CONTROLLING VESSELS and TANKS © Walter Driedger, P. Eng., 2001 Sept 07.

walter(at)driedger(dot)ca

First published in Hydrocarbon Processing , July 1995.

INTRODUCTION. It would seem that controlling a vessel should be a very simple matter -- They don't
really do anything! But then, if they didn't do anything why are there so many of them? And why do they
have so many different names? Going through a typical set of Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams
(P&IDs) I see the following vessels:
· Degassing Drum · Gas Separator · Storage Tank
· Feed Flash Drum · Reflux Accumulator · Day Tank
· Surge Drum · Suction Scrubber · Slug Catcher
· Lube Oil Separator · Head Tank · Deaerator
Although each of these is essentially a simple vessel or tank without any special internal structure, each
serves a different purpose. Once it is clear what the purpose of a piece of equipment is, and how it
functions, it will also be clear how to control and protect it. Different purposes require different controls.
SURGE TANKS. The most common function of a vessel or tank is to match two flows that are not
identical in time but are expected to average out over the long run. Take a feed surge drum, for
example. Flow into the unit is more or less steady but is subject to interruption. The flow to the
processing unit should be as constant as possible, avoiding sudden change. Nevertheless, it, too, may be
subject to interruption due to downstream conditions.
The purpose of the surge drum is to maintain sufficient inventory to feed the process and to maintain
sufficient void capacity to continue receiving feed as it arrives. Clearly the tank must be large enough to
accommodate any normal discrepancies between input and output over a reasonable period of time.
Between the upper and lower bound, the exact value of the level does not matter.
Two separate control parameters are implied: Level and flow. Level control is no problem. Greg Shinskey
1
refers to "The easy element -- capacity". A high gain, level controller connected to a valve at either the
inlet or the outlet will maintain the level very accurately at its setpoint. The only problem with this
approach is that it absolutely defeats the purpose of the vessel. The same effect would be achieved by
blocking in the vessel and bypassing the inlet directly to the outlet.
To control flow alone is also quite simple. A flow controller at the outlet, properly tuned, will maintain a
steady flow to the process. Unfortunately, there is nothing to make this flow equal to inflow. It will not
even equal the average inflow unless there is something to make it do so.
What we need is an instrument that measures the accumulated error between inflow and outflow. The
tank itself is that instrument!

Level = Starting Level + (Inflow - Outflow) dt / Tank Area

(To a process controls engineer, every piece of equipment is just a big, non-tuneable instrument!) The
level transmitter only transmits the process value to the control system. If we now cascade the output of
the level controller to the flow controller, we have a system that has one process variable: Accumulated
flow imbalance. It has only one point of control: Outflow to the process.
To start this simple process:
 · Fill the tank about half full.
· Give the level controller the current level as its set point. (PV tracking does this automatically.)
· Switch the flow controller to automatic with an estimated average flow as its setpoint.
· Switch the flow controller to cascade.
· Switch the level controller to automatic.

The control system will keep the flow "constant" but that constant varies in response to the imbalance
between outflow and inflow. It is not important that the initial estimate of average flow be exact. A low
guess will result in the tank level rising a little. A new, higher, estimate will result and the outflow will be
adjusted accordingly. In the long term the average flow out is not an independent variable at all. It will
be exactly equal to the average flow in. This can be accomplished at any arbitrary tank level. The level
setpoint is based on the operator's estimate of the nature of the flow interruptions and whether the most
probable upset will require additional flow or void capacity.
Should a pump be necessary to transfer the liquid from the vessel to its destination it should be placed
between the vessel and the flow measurement. Further information on the control of pumps is found in
Controlling Centrifugal Pumps2 . This article also includes a section titled "On/off Control" for less critical
level applications.
There is a long discussion on the special requirements for level control of steam heat exchangers and
condensate receivers in Controlling Steam Heaters3.
Surge drums are sometimes used for gas. The abrupt flow variations of a Pressure Swing Absorption
(PSA) unit, for example, often need to be smoothed out before the tail gas can be introduced into a
down-stream process. In these cases, pressure takes the role that level has in a liquid process. That is, a
pressure/flow cascade is the appropriate solution.
TUNING SURGE TANK CONTROLLERS. Since the exact level of a surge drum is not important, the
controller can be tuned very loosely allowing the level to rise and fall in response to any short term
imbalances. This exactly serves the purpose of the surge tank; tight tuning defeats it. There is a non-
linear control algorithm which specializes in the type of loose control required by surge tanks. One
common name is the "gain on error squared" controller. Figure 6-2 shows its characteristic. The controller
responds to small errors with a small gain; it responds to large errors with a large gain. This means that
in the vicinity of the setpoint, the controller allows the level to drift freely and the flow to remain almost
constant. With luck, the level will average out again before the deviation from setpoint is too great. If the
level changes far from the setpoint so that the danger of running out of capacity exists, the controller
responds with a strong signal and rapidly brings the level back to near setpoint.
 Another form of non-linear controller is also
available: The notch or gap controller. This algorithm has the gain divided into three segments by two
break points. The middle segment, on either side of the setpoint, has a low gain to avoid excessive action
while the outer segments have a higher gain for a rapid return. It has the advantage of allowing the user
to set the breakpoints and gains below the setpoint differently from those above. Its disadvantage is that
it has four tuning constants instead of only the one found in the gain-on-error-squared controller. Some
gap controllers have a zero gain in the centre segment. This is totally useless as the controller will never
bring the level back to the setpoint. (No gain, no action.) Instead it will tend to use either the upper or
lower breakpoint as its effective setpoint and return the level with a high gain. It should be noted that an
abrupt change in gain does not imply an abrupt change in valve position, only a change in the rate of
movement.
A simple proportional mode controller is sufficient for many surge drum applications. A slow integral may
be used to bring the level back to the setpoint during a prolonged change in flow rate, but it should be
turned off if cycling results. Do not use the derivative mode! Besides amplifying noise, derivative provides
tight control by cancelling out the integrating capacity of the tank and thus defeating its purpose. A
tuning rule I have heard of, but have not tested myself is
K = D F/F * D L/L
Where K = controller proportional gain
D F/F = the proportion of flow variations in the uncontrolled flow
D L/L = the proportion of level available for surge. This is the distance between the level
setpoint and the nearest alarm.
This formula attempts to put the loosest level control consistent with keeping the level away from the
alarms. There is a catch, however: It is necessary to predict the amount of flow variation to be expected
in the future. Of course it is also necessary to do this to a certain extent when the vessel is sized.
SUCTION SCRUBBERS. A compressor suction scrubber is an example of a vessel whose purpose is to
separate, collect, and dump relatively small quantities of liquid from a gas stream. The following
conditions generally apply:
· Precise level control is of no value.
· Smoothness of liquid flow is of no value.
· The liquid flows to some form of drain.
· The average liquid flow is quite small.
· The pressure differential across the valve is high.
· Relatively large slugs of liquid occur occasionally.
The last three conditions would result in a valve that is usually operating near its seat with a high D P. It
would experience severe erosion resulting in a short, unhappy life. The solution is to control the valve in
on/off or "snap acting" mode. There are several ways to accomplish this. The simplest is to tune the
controller to a very high gain. This would cause the valve to spend almost all its time in the full open or
closed position. Unfortunately the high-gain controller would also try to maintain accurate level control by
rapidly switching the valve between these extreme positions. Any saving in seat erosion would be
cancelled by a high rate of stem and packing wear. The same response can be achieved by using a
simple level switch connected to the control valve via a solenoid. (Pneumatic level switches tubed directly
to the valve actuator diaphragm are also available.) A level switch can be viewed as a controller with an
extremely narrow proportional band (0%!) and consequently an extremely high gain (100% / 0% =

