the PASCO Technical Support
following information:
would be helpful to prepare the
note:
• If your problem is computer/software related,
Title and Revision Date of software.
Type of Computer (Make, Model, Speed).
Type of external Cables/Peripherals.
• If your problem is with the PASCO apparatus, note:
Title and Model number (usually listed on the label).
Approximate age of apparatus.
A detailed description of the problem/sequence of
events. (In case you can't call PASCO right away,
you won't lose valuable data.)
If possible, have the apparatus within reach when
calling. This makes descriptions of individual parts
much easier.
• If your problem relates to the instruction manual,
note:
Part number and Revision (listed by month and year
on the front cover).
Have the manual at hand to discuss your questions.
 Includes
Teachers Notes
and
Instruction Manualand 012-061230
Typical
Expenment Results Experiment Guide for the
PASCOscientific
Model AP-8210

MILLIKAN OIL DROP

APPARATUS

1010t Foothills Blvd. • Roseville. CA 95747-7100

Phone (916) 786-3800•FAX (916) 786-8905• tv-mepasco.com
012-061231)
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

Table of Contents
Section
Page
Copyright, Warranty, and Equipment Return
ii
Introduction
1-2
Equipment
Equipment Setup
Aligning the Optical System
Functions of Controls
Adjusting and Measuring the Voltage.............
Determining the Temperature of the Droplet Viewing Chamber .
Experimental Procedure .... . . ..
Computation of the Charge of an Electron................
Using a Projection Microscope with the Millikan Oil Drop Apparatus
Historical 11-15

Maintenance Notes
Cleaning ................................. .16
Replacing the Halogen Bulb .. .16
Adjusting the Vertical Reticle and Viewing Scope Alignments 16
Adjusting the Horizontal Reticle Alignment.......... 17
Touching Up the Black Painted Surface on the Plastic Spacer 17

Appendix
A: Viscosity of Dry Air as a Functionof Temperature 19
B: Themistor Resistanceat VariousTemperatures .20

Teacher's Guide .. . .. ...........-.......„......-....

21-24

Technical Support . Back Cover

 012-06123D
Millilzn Oil Drop Exrcnmcnt

Copyright,Warrantyand Equipment Return

Please—Feel free to duplicate this manual
subject to the copyright restrictions below.

Copyright Notice Equipment Return

The PASCO scientific 012-06123Cmanual is
copynghted and all nghLsreserved. However,
permission is granted to non-profit educational
lßtitutions for reproductionof any part of the
Mlllikan Oil Drop Experiment manual providing the
reprcductionsare wsedonly for their laboratories and
are not sold for profit. Reproduction under any other
circumstances,without the written consent of PASCO
scientific, is prohibited.
Limited Warranty
PASCO scientific warrants the product to be free from
defects tn materials and workmanship for a period ofone
year from the date of shipment to the customer. PASCO
•ml! repair or replace, at its option, any part of the product
Whichis deemed to be defective in material or
workmanship. The warranty does not cover damage to the
prØuct catvd by abuse or improper use. Determination
of a product failure is the result of a
manufacturing defect or improper use by the customer
'hall be rnade solely by PASCO scientific. Responsibility
for the return of equipment for warranty repair belongs to
the customer. Equipment must be properly packed to
prevent darnage shipped postage or freight prepaid.
(Damage caused by improper packing of the equipment
for return shipment Willnot be covered by warranty,)
Qhjrmjngcosts for returmng the equipment, after repair,
Will be paid by PASCO scientific.
Should the product have to be returned to PASCO
by
scientific for any reason, notify PASCO scientific
letter, phone, or fax BEFORE returning the product.
Upon notification, the return authorization and
shipping instructions will be promptly issued.
NOTE: NO EQUIPMENT WILL BE
ACCEPTED FOR RETURN WITHOUT AN
AUTHORIZATION FROM PASCO.
must
When returning equipment for repair, the units
responsi-
be packed properly. Carriers will not accept
improper packing. To be
bility for damage caused by
shipment,
certain the unit will not be damaged in
observe the following rules:
the
O) The packing carton must be strong enough for
item shipped.
Q) Make certain there are at least two inches of
packing material between any point on the
apparatus and the inside walls of the carton.
(J Make certain that the packing material cannot shift
in the box or become compressed, allowing the
instrument come in contact with the packing
carton.

Address: PASCO scientific

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Phone: (916) 786-3800

FAX: (916) 786-3292
Credits email:
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web: www.pasco.com
 012-061230
INTRODUCTION
The electric charge carried by a particle may be calculated
by measuring the force experienced by the particle in an
electric field of known strength. Although it is relatively
easy to produce a known electric field, the force exerted
by such a field on a particle carrying only one or several
excess electrons is very small. For example, a field of
1000 volts per cm would exert a force ofonly 1.6 IO-
dyne on a particle bearing one excess electron. This is a
force comparable to the gravitational force on a particle
with a mass of IO- (one million millionth) gram.
The success of the Millikan Oil Drop experiment depends
on the ability to measure forces this small. The behavior
of small charged droplets ofoil, having masses ofonly
10 12gram or less, is observed In a gravitational and an
electric field Measuring the velocity of fall of the drop in
air enables, with the use of Stokes' Law, the calculationof
the mass of the drop. The observation of the velocity of
the drop rising in an electric field then permits a
calculation of the force on, and hence, the charge carried
by the oil drop.
Although this experiment will allow one to measure the
total charge on a drop, it is only through an analysis of the
data obtained and a certain degree ofexpenmental skill
that the charge ofa single electron can be determined. By
selecting droplets which nse and fall slowly, one can be
certain that the drop has a small number ofexcess
electrons. A number ofsuch drops should be observed
and their respective charges calculated. If the charges on
these drops are integral multiples ofa certain smallest
charge, then this is a good indication of the atomic nature
of electricity. However, since a different droplet has been
used for measunng each charge, there remains the
question as to the effect of the drop itself on the charge.
This uncertainty can be eliminated by changing the charge
on a single drop wllile the drop is under obsenation. An
iomntion source placed near the drop will accomplish
this. In fact, it is possible to change the charge on the
same drop several times. If the results of measurements
on the same drop then yeld charges Inch are tmegral
multiples of some smallest charge, then this is proof of the
atomic nature ofelectncity.
The measurement of the charge of the electron also
permits the calculauon of Avogadro's number. The
amountof currentrequired to electrodeposit one gram
equivalent ofan element on an electrode (the faraday) is
MillikanOil Drop Expcnmcnt
equal to the charge of the electron multiplied by the
number of molecules in a mole. Through electrolysis
14
experiments, the faraday has been found to be 2.895 x 10
electrostatic units per gram equivalent weight (more 7
commonly expressed in the mks system as 9.625 x 10
coulombs per kilogram equivalent weight). Dividing the
faraday by the charge of the electron,
2.895 x 1014 e.s. uJgm equivalent weight
e-s.u.,
yields 6.025 x 10 molecules per gram equivalent weight,
or Avogadro's number.
EQUATION FOR CALCULATING THE
CHARGE ON A DROP
An analysis of the forces acting on an oil droplet will
yield the equation for the determination of the charge
carried by the droplet.
Figure I shows the forces acting on the drop when it is
falling in air and has reached its terminal velocity.
(Terminal velocity is reached in a few milliseconds for the
droplets used in this experiment.) In Figure l, v is the
velocity of fall, k is the coefficient of friction between the
air and the drop, m is the mass of the drop, and g is the
acceleration of gravity. Since the forces are equal and
opposite:
(1)
mg mg
Figure 1 Figure 2
Figure 2 shows the forces acting on the drop when
it is
nsmg under the influence of an electric field. In Figure
2,
E is the electnc Intensity, q is the charge camed
by the
drop, and v, ts the velocity of rise. Adding the forces
vectonally yields.
 Millikan 011 Drop Cxrcnrnent
012-0612JD

Eq=mg + (2) The electric intensity is given by

E = V/d,where Vis the
In both cases there is also a small buoyant force exerted potential difference across the parallel
plates
by the air on the droplet Since the density of air is only a distanced. E, V, and dare all expressed separatedby
in the same
about one-thousandth that of oil, this force may be system of units. If E is in electrostatic units,
Vin volts,
neelected. and din centimeters, the relationship is:

Eliminating k from equations ( I ) and ( 2 ) and solving E (e.s.u.) — "(volts)

for q yields: 300d(cm)

(3) Substituting equations ( 7 ) and ( 8 ) into equation ( 6 ) and

To eliminate m from equation ( 3 ), one uses the
expression for the volume ofa sphere:
m=snap
'*here a is the radius of the droplet, and p is the density of
the oiL
To calculate a, one employs Stokes' Law, relating the
radus of a spherical body to its velocity of fall in a
uscous medium (with the coefficient of viscosity, n).
rearranging the terms yields:
4007td lesu.
(4)
(10)
The terms in the first set of brackets need only be
determined once for any particular apparatus. The second
term is determined for each droplet, while the tern in the
third set of brackets is calculated for each change of
charge that the drop experiences.

2gp (5) The definitions of the symbols used, together with their
proper units for use in equation ( 9 ) are* **
Stokes' Law, however, becomes incorrect when the
velocity of fall of the droplets is less than 0.1 cm/s. q—charge, in e.s.u. , can-ied by the droplet
(Droplets having this and smaller velocities have radii, d—separation of the plates in the condenser in cm
on
the order of 2 microns, comparable to the mean free path p —density ofoil in gm/cm 3
of air molecules, a condition which violates one of the g— acceleration of gravity in cm/s 2
assumpuons made in deriving Stokes' Law.) Since
the n —viscosityof air in poise ( dyne s/cm )
velocities of the droplets used in this experiment
will be in b—constant, equal to 6. 17 x 10 (cm ofHg) (cm)
the rowe of0.0J to crn/s, the viscosity must be
rnultjpJJed by a correction factor. The resulting p —barometricpressure in cm ofmercury.
effective a —radius of the drop in cm as calculated by equation
Viscosity is:
(5)
vy—velocity of fall in cm/s
(6) vr—velocity of rise in cm/s
where b is a constant, p is the atmospheric pressure, V—potentialdifference
and a across the plates in volts
IS the radius of the drop as calculated by the
uncorrected Note: The accepted value
form of Stokes' Law, equatjon ( 5 e.s.u.,
fore is 4.803 x 10-10
or 1.60x 10-1
Substituting jn equation (6) into equation coulombs.
(5), and
then soJvjng for the radius a gives:
*For additional
information about Stokes' Law, the
student is referred
to Introduction to Theoretical Physics,
by L. Page (New York, Van
Nostrand), Chapter 6.
(7) A derivation may
Substituting equations (4), (5), ond (6) info be found in The Electron by R. A.
equation (3) Millikan (Chicago,
yjclds The University of
Chapter 5. Chicago Press),

Modern calculations
units. (See Evperimenta/ of q are usually conducted in SI
(8) Charge of an Electron, Procedure, Computation of the
page 7.)
012-061230 Millikan Oil Drop Expenment

EQUIPMENT
Included equipment:
plato charging switch
• apparatus platform and plate charging switch (see
detailed description below and on page 4)
atomizer
• 12 volt DC transformer for the halogen lamp
• non-volatile oil (Squibb #5597 Mineral Oil, density =
oil
SS6
• atomizer

Note: We measured the density of the Squibb Mineral

Oil and found it to be SS6kg/m . However, the platform 12 VOC
densities of different lots of mineral oil may vary' power
adaptor
slightly; therefore, for greatest precision, you should
determine the density of the mineral oil you are using.
Figure 3. Included equipment

plato charging switch

plate voltage connectors

thermlstor connectors
halogen lamp housing
convex lens
filament adjustment knob
(vertical)
droplet viewing chamber housing
lamp power jack

O filament adjustment knob

(horizontal)
Ionization sourco levor——— o
bubble level
focusing wire
support rod clamping screw —
— support rod clamping screw

support rod mount

support rod mount
droplet focusing ring UUÄ.AN ORæ
ADA*.arus thermistor resistance table

viewing scope reticle focusing ring

Figure 4. Apparatus platform

Mllljkan Oil Drop C.xrenrncnt
012-061230

Componcntsof platform:
It is recommended that you store the
• droplet saewqngchamber (see details below)
equipment in the original packing material.
• oeuing scope (30X, bright-field, erect image) with After unpacking, remove the foam insert
reticle (line separation: 0.5 mm major divisions, 0.1 from the droplet viewing chamber. Store
mm mmor divisions), reticle focusing ring, and the plate charging switch on the velcro tabs
droplet focusing ring located on the platform.
• halogen lamp (12 V, 5 W halogen bulb and dichroic,
infrared heat-absorbing window, horizontal and Required equipment, not included:
vertical filament adjustment knobs) • high voltage, well regulated power supply that
• focusing wire (for adjusting viewing scope) delivers up to 500 V DC, 10 mA minimum (for
example, the PASCO SF-9585 High Voltage Power
• plate voltage connectors Supply)
• thermistor connectors (thermistor is mounted in the digital multimeter (to measure voltage and
resistance)
bottom plate)
(for example, the PASCO SB-9599A Universal
Digital Multimeter)
WARNING: Do not apply voltage to the connectors (4) (for
• patch cords with banana plug
thermistor connectors. Banana Plug Patch
example, the PASCO SE-9415
Cord)
• therrmstor table (resistance versus temperature) PASCO SE-8702A
• stopwatch (for example, the
• mintion source lever (with three positions: Digital Stopwatch)
IonizationON, Jonintion OFF, and Spray Droplet
Additional recommended equipment:
Posmon)
stand
• PASCO ME-8735 Large Rod
• bubble level 45 cm (2)
• PASCO ME-8736 steel Rods,
• suppnlrod mountsand screws (to pennit mounting
of
platform on a PASCO ME-8735 Large Rod
Stand, so lid
vjewjng uope can be raised to a comfortable
eye
level)

• 3 leveling feet
• plate charpng switch (on a I meter
cord to prevent
vibranon of platform during switching housing
activity)
Components of dropjct viewing
cjj;unbej• (Figure 5)

• housing
• droplet holc cover
dropjot holo covor upper capacitor

• upper capacitor plufc (brass)

electrical
• plastic (uppcoxjmutcly7/' mm thick) connector
spacor
• lower capacitor plate (brass)
thorjum•232 alpha source (0008
base of
• elutncal connection to upper apparatus
pjofe
• lens jowor capacitor

Note: is o naturally occonjng,

low
level alpha-parljcle Witho ol' I ,'ll X housing
1010yean. Jf in not in poses pins
no 10 01 J'ASC()
Oil
Figuro 5. Droplet viewing
chamber
 012-061231) Millikan Oil Drop E.spcnment

Equipment Setup Measuring plate separation

1. Disassemble the droplet viewing chamber by lifting
Adjusting the environment of the experiment room
the housing straight up and then removing the upper
1. Make the room as dark as possible, while allowing for capacitor plate and spacer plate. (See Figure 5.)
adequate light to read the multimeter and stopwatch, Measure the thickness of the plastic spacer (which is
and to record data. equal to the plate separation distance) with a
micrometer. Be sure that you are not including the
2. Insure that the background behind the apparatus is
raised rim of the spacer in your measurement. The
dark.
accuracy of this measurement is important to the
3. Select a location that is free of drafts and vibrations. degree of accuracy of your expenmental results.
Record the measurement.
Adjusting the height of the platform and leveling it
1. Place the apparatus on a level, solid table with the
viewing scope at a height which permits the
Use care when handling the brass plates
experimenter to sit erect while observing the drops. If
and plastic spacer to avoid scratching therm
necessary to achieve the proper height, mount the
apparatus on two support rods (ME-8736) on the large
rod stand (ME-8735) (Figure 6).
2. Using attached bubble level as a reference, level the
apparatus with the leveling screws on the rod stand or All surfaces involved In the measurement
the leveling feet of the platform, as is appropriate for should be clean to prevent inaccurate
your setup. readings.

Adjust to comfortable eye level.

high voltage DC power supply

support
rods

rod stand

sturdy, non-vibrating table

Figure 6. Equipment setup

 Millikan Oil Drop Egrcnment 012.06123D

Aligning the Optical System

brightest (in highest contrast compared to the centerof
the wire).
Focusing the vie" ing scope 2. While viewing the focusing wire throughtheviewing
and the top capacitor
1. Rea€sernblethe plcstic spacer scope, turn the vertical filament adjustmentknobuntil
Replace the the light is brightest on the wire in the area of the
plate onto the lower capacitor plate.
the housing
housing,aligning the holes in its base with reticle.
pins. (See Figure 5.) 3. Return the focusing wire to its storage locationon the
platform.
Note: The thorium source and the
electncal connection on the lower capacitor
plate fit Functions of Controls
the plastic spacer.
into appropriatelysized holes on
Ionization source lever
ionization OFF position, the
1. When the lever is at the
place on all sides by plastic, so
2. Umscrewthe focusing wire from its storage ionization source is shielded on
in the enter the area of the
the platforn and carefully insert it into the hole that virtually no alpha particles
center of the top capacitor plate (Figure 7). drops.
plastic shielding is removed
2. At the ON position, the
to the ionizing alpha
and the drop area is exposed
thorium-232.
focusing wlro particles emitted from the
upper capacitor is vented
Position, the chamber
3. At the Spray Droplet escape when oil
spacer hole that allows air to
by a small air
to the chamber.
lowor capacitor drops are being introduced

Figure 7. Insertion of the focusing wire into the top

ionization ON position
capacitor plate
droplet viewing
3. Connect the 12 V DC transformer to the lamp power spray droplet position chamber housing
jack jn the the halogen lamp housing and plug it into a
wall socket.
Ionization lever

Chcck to be sure that the transformer is the

ionization OFF position
correct voltage: 100, J 17, 22(), or 240 V).

4. Bring the rctjclc into focus by turmng the reticle

focusjng rinw
Figure 8. Ionization source lever settings
5. View the focusjng wire through tlii.-•
vicwjng scope,
and bong the wjrc into Sharp focus by turnjng the
droplet focusing rinc Plate charging switch
The plate charging switch has three positions:
Note: Viewing will bc easjer Cor
expcnmcntcrs who wear glasses if the Viewing l. TOP PLATE—: negative binding post is connected
u;ope focused w"hout usjng the to the top plate.
2. "JOP PLATE +: negative binding post is conne
Cocusing the halogen filament to the bottom plate.