).
Selecting a switch with a broad deadband results in a great improvement. The valve now remains fully
open until a significant reduction in level is achieved. It then remains fully closed until the level
substantially rises. With this arrangement it is possible for the valve to have both long life and peak
capacity. Recent experience indicates that transmitters are more reliable instruments than switches and
also demand less maintenance4. If transmitter is used the deadband function is accomplished through
logic in the control system. This would have the added advantage of allowing the operator access to the
high and low setpoints. In some ways the suction scrubber acts as the exact opposite of a surge drum --
it collects slow dribbles of flow and releases them as intermittent surges.
Sometimes there is a third option -- specialized liquid dump valves. These behave somewhat like steam
traps in their ability to pop open in the presence of liquid and snap shut in the presence of vapour. Since
they are not general purpose instruments, it is best to use them only when there is an opportunity to test
their performance; the vendor should be consulted. These devices might be very cost effective in
packaged equipment such as on the discharge receiver of an instrument air compressor.
STEAM DRUMS. The purpose of a boiler steam drum is to provide space in which the water and steam
may disengage. Since the drum serves at high pressures and temperatures, perhaps up to 3600 psi and
1000ºF (25 MPa and 540ºC), it is expensive to manufacture and there is considerable
economic incentive to keep it as small as possible. The techniques of boiler feed water (BFW) control can
be applied whenever extremely tight level control is a requirement.
The level of the feedwater in the steam drum must be kept above the bottom of the drum or a
catastrophic explosion may result. It must also be kept below the steam outlet or liquid water will be
carried over. Water droplets will damage superheater tubes, turbine blades, and other equipment. The
diameter of the steam drum, and hence its cost, is determined largely by the ability of the control system
to keep the water level within bounds.
 Thus level
control of a steam drum has exactly the opposite purpose of that of a surge drum: The water level must
be kept within an extremely narrow band and tight control is of essence. It is a simple matter to maintain
tight level control... use both the proportional and integral modes and turn up the gain! Figure 6-3,
Single-Element BFW Control, shows this very simple arrangement. As always, there are problems. Firstly,
high gain means extremely rapid swings in flow rate. The BFW pumps suffer under that type of abuse.
There is a second problem, peculiar to boilers, called "swell". Swell is the phenomenon in which a rise in
steam demand causes a drop in pressure. This in turn results in a rapid boilup within the tubes which
causes the water level to rise. Paradoxically, an increased steam removal rate causes a rise in level due
to the swelling of the steam bubbles. The level controller responds by reducing BFW flow at the very
moment it is needed most. The swelling water soon collapses as the steam rises to the surface. Now the
controller reverses its response and adds a large amount of essentially cold BFW into the system. This
causes the water temperature to fall. The cooler water shrinks, lowering the level further. The use of
single-element control is not very highly recommended for boilers!
 The
disturbance to the level is caused by a change in steam withdrawal rate. Since this is a measurable
quantity, feed forward can be applied to the level controller output. Figure 6-4 shows how this is
accomplished. The compensated steam flow is added to the output of the level controller. Thus a rise in
steam withdrawal and the swelling of the water is accompanied simultaneously with a surge of cold BFW.
Ideally the two cancel out exactly and the controller sees no change in level at all. They will not cancel
out exactly for two reasons: Firstly, there is no reason why they should. One effect or the other will
predominate. They won't even be simultaneous. Secondly, the BFW flow can only equal the steam
withdrawal if the range of the valve is exactly equal to the range of the compensated steam flow. Since
these two functions must be exactly equal over the entire operating range, it means that the valve must
be perfectly linear and that its D P is absolutely constant. Not likely! So the level controller still has some
work to do to keep the accumulated error at zero.
The rather farcical suggestion in the previous section, piping the inlet to outlet and bypassing the vessel,
suggests a solution to the valve linearity problem: Use the measurement of the steam leaving the boiler
as the setpoint to a BFW flow control loop. The level should remain constant once the shrinking and
swelling have reached the new equilibrium. This simplistic solution overlooks a basic principle of process
control: No two measured quantities are ever identical. In other words, the two flows will never be
the same and the level will rise or fall at a rate proportional to the difference. Since level is a measure of
the accumulated difference, a level controller is used to correct the BFW flow. What I have just described
is the classic three-element boiler level control arrangement as shown in Figure 6-5.
The diagram also illustrates a few other features. Compensation has been applied to account for the
effect of pressure on the steam density and its effect on the level transmitter. BFW flow is sometimes
temperature compensated since it is most probably preheated and its temperature may vary. For a
temperature change from 0ºC to 300ºC (32ºF to 572ºF) the specific gravity
changes from 1.000 to 0.712 and a measurement error of 15% will result.
This detailed exposition of boiler level control is presented only to provide an example of how extremely
tight level control can be accomplished when necessary. Boiler control is a rather broad subject and many
articles and textbooks have already been published concerning it.
CONTROLLING LIQUID INTERFACES. It is generally assumed that level control refers to the control
of a gas/liquid or vapour/liquid interface. It ain't necessarily so. An interface can occur between any two
immiscible fluids. Since all gases are miscible with each other in all proportions, interface level control is
always taken to mean the interface between two liquids such as oil and water.
 Figure 6-6 shows an example
of a boot on a crude oil separator. This vessel serves three purposes: It is a gas/oil separator, a feed
surge drum and a water separator. A real vessel in this service probably contains inlet baffles and
demister pads. Each of the three phases must be individually controlled. But it is possible for the gas
phase to discharge to an externally pressure controlled system or even to atmosphere. (Possible yes,
acceptable no.) The key to understanding the function of any separator is to think in terms of a constant
inventory of each component. To repeat: each component must be controlled individually. The amount of
gas flowing in must be balanced by gas flowing out. Changing pressure is a measure of the gas
imbalance, therefore pressure control is the appropriate way of controlling the gas outlet. Similarly, oil
level is an indication of oil imbalance and water level indicates water imbalance. None of the three
streams may be controlled on flow, although a level / flow cascade is often used to smooth out flow
variations to the downstream equipment. Pressure / flow cascade is unlikely to be used unless the
volume of the vessel is large enough to serve as a gas surge drum. Level / flow cascade on the water is
unlikely since the water probably drains to a collection system that itself serves as a surge drum to a
number of separators.
Sometimes the ratio of water to oil is too great for a boot separator. In such cases a weir may be used to
divide the vessel as shown in Figure 6-7.
Certain precautions must be taken to make sure that the level transmitter actually gives a true indication
of the interface. There are basically two varieties of level indicating devices: The first measures the
distance of an actual interface from some fixed point. Ultrasonic and radar devices belong to this group.
These would be ideal for the purpose except that they are often not suited for installation in pressurized
vessels. Furthermore they have difficulty "seeing" anything other than the very top interface. Even
surface foam and condensation on the instrument "window" can confuse them.
 The second, and more
traditional, variety integrates some particular property, such as density or dielectric constant, over a
span. Displacers, differential pressure transmitters, bubbler tubes, nuclear densitometers, capacitance
probes, and even gauge glasses all belong to this variety. The key to successful measurement is that the
level sensing device must sense only the two fluids bounding the interface. For a gauge glass this means
that the lower tap must be in the lower of the two fluids and the upper tap must be in the fluid
immediately above it. There may be NO intervening phases.
Figure 6-8 shows what happens when a gauge glass is connected to a vessel containing a vapour and
two liquid phases. Assume that equal amounts of a liquid with Sg = 1.0, e.g. water, and a liquid with Sg
= 0.5, perhaps propane, gradually flow into the vessel. Assume further that the span of the gauge glass
is four feet, beginning one foot from the bottom of the vessel.