J. Adjust the filament 3. PLATES GROUNDED: plates are disconnected

knob,
Ijgjjt Int Cocusedwhen Cdre of 'he wjce from the lugh voltage supply and are electrically
connected.
6
012-0612-10
Adjusting and Measuring the
Voltage
1. Connect the high voltage DC power supply to the
plate voltage connectors using banana plug patch
cords and adjust to deliver about 500 V.
2. Use the digital multimeter to measure the voltage
deliNered to the capacitor plates.
Measure the voltage at the plate voltage
connectors, not across the capacitor plates.
There is a 10 megohm resistor in series with
each plate to prevent electric shock.
Determining the Temperature of the
Droplet Viewing Chamber
1. Connect the multimeter to the thermistor connectors
and measure the resistance ofthe thermistor. Refer to
the Thermistor Resistance Table located on the
platform to find the temperature of the lower brass
plate. The measured temperature should correspond to
the temperature within the droplet viewing chamber.
Although the dichroic window reflects
much of the heat generated by the halogen
bulb, the temperature inside the droplet
viewing chamber may rise after prolonged
exposure to the light. Therefore, the
temperature inside the droplet viewing
chamber should be determined periodically
(about every 15 minutes).
7
MillikanOil Drop Experiment
Experimental Procedure
l. Complete the reassembly of the droplet viewing
chamber by placing the droplet hole cover on the
top capacitor plate and then placing the lid on the
housing. (See Figure 5.)
Note: The droplet hole cover prevents additional
droplets from entering the chamber once the
experiment has started.
2. Measure and record the plate voltage and the
thermistorresistance (temperature).
Introducing the droplets into the chamber
l. Put non-volatile oil of known density into the atomizer
(for example, Squibb #5597 Mineral Oil, density: 886
kg/m3).
2. Prepare the atomizer by rapidly squeezing the bulb
until oil is spraying out. Insure that the tip of the
atomizer is pointed down (900 to the shaft; see Figure
9).
tip
shaft
Figure 9. Correct position of the atomizer tip
3. Move the ionization source lever to the Spray Droplet
Position to allow air to escape from the chamber
during the introduction of droplets into the chamber.
4. Place the nozzle of the atomizer into the hole on the lid
of the droplet viewing chamber.
5. While observing through viewing scope, squeeze the
atomizer bulb with one quick squeeze. Then squeeze
it slowly to force the droplets through the hole in the
droplet hole cover, through the droplet entry hole in
the top capacitor plate, and into the space between the
two capacitor plates.
6. When you see a shower of drops through the viewing
scope, move the ionization source lever to the OFF
position.
 Millikan 0/1 Drop Cmpcnment
012-06123D

If repeated"squirts"of the atomizer fail to following charges: 15 s, I excess electron; 7 s,

produce any drops in the viewmg area but
produce a rather cloudy brightening of the
field, the hole in the top plate or in the
droplet hole cover may be clogged. Refer
to the Maintenance section for cleaning
insüuctions.
2
excess electrons; 3 s, 3 excess electrons. (Note:
these ratios are only approximate.)
Note: If too many droplets are in view, you can
clear out many of them by connecting power to the
capacitor plates for several seconds.

Note: If you find that too few dropletshavenet

charges to permit the selection ofan appropriately
Note: The exact technique of introducing drops sized and charged drop, move the ionization lever to
uill need to be developed by the experimenter. the ON position for about five seconds.
The object is to get a small number of drops, not a
large, bright cloud from which a single drop can be 2. When you find an appropriately sized and charged oil
chosen. It is important to remember that the drops droplet, fine tune the focus of the viewing scope.
are being forced into the viewing area by the
pressure of the atomizer. Therefore, excessive use
of the atomizer can cause too many drops to be Note: The oil droplet is in best focus for accurate
forced into the viewing area and, more important, data collection when it appears as a pinpoint of
Into the area between the chamber wall and the bright light.
focal point of the viewing scope. Drops in this area
prevent observation of drops at the focal point of
the scope. Collecting Data on the Rise And Fall of the Oil
Droplet
Note: If the entire viewing area becomes filled fall (plates not
1. Measure the rise (plates charged) and
'*0th drops, so that no one drop can be selected, about 10—
charged) velocities of the selected droplet
either '*Zit three or four minutes until the
the drops 20 times. Maneuver the droplet as needed using
settle out of view, or disassemble
the droplet plate voltage switch.
vjewrngchamber (after tuming
off the DC power
supply), thus removing the is
amount of oil on the parts in
drops. When the Note: The greatest accuracy ofmeasurement
that the bright
chamfrr becomes excessive,
the droplet viewing achieved if you time from the instant
reticle
detailed in the Maintenance
clean them, ms
point of light passes behind the first major
section. Remember: behind
the less oil that is sprayed line to the instant bright point of light passes
into the chamber, the are 0.5
fewer times the chamber the second major reticle line. (These lines
must be cleaned.
mm apart.)

Selection of Drop
L [•rornthe drops In View, 2. Calculate the charge on the droplet. If the result of this
select a droplet that
slowly (about 002-0.05 both falls first determination for the charge on the drop is greater
mm/s) when the plate
chargjng switch ISin 'Jit: than 5 excess electron, you should use slower moving
"Plates Grounded"
aruj can be dnven up position droplets in subsequent determinations.
and down by
voltage, turnjng on the
3. Introducemore oil
droplets into the chamber using the
Jlinf: A drop that rcqujres
procedure previously described and select another
about 15 droplet
seconds to fall the distance
between the major
telic le Jtnes (0 5 mm) 4. Measure the
Willrise (be same nse and fall velocities of the selected
distance. under the influence droplet about 10-20
of an electnc times or until the charge changes
V/cm), jn the followjng field
tunes With'lie spontaneously or the droplet
moves out of view.

8
012-061230 Millikan Oil Drop Expenment

S. Bring the droplet to the top of the field of view and Suggested Procedure for Computation of the Charge
move the ionization lever to the ON position for a few of an Electron:
secon&s as the droplet falls.
1. Using equation (7) (page 2), calculate the radius (a) of
6. If the rising Nelocity of the droplet changes, make as the oil drop:
many measurements of the new rising velocity as you
can (10 to 20 measurements). b 2
¯
7. If the droplet is still in view, attempt to change the
2g(p)
charge on the droplet by introducing more alpha
2. Substitute a from the above equation to find the mass
particles, as described previously, and measure the
(m) of the oil droplet:
new rising velocity 10—20times, if possible.
8. Repeat step (7) as many times as you can.
m = —rip
9. Record the plate potential, the oil density, the viscosity
of air at the temperature of the droplet viewing 4 2
chamber, (see appendix A), and the barometric 3 2gp
pressure for each set of velocity measurements.

Note: It is desirable to observe as many different

charges on a single drop as possible. 3. Substitute m from the calculation above into equation
(3) (page 2) to find the charge carried by the droplet
(q):
Computation of the Charge of an Electron
1. Use the formula derived in the Introduction to
calculate the the charge of an electron*:
2
3 4
3 2gp
2gp

*The formula is derived from equation 10 (page 2),

using SI units as defined below. Note: Equation (10) ( page 2) is equivalent to the
above equation, since
The definitions of the symbols used, in SI units: V(volts)
E(es.u.)=
300d(cm)
q— charge, in coulombs, camed by the droplet
d— separation of the plates in the condenser in m
3
P— derrsity of oil in kg/m
2
g— acceleration of gravity in rn/s
2
n — viscosity of air in poise ( Ns/m ) (Appendix A)
b— constant, equal to 8.20 x 10-3 Pa •m
p — barometric pressure in pascals
a— radius of the drop inm
y— velocity of fall in m/s
v —velocity ofnse in m/s
V— potential difference across the plates in volts
'9
Note: The accepted value fore is 1.60 x 10
coulombs.

9
 Millikan Oil Drop L.xrcnment 012-061230

Using a Projecting Microscope with b. Proceed with step I of Aligning the Optical
the Millikan Oil Drop Apparatus
System.
2. Align and focus the projecting microscope:
To demonstrate Millikan 's experiment for an entire a. Set up the projecting microscope as directed in
classroom on a TV screen or computer monitor, use a the manufacturer's instructions.
projecting mjcroscope, such as the Ken-A-Vision b. After completing the setup and focusing of the
VideoFlex Microscope (PASCO Model No. SE-7227). Millikan Apparatus on the oil droplets, carefully
slide the eyepiece of the projecting microscope
Procedure: over the eyepiece of the Millikan Apparatus.
1. Puta white paper screen in the droplet viewing c. Focus the projecting microscope as directed in
chamber to reflect more light: the manufacturer's instructions.
I
a. Prior to focusing the viewing scope (step
under the Equipment Setup section, Aligning
screen
the Optical System), place a white paper
chamber as illustrated in
in the droplet viewing
Figure 10.
o
Cut a 32 x 6 mm
strip of white
paper and bend
back tabs of
6 x 6 mm.

Place the
paper screen lens
so the light
path Is not
blocked and
so the light is path of
reflected light
towards the source
lens of the
plastic
spacer.
paper screen

cross-section of tho plastic

droplet chambor housing spacer

scopo

Top View

Figure 10, Placing a white paper screen in the

droplet viewing chamber to increase the brightness
of tho oil drop imago

10
012-061231)
Historical
HISTORICAL NOTES
The Greeks were the first to report the effects of
elect-icity when they recorded that rubbed amber
attracted light objects. However, theories explaining this
phenomenon did not emerge until 1747, when Benjamin
Franklin proposed that an electrical fluid or fire existed in
certain amounts in all matter. An excess of this fluid in
matter would produce a positive charge and a deficiency
of this fluid would produce a negative charge. A slightly
different theory was put forth by the physicist Symmer
twelve years later. He proposed that matter in a neutral
state shows no electrical properties because it contains
equal amounts of two weightless fluids, which were
called positive and negative electricity respectively.
Franklin also postulated the existence ofan electrical
particle small enough to easily permeate matter.
Faraday's experiments in electrolysis, which
demonstrated that when a current is passed through an
electrolyte, the masses of compounds deposited at
opposite electrodes are in proportion to the chemical
equivalent weights of the compounds, also supported
Franklin's concept of an elementary electrical particle.
The fluid theories, along with a theory explaining
electricity as a state of strain in matter, were the prime
explanations of electrical phenomena until late in the
19th century.
EARLY DETERMINATIONS OF e
The word "electron" was first suggested in 1891 by Dr.
G. Johnstone Stoney as a name for the "natural unit of
electricity," namely, that quantity of electricity that must
pass through a solution in order to liberate at one
electrode one atom of hydrogen or any univalent
substance. It would follow that the charge of the electron
multiplied by the number of molecules in a gram mole
would give the amount ofelectricity required to deposit
one gram mole by electrolysis. This quantity had been
determined by Faraday to be 9650 absolute
electromagnetic units of electricity. Using this method,
Stoney obtained a value of 03 x 10 10es.u. (The Kinetic
Theory provided the basis for Stoney's estimation of
Avogadro's number).
The first experimental attempt to measure the charge
of an ion was made by Townsend in the late 1890's.
He had observed that during electrolysrs of sulfuric
11
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
acid, positively charged hydrogen and oxygen gasses
were produced (although there were one million mil-
lion neutral molecules to every charged one). This
method was used to produce an ionized gas that was
then bubbled through water to form a cloud. For his
determination Ofe Townsend proceeded in the follow-
ing manner:
1. He assumed that in saturated water vapor each ion
condensed moisture about it, so that the number of
ions was the same as the number of droplets.
2. He determined with the aid of a quadrant
electrometer the total electrical charge per cubic
centimeter can-iedby the gas.
3. He found the total weight of the cloud by passing it
through drying tubes and determining the increase in
weight of these tubes.
4. He found the average weight of the water droplets
constituting the cloud by observing their rate of fall
under gravity and computing their mean radius with
the aid ofa purely theoretical law known as Stokes'
Law.
5. He divided the weight of the cloud by the average
weight of the droplets of water to obtain the number of
droplets which, if assumption I is correct, was the
number of ions, and he then divided the total charge
per cubic centimeter in the gas by the number of ions
to find the average charge carried by each ion, that is,
to find e.
Townsend achieved results in the range of 3 x e.s.u.
for e. J. J. Thompson, in 1900, used a method similar to
Townsend's and obtained a value of 6 x 1010e.s.u. In
both of these methods, however, the first assumption
(each droplet formed around only one ion) proved to be
only approximately correct, and the experimental methods
were not adequate to provide a precise determination of e.
I-KS.Wilson improved upon Townsend's and
Thompson's work by adding B.vobrass plates which could
be connected to a 2000 volt battery. A cloud was formed
between these plates (not Charged) and the falling velocity
condensed from Robert A. Millikan's book, The
Electron (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1993,
pp. 45-46) and used with permission of the publishers.
 Millikan Oil Drop t;spenmcnt
of the cloud recorded. A second cloud was then formed
and its falling velocity observed in an electric field (the
plates being charged). Since the two velocities are
proportional to the forces acting on the drops , and the
velocity ofthe cloud with the plates uncharged determines
the size and mass of the drops by Stokes' Law, Wilson
ums able to obtain a value of 3 x 10 10e.s.u. fore. Since
Wilson's measurements were always made on the top of
the cloud, or the drops with the smallest charge (the more
heavily charged drops being driven downward faster in
the field), the assumption of one ion per drop was
MILLIKAN'S DETERMINATION OF e
Millikan improved upon Wilson 's design by using a
higher potential across the plates so that the falling
velocity of the cloud could not only be impeded, but
actually reversed. Some charged drops moved upward,
some moved rapidly downward, while the uncharged
drops were unaffected and continued to drift downward.
A few drops, which carried a charge of the proper
magnitude so that the force of gravity on the drop almost
equaled the force of the electric field on the drop,
remained in view. By varying the potential of the plates,
Millikan couldjust balance these drops. This situation
proved to be a significant improvement for it permitted all
measurements to be made on a single drop. By using this
balanced drop method, Millikan was able to observe the
properties of individual ions and to determine whether
different ions carry one and the same charge.
In the following passage, taken from the "Philosophical
Magazine" for February, 1910,Millikan describes the
actual procedure of the experiment.
"The observations on the rate of fall were made with a
short-focus telescope placed about 2 feet away from the
plates. In the eyepiece of this telescope were placed three
equallyspacedcross-hairs.... A small section of the
space between the plates wcs illuminated by a narrow
beam from an arc light, the heat of the arc being absorbed
by three water cells in series. The air between the plates
was ionized by 200 mg of radium of activity 20,000
2
With the plates uncharged the iörce is mg where m is
the nurss ofthe drop and g is the acceleration
of grav-
ity. With the plates charged the force is mg ±
Ee
where E is the electric intensity between
the plates
and en is the charge on the drop.
The italicizedphrases indicate
a slight change in
wording, for purposes of clarity,
from Millikan's
original work.
12
012-061230
placed from 3 to 10 cm away from the plates. A second or
so after the cloud was producect 3 the radium was removed
. and the field thrown on by means a double-throw
switch. If the drops were not found to be held suspended
by the field the potential difference was changed ... The
cross-hairs were set near the lower plate, and as soon as a
stationaty drop was found somewhere above the upper
cross-hair, it was watched for a few seconds to make sure
that it was not moving and then the field was thrown off
and the plates short-circuited by means of the double-
throw switch, so as to make sure that they retained no
charge. The drop was then timed by means of an accurate
stop watch as it passed across the three cross-hairs, one of
the two hands of the watch being stopped at the instant of
passage across the middle cross-hair, and the other at the
instant of passage across the lower one. It will be seen
that this method of observation fumishes a double check
upon evaporation; for if the drop is stationary at first, it is
not evaporating sufficiently to influence the reading of the
rate of fall, and if it begins to evaporate appreciably before
the reading is completed, the time required to pass
through the second space should be greater than that
required to pass through the first space. It will be seen
from the observations which follow that this was not, in
general, the case.
It is an exceedingly interesting and instructive experiment
to watch one of these drops start and stop, or even reverse
its direction of motion, as the field is thrown offand on. I
have often caught a drop which was just too light to
remain stationaty and moved it back and forth in this way
four or five times between the same two cross-hairs,
watching it first fall under gravity when the field was
thrown off and then rise against gravity when the field
was thrown on ....
Furthermore, since the observations ... are all made upon
the same drop, all uncertainties msto whether conditions
can be exactly duplicated in the formation of successive
clouds obviously disappear. There is no theoretical
uncertainty whatever left in the method unless it be an
uncertainty as to whether or not Stokes' Law applies to
the rate of fall of these drops under gravity."
Experiments with the balanced water drop produced the
value of 3.422 x 10 10e.s.u. fore. The most important
aspect of these experiments, however, was the observation
by Millikan that a rising drop would suddenly change its
velocity. This phenomenon could easily be produced by
placing a radioactive source near the drop. This
demonstrated that the drop had "captured" an ion, thus
changing the charge of the drop and its respecuve
velocity.
 012-OS123D Millikan Oil Drop Expenmznt

THE EXACr EVALUATIONOF e
apparatus designed for the observation of single oil drops
for extended periods of time. Since water drops had
proved inadequate for prolonged observation ofthis ion
catching phenomenon, Millikan used oil drops, which
were not affected by evaporation. The apparatus
consisted oftwo parallel brass plates separated by a
distance of 16 mm by ebonite blocks. Non-volatile oil
was sprayed into the chamber above the plates, and small
drops slowly found their way into the area between the
plates through a small hole in the top plate. The drops
were illuminated by a beam from a carbon arc lamp and
were observed through a measuring scope. The detailsof
the construction of Millikan•s final apparatus built in
1914 (which was basically similar to his earlier devices,
and for the purposes of this discussion can be considered
the same as the earlier pieces of apparatus) attest to the
effort expended in obtaining the most accurate evaluation
Ofe possible. The following passage is part of Millikan's
description of the apparatus, including a diagram of the
device.
"Accordingly, J built two years ago a new condenser
having surfaces which were polished optically and made
flat to within two wave-lengths of sodium light They
were 22 cm. in diameter and were separated by three
pieces of echelon plates, 14.9174 mm. thick, and having
optically perfect plate surfaces. The dimensions ofthe
condenser, therefore, no longer introduced an uncertainty
of more than about I part in 10,000.
"Complete stagnancy of the air between the condenser
plates was attained, first, by absorbing all the heat rays
from the arc lamp by means of a water cell 80 cm. long,
and a cupric chloride cell, and secondly, by immersing the
whole vessel in a constant temperature bath of gas-engine
oil (40 liters), which permitted, in general, fluctuations of
not more than 0.02 oc during an observation-

Diagram of Millikan's Apparatus 7

J J —A. atomzzr through *hicb thz bloun tnto thruylrndncal vessel D G, 011tank to keep the tem-
peraturec.ocstant BfaruJ,V. circulat brasl pläiZ', electncal fizlrf hy throwng or I G.OOO-voItbatteryB. Light
frum arc l•np a afia hat raj" are removed by razoge throuÉh and enters chamber through glass '.qndow g and Illu-
droplzl.p bctae.en plates grand V through the pmholc If Additional tcns are produced aboutp by X-rays from
bulb
X
'MtJ11kan,Robert X, p. J IS. 7
Millikan. Robert p. J 16.
C
M11hkan, Robert A, J 10.
13
 Millikan Oil Drop Lxpenmcnt 012-0612M)

With this new apparatus hundreds of measurements on charge. The column headed 4.917 x n contains simply the
different drops were made, for the purpose of both making whole series of exact multiples of this number from I to
an exact evaluation Ofe and proving or disproving the 18. The column headed 'Observed Charge' gives the
atomic theory of electricity. The value Ofe that was successive observed values of the rising velocity of the
obtained Cromthese five years of work was 4.774 x 10-10 drop plus the falling velocity. Jt will be seen that during
e.s.u. This value Ofe was accepted until 1928 when a the time of observation, about four hours. this drop camed
precise determination of Avogadro's number by X-ray all possible multiples of the elementary charge from 4 to
diffraction measurements on crystals permitted the 17, save only 15. No more exact or more consistent
calculation Ofe to be 4.803 x 10 10e.s.u. The discrepancy multiple relationship is found in the data which chemists
was later traced to Millikan's too low value for the have amassed on the combining powers of the elements
viscosity of air. and on which the atomic theory ofmatter rests than is
found in the foregoing numbers.
ATOMIC NATURE OF ELECTRICITY Such tables as these—and scores of them could be
given—place beyond all question the view that an
The atomic nature of electricity is best exemplified by the electricalcharge wherever it is found, whether on an
following table taken from Millikan's data: insulator or conductor, whether in electrolytesor in
metals, has a definite granular structure, that it consists of
n 4.917 x n Observed an exact number of specks of electricity (electrons) all
Charge exactly alike, which in static phenomena are scattered
4.917 over the surface of the charged body and in current
phenomena are drifting along the conductor. Instead of
2 9.834 giving up, as Maxwell thought we should some day do,
3 14.75 the 'provisional hypothesis of molecular charges,' we find
ourselves obliged to make all our interpretationsof
19.66 19.66
electrical phenomena, metallic well as electrolytic, in
5 24.59 24.60 terns of it."