As the level of the propane rises, it flows into the glass. As both liquids rise further, water begins to enter
the bottom of the glass. This is the state shown in vessel A. Up to this point, the glass shows a true
indication of the level of propane in the vessel. Once water enters the glass, the propane is cut off. A
constant plug, one foot thick, floats on top of the water. Its level no longer bears any obvious
relationship to the actual level in the vessel. This is state shown in vessel B. The only relationship
between the vessel and the glass is that the hydrostatic pressure is the same for both at the point where
the glass taps into the vessel. A gauge glass is really nothing more than a manometer.
Once the level of the propane rises above the upper tap, it flows into the glass and the two interface
levels adjust to the same elevation, as shown in vessel C. The gauge will continue to read correctly as
long as its lower tap is in the water and the upper tap is in propane. If either fluid is withdrawn so that
the upper tap is in the vapour space, the glass will once again read falsely.
This same analysis applies to any type of level indication based on density. Remember that a D P
transmitter only gives a single reading, i.e. differential pressure. Therefore only a single quantity can be
inferred. If the instrument is affected by only two fluids, it can yield the correct interface level between
the two. If there are more than two distinct phases within the span of the two taps, it will give a reading
based on the average densities of all the fluids within its span.
Capacitance or nuclear level transmitters will give similar results in multiphase situations, based on the
average dielectric or nuclear absorption constants, respectively.
So... how can the process controls engineer be assured that the level readings are meaningful if even a
gauge glass can't be trusted? Plan "A": Make the entire vessel out of glass. This isn't usually practical so
we must fall back upon Plan "B": Every section of a gauge glass must have separate taps into the vessel
so that each pair of taps has no "hidden" phase floating in between. Either that, or accept the fact that
until the interface reaches its "normal" range, gauge glasses and transmitters will read falsely.
SLUG CATCHERS. Slug catchers are a special instance of three-phase separators frequently found in
oilfield service. In addition to the usual separation functions, they are required to serve as surge tanks
that can smooth out intermittent flow and also handle occasional very large surges in inlet flow. This is
done by having two controllers connected to the oil-side transmitter. The oil overflow controller has its
setpoint slightly below the top of the weir. In this manner, any surges can be accommodated by the large
volume above the weir. This is in fact a non-linear, adaptive gain transmitter since transmitter gain = D
output / D volume.
The inlet controller responds to the same level but has its setpoint just below the top of the vessel. It
takes action only when the level rises to its set-point. This would happen if an unusually large slug of
liquid arrived or if an upset in the downstream process caused the system to back up into the slug
catcher. The facility would then be operating under "capacity control". Facilities lacking the capacity
control feature are likely to experience a high level shutdown precisely when they are attempting to
operate at maximum throughput. Not a very desirable occurrence.
It is common for level controllers to be tuned using both the proportional and integral modes. Since the
inlet controller is normally functioning with the level well below its setpoint, reset windup will occur. This
is a phenomena in which the controller attempts to raise the level to the setpoint by forcing an ever
higher signal to the valve. This does not work, of course, since the valve is already wide open. If a
sudden surge arrives that abruptly raises the level to the setpoint and beyond, the controller will be slow
to close the valve since it has "wound up" in the opposite direction. Some form of anti-reset windup is
required to prevent an unwarranted high level shutdown under these circumstances. It is probably a bad
idea to use an equal percent valve in this application since it, also, is likely to respond slowly to a sudden
demand.
It is possible to control the outlet and inlet valves with a single, split-range controller. This method
accomplishes the required function of preventing high level shutdowns but has a serious disadvantage. If
the setpoint of the combined inlet/outlet controller is set below the top of the weir, it will not take full
advantage of the surge capacity of the vessel since the inlet will begin to close well before the top of the
vessel is reached. If the setpoint is above the weir, it defeats its purpose by allowing mixed feed to flow
directly to the oil outlet before it has time to separate. Thus a split-range controller will sacrifice either
separation quality or surge capacity.

PRESSURIZATION SYSTEMS. A tank, vessel, or drum may require a pressurization system for any of a
variety of reasons:
· The surface of the liquid in a reflux drum consists of a liquid at equilibrium with its vapour. There may
not be sufficient gravity head to provide the net-positive-suction-head required to operate the reflux
pump without cavitation. Raising the vessel high in the air above the pump is one way of providing this.
Unfortunately the condenser providing the liquid, drains by gravity so it must be raised even higher. The
entire arrangement can become extremely expensive. An-other method is to use a canned pump which is
sunk deep into the ground. This can also get pricey. A blanket gas pad may be a relatively inexpensive
way of providing the necessary pressure.
· The liquid in a storage tank is subject to oxidation, e.g. the surge tank of a glycol-based heat exchange
system. A blanket of fuel gas will prevent the tank from breathing air as it cycles from empty to full and
back again.
· The liquid in a storage tank forms an explosive mixture with air. (A rather extreme form of oxidation!) A
continuous gas purge may be required to prevent this.
· The storage tank vents to a flare or other vapour collection system. A gas supply must be provided to
make up any volume withdrawn when the withdrawal rate exceeds the fill rate. In other words, the
pressurization system serves as a vacuum breaker.
A simple way of providing pressurization is to have a regulator connected to a source of pad gas and a
second, back pressure regulator, connected to the vent. Care must be taken to set the back pressure
regulator setpoint slightly higher than that of the inlet regulator. If there is no gap between the two
settings, the pad gas will blow straight through to the vent. Remember that setting them to the "same"
pressure is meaningless.

Often it is necessary to install a

complete control loop including a pressure transmitter, a controller, and two valves. This has the
advantage of allowing the panel operator to monitor and adjust a single setpoint. It also allows over- or
under-pressure alarms to be easily provided. Figure 6-10 shows how the complete pressure control loop
is arranged. For the most part it is pretty simple but there are two things to watch for: Firstly, there must
be a gap between the action of the two valves. That is the reason for the split range values not meeting
at 50%. Secondly, the failure mode of the valves must be taken into account. Since the two valves have
the opposite effect, they must have opposite failure modes if they are to be operated by the same control
signal. A DCS allows the output of the controller to drive two separate output modules, each
characterized in its own way. This means that it is possible for the first 45% of the controller output to
produce a 100 to 0% signal for the fill valve, and the last 45% of the output to produce a 0 to 100%
signal for the vent valve. In this way both failure modes are accommodated and overlap of valve
openings is impossible. The gap in the middle does not cause a problem for the controller. Integral
windup will move the output quickly through the gap whenever there is a deviation from the setpoint.
The reader should note that the split range control described in this paragraph is not at all the same as
that described in the section on Slug Catchers.
It is possible to achieve the same effect by using a specialized, three-way valve that provides a gap in the
middle. Most three-way valves are designed to have full overlap as they are intended for use in
diverging/converging service. (If anyone knows of a centre-gap, non-overlapping valve, let me know.)
A number of vendors sell specialized gas blanketing systems capable of self-contained action. They
consist of regulators with the very large diaphragms required to drive valves with pressures as low as
0.5" WC (125 Pa, 0.3 oz/in 2 ). Such systems are especially useful now that ever more stringent
regulations concerning the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are being enforced. Figure 6-
11 shows one typical arrangement.
Many factors enter into the correct specification of the setpoints and sizes for the various regulator and
relief valves. These include:
· The maximum allowable pressure of the tank.
· The maximum allowable vacuum of the tank.
· The vapour pressure of the stored liquid.
· Inbreathing rate dependent on pump-out rate.
· Outbreathing rate dependent on pump-in rate.
· Vapour thermal expansion and contraction rate.
· Tank surface area and insulation.
Table 6-1 provides setpoints applied in a specific case. It must be remembered that actual values differ
widely. API 2000, Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks 5 and tank vendors provide much
information, however it may be advisable to consult a specialist in the field.