6 29.50 29.62 Although the values of the charge on a specific drop were
34.47 found to be exact multiples of a certain value (e), the value
7 34.42
Ofe varied for drops ofdilTerent masses. This
8 39.34 39.38 discrepancy was traced to the breakdown ofStokes• Law.
44.42 Through experimentation the law was found to fail when
9 44.25
the size of the drop approached the mean free path of air
49.17 49.41 molecules. When this situation occurs, the medium in
10
54.09 53.91 which the drop falls is no longer homogeneous In relation
to the drop. This contradicts one of the upon
12 59.00 59.12 which Stokes' Law is based. Through his work on the
63.92 63.68 electron, Millikan was able to determjne a correction
13
factor for Stokes' Law.
68.84 68.65
By performing the expenrncnt Withmercury drops and
15 73.75 drops of other materials. Millikan demonstrated that the
16 78.67 78.34 elementary electrical charge was the same for Insulators,
semi-conductors, and conductors. Ile also demonstrated
17 83.59 83.22
that the beta particle had the same charge msan electron
18 88.51 (indeed, it is an electron) and that positive and negative

Millikon makes the following comments about this table.

"In this table 4.917 js merely a number obtmned . liorn
the change jn specd due to the capture oc ions and one
8 Milllkan, Robert A..p 74
which is proportional in tins experiment to the jonic 74—75.
9Millikan, Robert A., PP.
012-061230 Millikan Oil Drop Expenment

electrons (the positive electron refemng to a proton and

not a positron) are equal in charge. The experiment also
produced insights into the study of ionized gasses.
Few experiments that are so simple in principle have
provådedsuch a wealth of experimental evidence to
confirm the atomic theory and measure an important
physical constant.

SuggestedReading
Should the student desire a more detailed back ground in
this classic experiment, the following references are
suggested:
l. Millikan, Robert A. , The Electron, (Chicago, The
University ofChicago Press, 1917 (reprinting in
paperback form, 1963).
2. Millikan, Robelt A., "The Isolation ofan Ion, A
Precision Measurement of its Charge, and the C01Tection
of Stokes' Law," The Physical Review, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp.
109-143, June 1913.
3. Millikan, Robert A., "On the Elementaw Electrical
Charge and the Avogadro Constant," ThePhysical
Review, vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 349-397, April, 1911.
4. Shamos, M.H., Great Experinlents in Physics (Holt-
Dryden, New York, 1959), pp. 238—249.

15
 012-0612M)
Millikan 011 Drop Especimcnt

Maintenance Notes
Cleaning Adjusting vertical reticle and viewing scope
alignments
1. The housing of the droplet viewing chamber, the
capacitor plates, the plastic spacer, and the droplet Ifthe alignment of the reticle or viewing scope is altered
hole cover should be cleaned with water and during rough handling, realign it using the following
detergent, with particular attention to the droplet hole procedure:
in the top capacitor plate, the glass observation port 1. Loosen the set screw in the viewing scope holder
covers on the housing, and the droplet hole cover. (Figure 12).
2. The plastic spacer should be polished with a soft, lint-
free cloth to remove any oil, finger prints, or lint.
3. The lens on the plastic spacer should be cleaned on
both sides using a Q-tip.
4. Apply a thin film of oil to the capacitor plates to help
prevent corrosion.
5. Dry all parts completely before reassembly.

sot scrow
Always handle the plastic spacer and capacitor
plates chrefully to avoid scratching them.

Solvents that might attack the plastic should be

avoided. Figure 12. Location of viewing scope set screw

Replacing the halogen light bulb
l. Disconnect the apparatus from all power sources.
2. Remove the four screws on the halogen lamp housing
and lift off the top cover. Gently pull the halogen bulb
out of its socket.
3. Replace with a GE #18426 halogen bulb (12 V, 5 W,
T3 type with 2-Pin G4 base, C6 straight filament).
Carefully insert the pins at the base of the bulb into the
socket and press firmly to seat the bulb securely.
Handle the new halogen bulb only with tissue
paper—oil on the hands may damage the
bulb.
2. With the focusing wire in place and while looking
through the eyepiece, rotate the viewing scope until
the vertical reticle lines are vertical to the focusing
3. Find the center of focus in the adjustment knob on the
viewing scope (this will be approximately half-way
between minimum and maximum focus).
4. Manually move the viewing scope in and out through
its holder until the focusing wire comes into focus.
5. Recheck the reticle to assure that it is still in proper
alignment with the focusing wire (as in step 2).
6. Lock the viewing scope into position by tightening
the set screw into the viewing scope holder.

16
012-061230 Millikan Oil Drop Expenrnent

Adjusting the horizontal reticle alignment
If the horizontal alignment of the viewing scope is altered
during rough handling, realign it using the following
procedure:
1. Loosen one of the two socket head cap screws on the
bottom of the platform shown in Figure 13.
2. With the focusing wire in place and while looking
through the eyepiece, gently tap the viewing scope
until the focusing wire is centered in the reticle.
Touching up the black painted surface on the
plastic spacer
After prolonged use and repeated cleaning, the black paint
(Figure 14) that absorbs refracted and reflected light on
the plastic spacer may begin to wear off. In that event,
touch up the surface with a thin coat of flat black acrylic
paint such as that available at hobby stores. Do not use a
lacquer or oil-based paint.

Do not allow paint to get on the top and

bottom flat surfaces of the plastic spacer,
Only a very small adjustment will be
since that would change the plate spacer
required. Use care to avoid losing sight of
thickness.
the focusing wire.

3. Lock the viewing scope into position by tightening the black-painted area
two socket head cap screws into the viewing scope
holder.

socket head cap

C) screws for scope
adjustment

bottom of platform

Figure 14. Area on the plastic spacer that should be

paintedblack

Figure 13. Location of the socket head cap screws

that anchor the viewing scope

17
012-061231) Millikan (Dil Drop Experiment

Appendix
Appendix A: Viscosity of Dry Air as a Function of Temperature*

Viscosity of Dry Air as a Function of Temperature

1.8840
1.8800
1.8760
1.8720
1.8680
1.8640
1.8600
1.8560
1.8520
1.8480
x 1.8440
E 1.8400
z 1.8360
1.8320
1.8280
1.8240
1.8200
1.8160
1.8120
1.8080
1.8040
1.8000
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Temperature 2C

19
 012-0612M)

Appendix B:

Various Temperatures
Millikan Oil Drop Apparatus Thermistor Resistanceat

THERMISTOR RESISTANCE TABLE

x 1060 x 10 6 x 1060
10 3.239 20 1 .774
2.300
11 3.118 21 2.233 31 1 .736
12 3.004 22 2.169 1 .700
13 2.897 23 2.110 1-666
14 2.795 24 2-053 1 .634
15 2.700 25 2.000 1 .603
16 2.610 1 .950 1 .574
17 2.526 27 1 .902 1-547
18 2.446 28 1 .857 1 .521
19 2.371 29 1.815 39 1 _496

20
012-061231) Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

Teachers Guide

Note: It is best that students work in pairs—one to observe the drop and one to
record the experimental data.

Note: Leveling will be most accurate if the bubble level is observed from
directly above during leveling.

Note: If more accuracy with leveling is needed to prevent the oil droplets from
gradually drifting off to one side during prolonged observations, perform the level-
ing operation using a two-dimensional level or ball bearing placed directly on the
bottom capacitor plate.

As an example of typical experimentalresults, the following pages list one teacher's data, using the
alternative method for calculating the charge on an electron that is presented on page 9. The
teacher measured the velocity of the drop moving down with the plates charged and used the
method listed below to organize the data for computation.

For each different charge event for a drop the following was done:
1. Measured the velocity of the falling drop with the plates not charged, the velocity of the rising
drop with the plates charged, and the velocity of the falling drop with the plates charged;
2. Assigned a "charge letter" to each event of differing charge for each oil droplet; for example, for
drop l: IA, 0 (velocity of the falling drop with the plates not charged), 1B, u (velocity of the
rising drop), 1B, d (velocity with the plates charged of the falling drop), IC, u, d, and ID, u, d ;
for droptlet 2: 2A0, u, d, 2B u, d, 2C u, d, and so on.
3. Averaged all measurements for a drop falling with the plates not charged, for use to determine a;
4. For each charge letter, averaged the measurementsfor the cases of the drop rising or falling with
the plates charged;
5. Calculated the average charges on each droplet for each charge letter (averaging the charges for
the cases with the droplet rising and with the droplet falling while the plates were charged);
6. Listed the average charges for the charge letters in order of increasing size and calculated the av-
erage
difference between charges;
7. Calculated the number of e for droplet under each of the charge conditions by dividing the aver-
age charge for each charge letter by the average difference in charge from step 5, above.