oz/in2 "WC kPa

Maximum Allowable 4.0 6.9 1.7
Pressure
Manway Setting 3.5 6.1 1.5
Relief Valve Pressure 3.0 5.2 1.3
Setting
Vent Regulator Setting 2.0 3.5 0.9
Fill Regulator Setting 0.5 0.9 0.2
Relief Valve Vacuum -.05 -.09 -.02
Setting
Maximum Allowable -1.0 -1.7 -0.4
Vacuum
Table 6-1. Typical Tank Blanket Pressure Settings
A brief sermon on tagging: According to ISA-S5.1, Instrumentation Symbols and Identification 6, all forms
of relief valves including pressure, vacuum, spring- or weight-loaded, with or without a pilot are tagged
"PSV". Common abbreviations such as "PVSV", "PVRV" or "PRV" have absolutely no official status and
therefore are not acceptable as tags on P&IDs.
LEVEL MEASUREMENT. Level measurement is deceptively easy, yet it seems that more time is spent
specifying level instruments than any other. The reason is that the correct installation of level instrument
is an interdisciplinary effort involving Process, who set the basic functional requirements; Mechanical,
who have various constraints such distance of taps from seams; Piping, who have accessibility and
orientation requirements; and Instrumentation, who must select from a finite catalogue of available
instruments.
Actually this task has become considerably easier in recent years due to the increased use of D P
transmitters and other instruments such as ultrasonic and radar which do not have a predetermined
span. There is no longer any significant penalty in either cost or accuracy if the instrument is specified to
cover a broad span. For horizontal vessels the top connection should be vertical at the top of the vessel.
The bottom connection should be horizontal a few inches from the bottom. This is necessary to prevent
the accumulation of sediment. These connections no longer need to be in the same vertical plane nor do
they require the same orientation.
Vertical vessels may still require a bit more attention. While a top-to-bottom span would be ideal, there
may be trays, packing, or other internals that would cause a differential pressure in response to flow. It is
also necessary for the level connections to remain clear of welding seams. This requirement may cause
problems if alarms or other setpoints need to be near the bottom or top of the vessel.
The design process begins with the basic information on a P&ID in a form similar to that shown in Figure
6-12. A brief outline of the vessel including the bridle, if any, holding a gauge glass and a transmitter are
shown. The desired values for the level alarms and the setpoint of the controller are also shown.
The Control Systems engineer must first decide if a D P transmitter is the appropriate choice. Let us
assume it is. He/she must then try to find an appropriate span for the transmitter. A good rule of thumb
is that alarms should not be set any lower than 10% or higher than 90% of the transmitter span.
(Shutdown trip settings should not be closer than 5% from either end of span.) Since the two alarms are
42" - 6" = 36" apart, the span should be 36" x 1.25 = 45" thus allowing the alarms to be at 10% and
90% of span. This seems fine, but there is a problem. The first thing to determine is whether the vessel
measurements are from the tangent line, from the seams or from some other reference point. In this
particular case the vessel title block indicates that measurements are tan-to-tan. Since seams are
generally 2" inside the tan lines, the lower tap of the transmitter is ½" above the seam. That is not
acceptable. Mechanical considerations often dictate that nozzles may not be welded within 6" of a seam.
This means that the lowest transmitter tap cannot be lower than 8" above the bottom tan line. The
highest tap cannot be higher then 8" below the top tan line. This implies that the maximum transmitter
span on a 48" T/T (tan-to-tan) vessel is 32". Alarms at 10% and 90% must be placed at 11.2" and 36.8".
At this point, the Instrument Engineer becomes a broker between Process and Mechanical to help them
find a compromise. Alarms at 11" and 37" are agreed upon. Don't forget to transfer this new information
back to the P&ID!
 It is a great convenience to the maintenance
staff if the span of the transmitter is exactly equal to the span of the gauge glass. This is not always
possible with displacers since both the gauge glasses and the transmitters come in fixed spans. However,
it can easily be done for D P transmitters. The centre line of the sensing taps must be located at the tops
and bottoms of the visible glass. Unfortunately, the associated valves bring the centre line of the gauge
glass tap 4½" below the bottom of the glass. Fortunately, in extreme cases, it is possible to place the
lower gauge glass tap below the lower bridle tap. There can be no meaningful readings below the lower
bridle tap of course, since the bottom of the glass can never drain back into the vessel. As long as the
glass itself does not go below the lower tap, it's OK. Since gauge glasses come in fixed lengths, it may
not be possible for the upper tap of the transmitter to match the top of the visible glass. Remember that
transmitter calibration will be more difficult if the upper tap does not fall within the range of the visible
glass.
Occasionally it is necessary to connect either the top or the bottom taps to interconnecting pipe instead
of to the vessel itself. If the taps are attached to inlet or outlet lines, the level signal will be affected by
flow rate. This effect can be seen in coffee percolators: The level in the gauge glass bobs up and down
as coffee is drawn into a cup.
SEALS. Diaphragm seals have become a very popular accessory to D P-based level transmitters. A very
thin metal diaphragm isolates the transmitter from the process. The space between the diaphragm and
the sensor itself is filled with a fluid such as silicone. The pressure changes are communicated through
the diaphragm to the transmitter via an armoured capillary tube. The volume change between minimum
and maximum pressure is extremely small in a modern transmitter; the amount of flex in the diaphragm
is correspondingly small. The net effect of this is that the introduction of a diaphragm into a
measurement system introduces an error of only several centimetres or less. This is seldom significant in
level applications. A second effect is that only an extremely small amount of liquid movement actually
occurs in the capillary tubes. This, together with modern low temperature fill fluids, means that the
instrument response does not slow down too much on cold days. Figure 6-13 is an example from one
vendor's catalogue.
Seals should be considered whenever one or more of the following conditions apply:
· Dirty service - Whenever the process fluid is liable to plug the impulse lines, a diaphragm seal may be
installed. It should be isolated from the vessel by a full-ported valve, NPS 2 or 3. Note that two NPS ½
taps are provided on the diaphragm housing for calibration and flushing connections. Seals are especially
useful in sanitary service where all hardware in contact with process fluid must frequently be thoroughly
washed. It is a good idea to use seals and capillaries of equal length on both the upper and the lower leg
in order to maintain a balanced response to errors.
· Corrosive service -- Diaphragm seals made of corrosion resistant materials originated in corrosive
service where they were referred to as 'chemical seals'. While the use of full-ported connections is not
required in corrosive service, it is a good practice to maintain even if it might look strange to have 'such a
big valve' for 'only' an instrument.
· Freeze protection -- Diaphragm seals may eliminate the problem of freezing impulse lines. However, in
extremely cold weather it may still be necessary to heat trace the capillaries to prevent measurement
response from being excessively slow. Self-limiting electrical heat trace is the only way to go! Any heat
trace system involving a thermostat will introduce spikes into the measurement system as the heat is
switched on and off.
· Uncertain phase -- This is the most frequent of all seal justifications. A warm vapour in equilibrium with
its liquid will undergo condensation in the upper impulse line. Cold equilibrium liquid may experience
boiling in the lower impulse line. Thus the measurement will slowly drift as the tube fills. Depending upon
service and ambient temperatures, condensation and boiling may even alternate throughout the day. If
this situation exists, the measurement becomes worthless. The traditional solution is to fill the upper line
with a non-volatile, process compatible fluid. Depending on process and ambient conditions this might be
water, glycol, oil or something else. The use of fill fluids introduces maintenance problems because any
attempt to 'null' the transmitter by opening the equalization valve will drain the upper fluid into the
process. It can only be replaced by climbing to the top of the vessel and filling the tube again. Bubbles
are also a source of error. Seals provide a captive fill fluid that cannot be lost, does not form bubbles and
cannot contaminate the process. (Did I say foolproof?)
UNDERGROUND TANKS. A special requirement concerns underground (UG) tanks. Modern steel UG
tanks have a double wall construction. Requirements are outlined in CAN/ULC-S603, Standard for Steel
Underground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids 7. The two walls of the tank are
approximately an inch (2 cm) apart. A vacuum of 51 kPa (7.5 psi) is drawn on the interstitial space so
that the two surfaces are, in many places, actually in contact with each other. A vacuum gauge is
connected to the interstice. It must read at least 42 kPa (6.1 psi) of vacuum before the tank may
installed. If the reading is ever less than 34 kPa (4.9 psi) the tank should be removed from service and
steps taken to determine the cause of the leak. These values are summarized in Table 6-2, below. If a
facility has many UG tanks, it may be desirable to connect the tanks to the central control system by
means of vacuum transmitters. Low vacuum alarms can then be configured to alert the operators of any
cases of leakage.

Interstitial Vacuum psi kPa

Required at manufacturing 7.5 51
Minimum acceptable for 6.1 42
delivery
Minimum allowable in service 4.9 34
Table 6-2 Interstitial Vacuum Requirements for Underground Tanks
VOLUME MEASUREMENT. Most vessel and tank content measurements are made in the form of level.
When true volume is required for such purposes as custody transfer, the tank volumes are calculated
taking into account all details of their geometry as well as dimensional changes resulting from the
pressure exerted by the density of the liquid. The results of these calculations and calibrations are
tabulated by the manufacturer in a form known as "strapping tables".
True volume measurement is seldom relevant for control purposes since setpoints for controllers and
alarms are usually related to specific geometric features of the vessels. The level must often be kept
below the vapour outlet or a weir. A frequent requirement is that a specific head be maintained to
prevent pump cavitation. Sometimes the requirement is simply to maintain the level near midpoint in
order to provide surge capacity. None of these applications benefit from true volume compensation.
Figure 6-14, Volume vs. Height for Cylinders and Spheres, provides the correct mathematical relationship
between level and volume for these two vessel styles if true volume measurement is actually required. It
can be seen that between 10% and 90% little is gained by applying the rather complex calculations
required for volume control.
Volume = (R2L/2)(2q - sin 2q ) Volume = -(p /3)h2 (3R - h)
Where h = height of liquid in vessel
R = radius of vessel
L = length of cylinder
q is radians and cos q = (R-h)/R
Note: The volume contained by elliptical vessel heads is ½ that of a sphere of equal radius.
SAFETY. Vessels and tanks are probably the most hazardous pieces of equipment in any plant. Duguid's
database shows that 22% of all safety incidents are related to storage and blending. This may seem a
little surprising until one considers that they store energy as well as material. For example:
· A vessel holding a compressed gas can cause a tremendous explosion if it ruptures. That is why
"hydrotesting" with air or nitrogen is far more dangerous than with water.
 · Storage tanks can hold a considerable amount of
gravitational energy. The most notorious example of this energy being released is the infamous "Boston
Molasses Disaster" which occurred January 15, 1919. A tank located at the top of a hill ruptured and
released two million gallons of molasses down a narrow street. Twenty-one people were killed and 150
were injured.
· The contents of the tank or vessel can be flammable. While a line rupture external to the tank may be
the cause of a fire, it is the reservoir of flammable fluid inside a tank that turns a minor fire into a major
one. API RP 750, Management of Process Hazards, specifically addresses this point, however, it does not
offer much in the way of solutions.
· The contents of a tank can be lethal. The February 1984 release of methyl isocyanate in Bhopal, India
was the worst non-nuclear industrial accident in human history. Over 2000 people were killed by the toxic
vapour.
The single, most comprehensive guide to the design of vessels is the ASME (American Society of
Mechanical Engineers) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code8. This rather large document deals with all
aspects of vessel design, construction and operation. Section VIII, Parts UG-125 to 136, in particular,
deal with the requirements for pressure relief.
The pressure relieving requirements for non-pressure vessels, i.e. tanks, are covered in detail in API
Standard 2000, Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks 5.
Most safety related design practices applying to vessels and tanks are beyond the scope of the
instrumentation and controls engineer; relief valves are an exception. Their correct sizing and selection is
too broad a subject to be covered in this article especially since there is already a lot of material in print
concerning them. Items 9 through 14 of the references below deal extensively with this subject. The
earlier section, Pressurization Systems, gives a typical example of pressure protection for an atmospheric
tank.

CONTROLLING CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

© Walter Driedger, P. Eng., 2000 May 20. walter(at)driedger(dot)ca
First published in Hydrocarbon Processing , July 1995.

This Adobe® file is available for download.

INTRODUCTION. The centrifugal pump is one

of the simplest pieces of equipment from the
controls and instrumentation point of view. It is a
two port device with a well defined
characteristic. Its purpose is to provide the
necessary pressure to move liquid at the
desired rate from point A to point B of the
process. Figure 1-1 shows a 'generic' process
with a centrifugal pump connected to deliver
liquid from A to B.

Figure 1-2 shows the characteristic curve of an

actual pump (a single stage vertical turbine
pump) together with the characteristic curve of
the process, known as the system curve. The
intersection of the two curves defines the
operating point of both pump and process. It
would be fortunate indeed if this operating point
is the one actually specified for the process. It is
impossible for one operating point to meet all
desired operating conditions since the operating point is, by definition, exactly one of an
infinity of possible operating points. In fact the entire point of controlling the pump is to
modify its characteristic so that its actual operating point is the one that is required at
every instance in time.

Several definitions are presented in order to discuss the diagram:

Po = Differential pressure, or head, at

the operating point of the pump and
also of the process.

Qo = Flow rate, at operating point, of

the pump and also of the process.

Ppm = Maximum differential pressure

across the pump (at shutoff).
Qpm = Maximum discharge flow of the pump.

Plm = Static (Minimum) differential pressure between points B and A of the process.

The minimum static differential pressure of the process is frequently zero, as in a

closed, circulating system. If the pump is in parallel with other pumps that are
maintaining the system pressure, then P lm is greater than zero. It is clear from the
outset that if P lm is greater than Ppm, no amount of process control can force the two
curves to intersect. The pump is simply inadequate. How is process control like cutting
off a rope? You can always cut off more, but you can't cut off less.

Assuming the pump is more than adequate for the process requirements at the
moment, what is the best way to trim it back to the desired operating point, P 1, Q1?
There are three possible locations to place a valve: At the discharge, at the suction, and
as a recycle valve. Each will be discussed in turn.

DISCHARGE THROTTLING. Since the pump exists to serve the requirements of the
process, and one of the primary purposes of instrumentation is to adapt the equipment
to the process, let us consider the pump from the point of view of the process. It can be
viewed as a constant pressure device with an internal restriction. It is the restriction that
gives it the "curve". It seems natural to put a valve on the discharge to further restrict
the pump. This has the effect of rotating the curve of the pump/valve system clockwise
around Ppm, as can be seen in Figure 1-3.

At this point I must warn the reader

that we are about to encounter a
paradigm shift. (!) The combination of
pump and valve will be presented as
a "black box" with a single
characteristic curve which I shall term
the "modified" pump curve.

The more traditional way of looking at

the situation is from the point of view
of the pump. It sees the process
system curve as having rotated
counter clockwise around Plm. Figure
1-3 shows that the flow, Q1, is the
same for both cases. The difference
between the two pressures is the
Delta P across the valve. Since the
purpose of the pump is to serve the process requirements, and the purpose of the valve
is to adapt the pump to the process, it makes sense to consider the valve to be part of
the pump system and to use the modified pump curve rather than the modified system
curve in our discussion. In any case it can be seen that a discharge valve can be used
to achieve any operating point on the system curve so long as the point is below the
pump curve.

SUCTION THROTTLING. The second possibility for control using valves is to place the
valve in the pump suction line. This would have an identical effect on the characteristic
curve, but the method has a fatal flaw – cavitation. Cavitation is a phenomenon that
occurs when the pressure of a liquid is reduced below its vapour pressure and brought
back up above the vapour pressure again. Bubbles of vapour form in the liquid and then
collapse upon arriving at the higher pressure region. The collapse occurs at sonic speed
ejecting minute jets of extremely high velocity liquid. Wherever these jets impinge on a
solid surface extreme erosion occurs. Over time even the hardest materials will be
destroyed. Therefore it is of utmost importance that this pressure reduction never
occurs. It is prevented by having sufficient pressure available at the pump suction so
that the pressure drops that occur as the liquid is drawn into the eye of the impeller are
at all times above the vapour pressure of the liquid at its current temperature.

An explanation of the term Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is in order. This is the
pressure of the liquid at the pump suction in terms of feet or meters of liquid head above
the vapour pressure of the liquid. The actual NPSH under operating conditions is called
NPSHA and the minimum required by the pump to prevent cavitation is called NPSHR.
Clearly NPSHA must be greater than NPSHR to avoid cavitation. It is safe to leave a
margin of about one meter.

These peculiar definitions are very reasonable in terms of the pumps actual
characteristic but they cause some problems to the controls engineer. It means that the
gauge pressure equivalent of a given NPSHA is proportional to the density of the liquid
and is also affected by its temperature. The vapour pressure can rise dramatically as
the temperature rises. This means that the NPSHA can fall without a noticeable change
in pressure.

Anything that would reduce the net positive pressure at the pump inlet below the
NPSHR must be absolutely avoided. Thus suction throttling is never used to control
pump flow.

RECYCLE CONTROL. The third

remaining possibility for pump
control with valves is to bleed some
of the discharge flow back to the
pump suction or to some other point
on the supply side. Once again we
can view the result as a modified
system curve or as a modified pump
characteristic. Figure 1-4 shows
both. Each curve is a rotation of the
original: The modified system curve
as a clockwise rotation around Plm. Note the little "tail" at the left of the modified system
curve. This represents the flow through the recycle valve before the discharge check
valve opens to the process. The modified pump curve has a counter clockwise rotation
around the hypothetical intersection of the pump curve with the flow axis.