The data and calculations for measurementson one droplet are listed on the followingpages.

21
 012-0612M)

Oil Drop L.renrnent

= 28.80 C
Sample Data for Millikan Apparatus: Voltage = 386 V; Temperature

Drop#/
Distance timed (mm) Time (s) Direction:
Charge Letter
0 = no field
U = going up
D = going down

0.5 18.24
0.5 18.56
0.5 19.24
0.5 18.05
0.5 17.23
0.5 15.35
0.5 16.70
0.5 17.99
0.5 15.35
0.5 1725
0.5 18.38
0.5 18.32
JD 0.5 16.56
0.5 18.70
0.5 16.56
1.0 33.63
0.5 17.30
0.5 19.06
0.5 18.33
0.5 16.21
0.5 15.36
0.5 15.70
0.5 17.10
0.5 17.30
0.5 17.80

Average Time with no field = 17.34s for 0.5 mm

22
 012-0612M)
Miljikan Oil Drop Expcnmcnt

of
l. The temperature was T = 0.822 mQ = 28.80C, which gives the viscosity
air = n = 1.867x 10-5 kg/m•s.
2. For this droplet, a = 4.9 x IO- m ± 0.2 x IO- m.
gives the
3. The plate separation was 0.767 cm and the plate voltage was 386 V, which
electric field = E = 5.03 x 104 V/m.
4. The density of the oil was 886 kg/m , which gives the weightof the
droplet = mg = 4.26 x 10 15N.
5. The pressure was 1.01 x 105 Pa.

Table of Results
Drop# / Charge for Going Up Charge for Going Down Average Charge
Charge Letter (x 10 19C) (x 10 19C) (x 10 19C)

4.72 4.71 4.72

1B 6.18 6.35 6.27

1.51 1.68 1.60

ID 3.09 3.06 3.08

1.52 1.52 1.52

Table of Final Analysis

Drop#/ Average Charge Differences between Number of e =
Charge Letter (x 10 19C) Letter Charges Avg. Charge/Avg. Diff.
(x 10 19C)

1.52 D-E = 1.56

1.60 D-C = 1.48 le
ID 3.08 A-D = 1.64

IA 4.72 B-A = 1.55

6.27 Average diff. = 156

The percent difference between the differencebetween

charges(156 x
1049 C) and
the
4.9 x IO- m ± 0.2 x IO- m (4 % error).
• a was
• Errors for q

24
 Technical Support
Feedback Contacting Technical Support
If you have any comments about the product or Before you call the PASCO Technical Support staff, it
manual, please let us know. If you have any sugges- would be helpful to prepare the following informa-
tions on altemate experiments or find a problem in the tion:
manual, please tell us. PASCO appreciates any
customer feedback. Your input helps us evaluate and If your problem is computer/softwarerelated, note:
improve our product. - Title and revision date of software;
To Reach PASCO - Type of computer (make, model, speed);
For technical support, call us at 1-800-772-8700(toll- - Type of external cables/peripherals.
free within the U.S.) or (916) 786-3800.
If your problem is with the PASCO apparatus, note:
fax: (916) 786-3292
- Title and model number (usually listed on the
e-mail: techsupp@PASCO.com label);
web: www.pasco.com - Approximateage of apparatus;
- A detailed description of the problem/sequence
of events. (In case you can't call PASCO right
away, you won't lose valuable data.);
- If possible, have the apparatuswithin reach when
calling to facilitate description of individual parts.

If your problem relates to the instruction manual,

note:
- Pan number and revision (listed by month and
year on the front cover);
- Have the manual at hand to discuss your ques-
tions.
 Includes
teachers Notes
and
Instruction Manual 0 12-04049J
08/98
ExpenmontResults and Experiment Guide
for the PASCOscientific
Model AP-9368 and AP-9369

h/e Apparatus
and
h/e Apparatus Accessory Kit

0 1989 PASCO sc,entific 5.00

Dener
Foothills Blvd. • Roseville, CA 95747-7100 rays to
s c / ent/ttc Phone (916) 786-3800 • FAX (976) 786-8905 • www.pasco.com teacnsoence
012-04049J We Apparatus and h/e Apparatus Accessory Kit

Tableof Contents
Section Page
Copyright, Warranty, and Equipment Return. ii
Introduction .
Background Theory
Equipment and Setup
Equipment List
Installing the Batteries .
Battery Voltage Check.....
Equipment Setup
Using the Accessory Kit Filters ..
Experiments:
Experiment l: Wave Model vs Quantum Model
Experiment 2: The Relationship of Energy, Wavelength
and Frequency ................... 11
Technical Information 13
Theory of Operation 13
Schematic Diagram......... . 14
Teacher's Guide..... ... .15
Technical Support Inside Back Cover
 012-04049J
li te Apparatus and lite Apparatus Accessory Kit

Copyright, Warranty,and EquipmentReturn

Please—reel free to duplicate this manual

subject to the copyright restrictions below.

Copyright Notice Equipment Return

to PASCO
The PASCO scientific 012-04049J h/e Apparatus and Should the product have to be returned
scientific by
Il/e Apparatus Accessory Kit manual is copyrighted scientific for any reason, notify PASCO
the product.
and all rights reserved. However, permission is granted letter, phone, or fax BEFORE returning
and ship-
to non-profit educational institutions for reproduction Upon notification, the return authorization
of any part of the manual providing the reproductions ping instructions will be promptly issued.
are used only for their laboratories and are not sold for NOTE: NO EQUIPMENT WILL BE
profit. Reproduction under any other circumstances, ACCEPTED FOR RETURN WITHOUT AN
without the written consent of PASCO scientific, is AUTHORIZATION FROM PASCO.
prohibited.
When returmng equipment for repair, the units must be
Limited Warranty packed properly. Carriers will not accept responsibility
for damage caused by improper packing. To be certain
PASCO scientific warrants the product to be free from
the unit will not be damaged in shipment, observe the
defects in materials and workmanship for a period of
following rules:
one year from the date of shipment to the customer.
PASCO will repair or replace at its option any part of (j) The packing carton must be strong enough for the
the product which is deemed to be defective in material item shipped.
or workmanship. The warranty does not cover damage
(2) Make certain there are at least two inches
to the product caused by abuse or improper use. of pack-
Determination of whether a product failure is the result ing material between any point on
the apparatus and
of a manufacturing defect or improper use by the the inside walls of the carton.
customer shall be made solely by PASCO scientific. (3) Make certain that the packing
Responsibility for the return of equipment for warranty material cannot shift
in the box or become
compressed, alloning the
instrument come in contact
properly packed to prevent damage and shipped with the packing carton.
postage or freight prepaid. (Damage caused by im- Address: PASCO scientific
proper packing of the equipment for return shipment
10101 Foothills Blvd
will not be covered by the warranty.) Shipping costs
for returning the equipment after repair will be paid by Roseville, CA
95747-7100
PASCO scientific.
Phone: (916) 786-3800
FÆX: (916) 786-3292
email:
techsupp@pasco.com
web:

Credits
This manual edited by: Dave Griffith
Teacher's guide written by: Eric Ayar
 012-NNAJ
Introduction
The enussion and absorption of light w•asan early subject
for imotigation by German physicist Max Planck As
Planck attempted to formulate a theory to explain the
spectral distribution ofemitted light based on a classical
model, he ran into considerable difficulty. Classical
theory (Rayleigh-Jeans Law) predicted that the amount of
by light emitted from a black body would increase dramati-
call}'as the wavelength decreased, whereas experiment
showed that it approached zero. This discrepancy became
known as the ultraviolet catastrophe.
st be
billty
the
Figure I. The h/eApparatus Shown With the Accessory Kit and MercuryVapor Light Source
We we Accesso—y
Experimental data for the radiation of light by a hot.
glowing body showed that the maximum Intensity of
emitted light also departed dramatically from the clas-
sically predicted values (Wien's Law). In order to rec-
oncile theory with laboratory results, Planck was
forced to develop a new model for light called the
quantum model. In this model, light is emitted in
small, discrete bundles or quanta.
The relationship between the classical and quantum theo-
ries for the emission of light can be investigated using the
PASCO scientific We Apparatus. Using Apparatus in
combination with the PASCO Mercury Vapor Light
Source (Model OS-9286) allous an accurate determina-
tion of the We ratio and thus a determination of h,
Planck's constant.
 0120049J
tVo Apparatus
h/o Apparatus Accessory
Kit

Background Theory
kinetic energy of the emit-
Planck's Quantum Theory whereKE is the maximumthe energy needed to re-
IV o is
By the late 1800's many physicists thought they had ex- ted photoerectrons,and
of the material (the work
plained all the main principles of the universe and discov- move them from the surface
E is the energy supplied by the quantum of
cred all the natural laws. But as scientists continuedwork- function).
ing, inconsistencies that couldn't easily be explainedbe- light known as a photon.
gan showing up in some areas of study. The h/e Experiment
upon an elec-
In 1901 Planck published his law of radiation.In it he A lightphotonwith energy hr is incident
stated that an oscillator, or any sijnilar physicalsystem, tron in the cathode of a vacuum tube. The electron uses a
has a discrete set of possible energy values or levels;cn- minimum of its energy to escape the cathode, leaving
ergies between these values never occur.
it witha maximumenergy of KE in the forn of kinetic
Planck went on to state that the emission and absorption energy. Nonnally the emitted electrons reach the anode of
of radiation is associated with ttansitions orjumps be- the tube, and can be measured as a photoelectric current.
tween two energy levels. The energy lost or gained by the However, by applying a reverse potential V between the
oscillator is emitted or absorbed as a quantum of radiant anode and the cathode, the photoelectric current can be
energy, the magnitude of which is expressed by the equa-
stopped.KE can be determined by measuring the mini-
tion:
mum reversepotential needed to stop the photoelectrons
E=hv and reduce the photoelectric current to zero. • Relating
where E equals the radiant energy, v is the frequencyof kineticenergyto stoppingpotential gives the equation:
the radiation, and h is a fundamental constantof nature.
The constant, h, became known as Planck'sconstant, Therefore, using Einstein's equation,
Planck's constant was found to have significancebeyond
relating the frequency and energy of light, and becajnea
When solved for V, the equation
cornerstone of the quantum mechanical view of the suba- becomes:
tornic world. In 1918,Planck was awardeda Nobelprize
Cor introducing the quantum theory of light. If we plot r vs v for different
frequencies of light, the
graph will look like Figure
The Photoelectric Effect 2. The V intercept is equal to -
and the slope is h/e.
In photoelectric emission, light strikes a material, causing Coupling our experimental de-
tennination of the ratio h/e
with the accepted value for
e, 1.602x 1009coulombs,
dicted tLat as the intensity of incident light was increased, we can determine Planck's
constant, h.
the amplitude and thus the energy of the wave would in-
crease. This would then cause more energeticphotoelec- Stoppjng
Irons to be emitted, The new quantum model, however, Potential
V
predicted that higher frequency light would produce
higher energy photoelectrons, independentof intensity,
while jncrcased 'litcnsity would only increasethe number
olelcctrons emitted (or photoelectric current). In the
early 1900s several investigators round that the kinetic Slope
= h/e
energy of lljc•photoelectrons was dependent on the
Wave-
length, or frequency, ond independent of intensity,
while
flit: magnitude of lhc•photoelectric current, or number
oc
electrons was dependent on the intensity as predicted
by Frequency v
Ille quantum model, Einstein applied Planck's
theoty
and Figure 2. The
the photoelectric effect in tenns of
model usjng his Camousequation for which he
the quantum graph of V vs. V
received *NOTE: In
tlje Nobel prjze jn 1921: paratus the
experiments with
stopping potential the PASCO Ap-
rather than is measured directly,
by monitoring
see the the photoelectric
current
motion section in the Technical Infor-
of the manual
2 for details.

4. Tum on the Light Source and allow it to warm up for
minutes. Check the alignment ofthe Light Source
and the Aperture by looking at the light shining on the
back of the Lens/Grating assembly. If necessary, adjust
the back plate of the Light Aperture Assembly by loos-
ening the tv.o retaining screws (Figure 8) and sliding
the aperture plate left or right until the light shines di-
rectly on the center of the Lens/Grating Assembly.
Figure 8. Light Aperture Adjustment
5. Insert the Coupling Bar assembly into the lower
mounting groove of the Light Source (Figure 5). Se-
cure in place by tightening the thumbscrew against the
front of the Light Source housing.
6. Remove the screw from the end of the Support Base
rod Insert the screw through the hole in the Support
Base plate and attach the rod to the Support Base plate
by tightening the screw (use Phillips drive screwdriver).
7. Place the lie Apparatus onto the Support Base
Assembly.
8. Place the Support Base assembly over the pin on the
end of the Coupling Bar assembly.
9. Connect a digital voltmeter (DVM) to the OUTPUT
terminals of the h/e Apparatus. Select the 2V or 20V
range on the meter.
10.Set the h/e Apparatus directly in front of the Mercury
Vapor Light Source. By sliding the Lens/Grating as-
sembly back and forth on its support rods, focus the
light onto the white reflective mask of the h/e Appara-
tus (Figure 9).
h/e Apparatus and h/e Apparatus Accessory Kit
Window to
White Photodiode
Mask
White
Reflective
Mask
Light Shield
Base Support Rod (shown tilted to
the open position)
Figure 9. hie Light Shield
ll. Roll the light shield of the Apparatus out of the way to
reveal the white photodiode mask inside the Appara-
tus. Rotate the We Apparatus until the image of the
aperture is centered on the window in the photodiode
mask. Then tighten the thumbscrew on the base
support rod to hold the Apparatus in place.
12. As in step 9, slide the Lens/Grating assembly back and
forth on its support rods, until you achieve the sharpest
possible image of the aperture on the window in the
photodiode mask. Tighten the thumbscrew on the Lens/
Grating assembly and replace the light shield
13. Turn the power switch ON. Rotate the We Apparatus
about the pin of the Coupling Bar Assembly until one
of the colored maxima in the first order shines directly
on the slot in the white reflective mask Rotate the We
Apparatus on its support base so that the same spectral
maxima that falls on the opening in the White Reflec-
tive Mask also falls on the window in the photodi-
ode mask.
NOTE: The white reflective mask on the We
apparatus is made ofa special fluorescent materiaL
This allows you to see the ultraviolet line as a blue
line, and it also makes the violet line appear more
blue. You can see the actual colors of the light if
you hold a piece of white non-fluorescent material
in front of the mask (The palm of your hand works
in a pinch, although it fluoresces enough that the
UV line will still be visible.)
When making measurements it is important that
only one color falls on the photodiode window.
There must be no overlap from adjacent spectral
maxima.
5
 012-04049J
hfo Apparatus and
Apparatus Accessory Kit

Whito
+0

Ultraviolot

Bluo
Groon
Yellow

2nd and 3rd Order Overlap

Green & Yellow Spectral lines

in 3rd Order aro not Visible

Color Frequency(Hz) Wavelength (nm)

All values except wavelength for yellow line are
from //andboo/c of Chemistry and Physics, 46th ed, Yellow 5.18672E+14 578
The wavelength of the yellow was determinedex- Green 5.489961>14 546.074
penmentally using a 600 line/mm grating. Blue 6.878581914 435.835
NOTE: The yellow line is actuallya doublet Violet 7.40858E+14 404.656
with wavelengths of 578 and 580mm.
Ultraviolet 8.20264E+14 365.483

Figuro 10. Tho Throo Orders of Light Gradients

14. Press "PUSI 1 TO ZERO" button on the side panel Using the Filters
of the life Apparatus to discharge any accumulated po-
The (AP-9368)lb/eAppamtus
tcnfial in the unit's electronics. This will assure the Ap- includes three filters: one
paratus records only the potential oCthe light you are Green and one Yellow,plus
a Vanable Transmission Filter.
measuring. Note thal the output voltage will drill with The filter frames have
magnetic strips and mount to the out-
tljc•absence oc light on the photodiode, side ofthe White
Reflective NILSkof the h/e
Apparatus.
output voltage on your digital voltmeter. It is Use the green and
15. Read yellow filters when you're
green and yellow using the
a direct measurement of the stopping potential for the spectral lines. These
photoelectrons, (See frequencies filters limit higher
in the Tech- oflight fromentering
njcal Information section of tlje manual for an expla- prevents ambient the hie Apparatus. This
room light from
nation of' toe measurement.) lowercnergy yellow interfering with the
and green light and
results. It also masking the true
blocks the higher
NOTE: roc some apparatus, the stopping poten- from the higher frequency ultraviolet light
order spectra
lower orders of which may overlap with
yellow and green.
j to actual btoppjnc potential voltage.
The variable
Transmission Filter
generated patterns ofcomputer-
oCd0Lsand lines
(not frequency) that vary the intensity
oflhe incident
mission percentages light The relative trans-
Te 100%,
80%, 60%.40%, and 200/0.
01204049J h/e Apparatus and h/o Apparatus Accossory Kit

Experiment 1: The Wave Model of light

vs. the Quantum Model

According to the photon theory of light, the maximumkinetic energy, KE , of photoelectrons

depends only on the frequency of the incident light, and is independentof the intensity. Thus
the higher the frequency of the light, the greater its energy.
In contrast, the classical wave model of light predicted that KE would depend on light inten-
sity. In other words, the brighter the light, the greater its energy.
This lab investigates both of these assertions.Part A selects two spectral lines from a mercury
light source and investigates the maximum energy of the photoelectronsas a mction of the
intensity. Part B selects different spectral lines and investigatesthe maximum energy of the
photoelectrons as a fttnction of the frequency of the light.

Setup
Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram below. Focus the light from the Mercury Vapor
Light Source onto the slot in the white reflective mask on the WeApparatus. Tilt the Light
Shield of the Apparatus out of the way to reveal the white photodiode mask inside the Appara-
tus. Slide the Lens/Grating assembly forward and back on its support rods until you achieve the
sharpest image of the aperture centered on the hole in the photodiode mask. Secure the
Lens/Grating by tightening the thumbscrew.
Align the system by rotating the WeApparatus on its support base so that the same color light
that falls on the opening of the light screen falls on the window in the photodiode mask, with no
overlap ofcolor from other spectral lines. Retum the Light Shield to its closed positiom
Check the polarity ofthe leads from your digital voltmeter (DVM), and connect them to the
OUTPUT terminals of the same polarity on the h/e Apparatus.