This family of curves shows several problems with recycle control. Firstly, the pump is
not rated to discharge more than the flow rate at the end of the curve. It is possible, of
course, to run the pump with a wide open discharge, minimum  P, but it is unhealthy
for this particular pump to run at such a high rate. Excessive flow may cause cavitation
damage. (Excess flow cavitation is not caused by NPSH problems but by high velocity
within the internal passages of the pump.) This restriction means that the minimum
discharge pressure may not be lower than the one corresponding to the maximum flow.
In other words, the modified pump curve cannot reach all points on the system curve.

Secondly, although many pumps are capable of operating near zero discharge
pressure, the very flat pressure vs. flow curve for much of the lower range for most
pumps means a change of flow has very little effect on the discharge pressure. Thus it
would take a very large amount of flow to produce a small drop in pressure. In control
terms this means that control would be very 'sloppy'. Discharge throttling on the other
hand, allows the pump to develop the head that 'suits' it. The unwanted pressure is
dropped across the valve. (Note that the curve for this particular pump rises rather
steeply. It will be more easily
controlled than most.)
Thirdly, this method is often
inefficient. Figure 1-5 shows a
system curve, a pump
characteristic, a discharge
modified characteristic, and a
recycle modified characteristic.
Above these is a pump power
requirement curve. In the case of
discharge control, the pump is
adapted to the process by
dropping its discharge pressure. If
one follows the flow line vertically
to the actual pump curve and then
beyond to the power requirement
curve one arrives at its power
requirement. In the case of recycle
control, the pump is adapted by
reducing the discharge flow.
Following the pressure line to the
right to the actual pump curve and
then upwards to the power
requirement curve one arrives at the power requirement for recycle control. Note that
the power requirement curve tends to slope upward as flow increases. Therefore
recycle control consumes more pump horsepower than discharge throttling when both
achieve the same operating point. This is not always so. If the power requirement curve
were flat, there would be no difference. Notice on the curve that there is a slight drop in
horsepower near the right hand end. If circumstances were such that the operating point
corresponded to a downward sloping power curve, recycle control would be more
efficient. This is rare.

SPEED CONTROL. There is, of

course, one other means of adapting
a pump to the changing demands of
the process: Speed control. The
virtue of this method is that it
reduces the energy input to the
system instead of dumping the
excess. Figure 1-6 shows a system
curve superimposed on a family of
curves for a variable speed pump.
The curves reach all parts of the
system curve below the full speed
curve. Therefore this is an effective
means of control. Note, however,
that these curves have one feature in
common with recycle control: At the
far left end of the system curve the
pump curve and the system curve are almost parallel. (The particular pump chosen for
this example has a rather steeply rising curve near shutoff. Most are considerably
flatter.) In mathematical terms this means that the intersection is poorly defined. In
practical terms this means that it is difficult to maintain a precise operating point and
that control is 'loose' at high turndown.

In practice, variable speed drives for centrifugal pumps are still relatively uncommon.
For small pumps the power savings are not significant and for large pumps the
associated electronics become very expensive. Also, they do not have the high
reliability of valves. Variable speed steam turbine drives are quite common in the larger
horsepower ranges. Electric variable speed drives are used in certain specialized
applications such as pumps that are embedded inside a high pressure vessel. In such
cases there are no alternatives.

RIDING ON THE CURVE. Last but not least: No control at all! The fact is that the
majority of pumps in the world run with no control at all. The exact flows and pressures
are not critical and the pump has been reasonably well selected. The discharge
pressure will rise to partially compensate for increased back pressure. It falls as the
back pressure decreases so that the flow does not increase as much as it otherwise
might. The pump is allowed to "ride on its curve". When this situation is acceptable,
leave well enough alone and don't try to fix what ain't broke. (Be careful though, the
machine may still require minimum flow and other protections as detailed in the section
on Machine Protection.)

MEASUREMENT. The appropriate measurement for the controller depends on the

demands of the process. Flow control is a frequent requirement. Two rules guide the
location of the flow measurement: Make sure that side streams are included or not, as
required, by the measurement and make the measurement at the highest convenient
pressure. The latter requirement is to avoid any possibility of flashing or cavitation within
the measuring device. In general the best place to measure flow from a centrifugal
pump is between the recycle Tee and the discharge throttling valve. The exception is
when the discharge is at an extremely high pressure and the suction has adequate
NPSHA. In that case a suction measurement may be best.

Level control of a vessel is one of the most common requirements1. The vessel may be
either upstream or downstream. It is quite possible to connect the Level Controller
directly to the discharge valve. Frequently, however, the vessel serves to buffer a
downstream process from upstream flow variations. In that case it is not desirable for
level control to be precise. Perfect level control implies that the flow out is exactly equal
to flow in at all times. Often it is desired that the downstream flow remain as uniform as
possible while keeping the level within bounds. In simple terms, it is desired that the
flow out is the average of the flow in. The vessel absorbs the instantaneous differences.
This simple requirement is more difficult to accomplish than it may seem and deserves
a discussion entirely of its own. A simple arrangement that is often satisfactory and is
widely used is to have the Level Controller cascade to a Flow Controller on the pump
discharge. The flow loop keeps the discharge 'constant' while the Level Controller
gradually raises or lowers the setpoint as the level in the vessel rises or falls.

Another common requirement is to control the pressure of either upstream or

downstream equipment. The tap for the pressure transmitter should be connected at the
point where it is desired to control the pressure. Note that a pressure tap between the
pump and a discharge throttling valve is probably meaningless. A careful look at many
pump curves will show that the characteristic near shutoff is quite flat and may even
slope downward. Pressure control cannot be accomplished when the pressure curve is
flat. If the slope is the 'wrong' way, control will work backwards and drive the valve away
from the set point. In this case the minimum flow should be set so that the pump cannot
operate in the positive slope region of the curve. (It is, of course, possible to reverse the
action of the controller so that it can operate to the left of the peak. But in that case,
what will happen if the operating point moves to the right? It is extremely difficult to
design control systems that can operate continuously along a characteristic curve that
has a local minimum or a maximum in it.)

There is a second, more serious, problem with pressure control. Centrifugal pumps are
essentially constant head machines. The discharge pressure for a given pump rotating
at a fixed speed is proportional to the density of the liquid. This means that if the liquid
has a constant density, the discharge pressure is constant. The "curve" of the pump
curve is produced by losses and other affects caused by flow. Unless there is a flow
through the system, there is only one pressure and that is the shutoff pressure. If it is
desired to control the pressure of a vessel being charged by a pump, it is best to
pressure control a valve at the outlet of the vessel and let the pump ride on its curve. If
the vessel must be dead ended, only recycle flow at the pump can control pressure to a
setpoint.