Experiment 1. Equipment Setup

 01201049J
hfo Apparatus and hie Apparatus Accessory Kit

Procedure
Part A mask
the opening of the
l. Adjust the h/e Apparatus so that only one Ofthe spectral colors falls upon
corresponding colored
of the photodiode. If you select the green or yellow spectral line, place the
filter over the White Reflective Mask on the h/e Apparatus
(and over the colored
2. Place the Variable Transmission Filter in front of the White Reflective Mask
reaches the pho-
filter, if one is used) so that the light passes through the section marked 100% and
todiode. Record the DVM voltage reading in the table below.
is re-
Press the instrument discharge button, release it, and observe approximately how much time
quired to return to the recorded voltage.

3. Move the Variable Transmission Filter so that the next section is directly in front of the incoming
light. Record the new DVM reading, and approximate time to recharge after the discharge button
has been pressed and released.
Repeat Step 3 until you have tested all five sections of the filter.

Repeat the procedure using a second color from the spectrum.

Color #1 %Transmission Stopping Potential

(name) Approx. Charge
Time
100

80

60

40

20

Color #2
0/0Transmission
(name) Stopping
Potential
Approx. Charge
100 Time

80

60

40

20

8
012-04049J h/o Apparatus and h/o Apparatus Acconsory Kit

Part B
l. You can easily see five colors in the Inercury light spectrum, Adjust the h/e Apparatus so that
only one of the yellow colored bands Callsupon the opening of the mask oc the photodiode.
Place the yellow colored filter over the White Reflective Mask on the h/e Apparatus.
2. Record the DVM voltage reading (stopping potential) in the table below.

3. Repeat the process for each color in the spectrum. Be sure to use the green jilter when measur e
ing the green spectrum.

Analysis
l. Describe the effect that passing different amounts of the same colored light through the Vari-
able Transmission Filter has on the stopping potential and thus the maxtmum energy of the
photoelectrons, as well as the charging time after pressing the discharge button.
2. Describe the effect that different colors of light had on the stopping potential and thus the
maximum energy of the photoelectrons.
3. Defend whether this experiment supports a wave or a quantum model of light based
on your
lab results.

Explain why there is a slight drop in the measured stopping potential as the light intensity
is
decreased.

NOTE: While the impedance of the zero gain amplifier is very high (A it is not
infinite and some charge leaks off. Thus charging the apparatus is analogous to filling
a
bath tub with different water now rates while the drain is partly open.

Light Color Stopping Potentval

Yellow

Green

Blue

Violet

Ultravjolct

9
012-04049J h/o Apparatus and h/o Apparatus Accossory Kit

Experiment 2: The Relationship between Energy,

Wavelength,and Frequency
According to the quantum model of light, the energy of light is directly proportional to its
frequency. Thus, the higher the frequency, the more energy it has. With careful experimentation,
the constant of proportionality, Planck's constant, can be determined.
In this lab you will select different spectral lines from mercury and investigate the maximum en-
ergy of the photoelectrons as a function of the wavelength and frequency of the light.

Setup
Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram below. Focus the light from the Merct11YVapor
Light Source onto the slot in the white reflective mmskon the h/e Apparatus. Tilt the Light Shield
of the Apparatus out of the way to reveal the white photodiode mask inside the Apparatus. Slide
the Lens/Grating assembly fonvard and back on its support rods until you achieve the sharpest im-
age of the aperture centered on the hole in the photodiode mask. Secure the Lens/Grating by tight-
ening the thumbscrew.
Align the system by rotating the h/e Apparatus on its support base so that the same color light that
falls on the opening of the light screen falls on the window in the photodiode mask with no overlap
of color from other spectral bands. Retum the Light Shield to its closed position.
Check the polarity of the leads from your digital voltmeter (DVM), and connect them to the OUT-
PUT terminals of the same polarity on the h/e Apparatus.

Experiment 2. Equipment Setup

Il
 012-040490
h/o Apparatus and
h/o Apparatus Accossory Kit

Procedure
l. You can see five colors in two the WeApparatus
orders of the mercury lightspectrum.Adjust of
careiillly so that only one color from the first order (the brightestorder) fallson the opening
the mask of the photodiode.
that
2. For each color in the first order, measure the stopping potentialwith the DVMand record
measurement in the table below. Use the yellow and green colored filterson the Reflective
Mask of the h/e Apparatus when you measure the yellow and green spectrallines.
3. Move to the second order and repeat the process. Record your results in the table below.

Analysis
Determine the wavelength and frequency ofeach spectral line. Plot a graph of the stopping
potential vs. frequency.
Determine the slope and yr-intercept.Interpret the results in terms of the h/e ratio and the rro/e
ratio. Calculate h and W .
In your discussion, report your values and discuss your results with an interpretationbased on
a quantum model for light.

First Order Wavelength Frequency Stopping Potential

Color nm volts

Yellow

Green

Blue

Violet

Ultraviolet

Second Order Wavelength Frequency

Color
Stopping Potential
nm
volts

Yellow

Green

Blue

Violet

Ultraviolet

12
01204049J hie Apparatus and h/e Apparatus Accessory Kit

Technical Information
Theory of Operation Due to the ultra high input impedance, once the capacitor
In experiments with the h/e Apparatus, monochromatic has been charged from the photodiode current it takes a
light falls on the cathode plate of a vacuum photodiode long time to discharge this potential through some leak-
tube that has a low work function, age. Therefore a shorting switch labeled "PUSH TO
Photoelectrons
ejected from the cathode collect on the anode. Zero" enables the user to quickly bleed off the charge.
However, the op-amp output will not stay at 0 volts aner
The photodiode tube and its associated electronics have a the switch is released since the op-amp input is floating.
small capacitance which becomes charged by the photo-
electric current. When the potential on this capacitance Due to variances in the assembly process, each appara-
reaches the stopping potential of the photoelectrons, the tus has a slightly different capacitance. When the zero
current decreases to zero, and the anode-to-cathode volt- switch is released, the internal capacitance along with
age stabilizes. This final voltage between the anode the user's body capacitance coupled through the switch
and cathode is therefore the stopping potential of the is enough to make the output volatge jump and/or os-
photoelectrons. cillate. Once photoelectrons charge the anode the input
voltage will stabilize.
To let you measure the stopping potential, the anode is
connected to a built-in amplifier with an ultrahigh input
impedance (> 1013Q), and the output from this amplifier
is connected to the output jacks on the front panel of the
apparatus. This high impedance, gain (Vout/Vin= l)
amplifier lets you measure the stopping potential with a digi-
tal voltmeter.

13
 01-z0U43J

Dl
111314

2- 7

71
4
UI
VACUJJLI
1%314
1733

70

J3_4 73—4 73-5

TEST
J3_Z 71-4 721 33- ı
33

33._2 71—4

11-5 71-5 72-1

12-4 72-4
— 2471

247 2 -'2-5 72-5

41-1 71-1 72-2 rz-2

77—2*

Schemztic Dizgram

14
012040490 h/e Apparatus and h/e Apparatus Accessory Kit

Teacher's Guide

Exp I-h/e Apparatus and Accessory Kit

Part A
2
In each case, the
time to reach full 1.8

voltage increases 1.6 Yidd

dramatically
Blue
with decreasing
intensity. (up to Grem
a minute for
20% intensity) c 08
506

0.2

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Part B Irierrsity
(X)

Analysis
l. The amount of light does not 2
significantly affect the f(x) —
- 4.145193E-1S4x + -1.412029E+O
1.8
stopping potential. It does R A2 = 9.942S24E-1 (Fim order)
affect the time it takes to
reach this potential. From roc) = 4222680E-iS•x + -1 4S8628E+O
RA2 = 9942518E-1 (Second order)
this we can determine that
the intensity of the light
affects the number of elec- 0.0
Irons emitted, but not the 506
maximumenergy of the o First Ordd
electrons. O Second Cr der
02
2. Different colors of light do
affect the maximum energy
of the photoelectrons. The
relationship appears to be
Frequercy
linear.
3. This experiment supports a
quantum model of light.
The slight drop in the measured stopping potential is due to the leakage of charge through
the
zero-gain amplifier. As the intensity decreases, the equilibrium point between the electrons
arriving and the electrons leaving through the amplifier becomes lower.

15
 h/o Apparatus
and h'o Apparatus
Accessory Kit
012-04049J

Exp 2-h/e Apparatus and Accessory Kit

Analysis
2
1.8 f(x) = + -1.412029E+O
First order: R A2 = 9.942524E-1 (First order)
1.6

h = 6.6406E-34 f(x) = 4.222680E-15*x + -1.458628E+O

(0.22% off) 12 R A2 = 9.942518E-1 (&cond order)

W = 1.412ev
0.8
Second order:
0.6
h 6.7647E-34 0.4 o first Orda
(2.1% off) O Second der
02
W 1.459ev

it-j

Freq uercy (H z)

16
 TechnicalSupport
Feed-Back
Contacting Technical Support
If any comments about this product or this
please let us Before you call the PASCO Technical Support staff, it
If you have any suggestions
ca exp:rzmats or find a problem in the would be helpful to prepare the follomng information:
please tell us PASCO appreciates any cus-
If your problem is '*ith the PASCO apparatus, note:
toner feed-back Your input b:lps us evaluate and
our product - Title and model number (usually listed on the
label);
To Reach PASCO - Approximateage of apparatus;
For Technical Support call at I -SOO-772-S700
- A detailed description of the probleffsequence of
(toll-free v.lthin the US.) or (916) 7S6-3SOO.
events (in case you can't call PASCO right at*ay,
(916) 7863292 you won't lose valuable data);
e-az.ll: - have the apparatus within reach when
78. calling to facilitate description of indi'ådual parts

If your problem relates to the instruction manual,

note:
- Part number and re'.åsion (listed by month and
year on the front cover);
- Have the manual at hand to discuss your
questions-