ON / OFF CONTROL. On/off

control is used in many situations
where the object is simply to move
a liquid from point A to point B and
the exact pressure or flow rate is
unimportant. A typical example is
the sump pump. The simplest
arrangement employs a level switch
with a very broad deadband. This is
used together with a Hand/Off/Auto
switch to turn the pump on and off.
The schematic is shown in Figure 1-
7. The LSHL contact opens when
the level is below its setpoints. "M" represents the motor contactor which energizes the
motor whenever the contactor is energized. "M" also represents the auxiliary contact
that is closed whenever the contactor is energized.

If it is important that the level never

goes beyond the upper or lower
setpoints, the Start/Stop
arrangement is preferred. It is
illustrated in Figure 1-8. The
process sensing switch has a
separate output for the upper
setpoint (On) and the lower setpoint
(Off). (Two switches may be
required.) The manual switch
consists of a Start and a Stop
button or a combined
Start/Run/Stop selector with a
spring return to centre. The operator may start or stop the pump whenever the level is
between the two setpoints. He cannot stop it when the level exceeds the high setpoint
unless he locks it out. He cannot start the pump below the low setpoint. A variation of
the circuit places the left connection of the start button to the left of the low level switch.
With this arrangement it is possible to drain a vessel below the low set point by holding
the start button on. The pump will stop as soon as the button is released.

With both of these arrangements, there must be sufficient deadband between the high
and low setpoints to make certain that the pump does not cycle on and off too rapidly.
Excessive wear of both the motor and its starter will result if this occurs. Rapid cycling is
a sign of an over-sized pump.

MACHINE PROTECTION. Once the process requirements have been met, the attention
of the process control engineer turns to protecting the equipment. Centrifugal pumps
are fairly undemanding. In general they have only two requirements: that the NPSHR is
met at all times and that a certain minimum flow is maintained. To meet the first
requirement is generally a piping design problem. In cases of doubt, a low pressure
shutdown switch may be added to the suction line. A second look at the explanations of
NPSH, above, shows that determining the setpoint of the switch is not necessarily a
simple matter if there is any possibility of the liquid density changing. Things get even
more complicated if the vapour pressure is very sensitive to temperature. A rise in
temperature that causes the liquid to boil will cause the net positive pressure to fall to
zero even though there is an increase in actual pressure. LPG and LNG pumps are
notorious for NPSHA problems. Fortunately most pumps can tolerate brief periods of
cavitation without noticeable damage.

When a pump is taking suction from a vessel, a low level shutdown switch is essential.
The switch, or transmitter, must be separate from any level control devices.

To meet the second requirement,

minimum flow, is somewhat more
difficult. A centrifugal pump adds
energy to the liquid that the moving
liquid carries away. If flow is blocked,
the temperature within the pump will
rise steadily until the liquid boils (net
positive pressure is now zero).
Damage to the pump is quite likely.
For this reason some form of
minimum flow is almost always
included on larger machines. The
simplest arrangement is a fixed
restriction orifice on a line leading
back to the supply side of the pump.
The preferred destination of the
recycle flow is back to the vessel from
which it came. This allows the heat to
dissipate before it is recycled back into the machine. Restriction orifices have two
drawbacks: They waste energy when the process demand is sufficiently high to meet all
minimum flow requirements and also they limit the maximum pump output.

A more efficient method of recycle control requires that the discharge flow of the pump
itself is measured, and that a valve in the recycle line is opened when the process does
not draw the required minimum flow. The most straightforward way to accomplish this is
shown in Figure 1-9. Note that the recycle line tees off upstream of the control valve. It
is precisely when the control valve is closed that the recycle is needed. There is a small
problem with controlling the minimum flow in this way: The measurement orifice in the
discharge consumes energy and also slightly reduces pump capacity. A second
problem is that the actual signal being measured is the  P across the orifice plate.
Since flow varies as the square root of  P, a minimum flow of 40% of maximum flow
implies a controller whose set point is only 16% of the measurement range. A typical
instrument accuracy is 1%. Therefore an error of 7% of the setpoint can be expected.
Fortunately the minimum flow need not be held very accurately. Recycle control is
sometimes accomplished using a local pneumatic controller mounted directly on the
valve. Note: Always use a fail-open valve.

Various schemes have been devised to infer the required valve setting from the net
discharge flow measurement. These require the flow downstream of the recycle Tee to
be subtracted from the required minimum flow. The recycle valve is then opened in
proportion to the difference, if it is positive. To do this accurately one must know the
valve and actuator characteristics. There is no feedback to confirm that the correct flow
is occurring. Since the flow is usually above the minimum flow, the valve is usually
closed. This will cause the controller to wind up and be slow in responding when a low
flow condition suddenly arises. Fortunately pumps can tolerate short periods of low flow
so this is not a problem.

One method of minimum flow control that is occasionally proposed is to put a flow
control loop on the recycle line with the set point equal to the minimum flow. This
solution is worse than a fixed restriction. When discharge flow is high, the discharge
pressure falls. Flow through a fixed orifice will reduce somewhat. A flow control loop will
open the valve further to maintain constant flow precisely when it is not needed. At this
point the operator will be tempted to manually close the valve. Then, when a discharge
blockage occurs, there will be no minimum flow at all!

There are a number of devices available, called Automatic Recirculation Valves, or ARC
valves, that combine the functions of net discharge measurement, recycle control,
recycle valve and discharge check valve all in one device. These devices can be very
effective but they suffer from one drawback: lack of flexibility. In cases where the pump
and process characteristics are well known, they can be an ideal solution. Pipelines, for
example, have many identical pumps operating under steady conditions. Once the
correct components are known, application is routine. It must be kept in mind, however,
that both the process and pump data provided to the controls engineer for a new facility
are often tentative. ARC valves have very little margin for error when the reality turns
out differently from the theory. One particular problem that can occur with the older style
ARC valves that operate in an open/close mode, and even with some that modulate, is
instability. It occurs as follows:

 The discharge valve begins to close due to a reduced process demand.

 The ARC valve senses the reduced flow and opens the recycle valve.
 The pump discharge pressure drops.
 The discharge Flow Controller senses that it is being starved of flow and
 opens the discharge valve.
 The ARC valve sense the increased flow and closes.
 The pump pressure rises.
 The discharge valve closes.
 The cycle repeats itself.
Note that ARC valves are not positioned by conventional actuators. They are positioned
by the process liquid itself and are capable of very rapid action. Instability results in
violent slamming of the recycle valve, scaring the operators and severely damaging the
reputation of the controls engineer. Very little can be done at this stage other than to
remove the ARC valve and to attempt to modify its characteristic by changing the spring
or boring out the recycle ports. The latter spoils the hardened seats required in high
pressure drop applications and leakage is inevitable. Boiler feed pumps seem to be
especially prone to these problems. Note that ARC valves are quite expensive and often
cost more that a complete flow control loop. They are, however, extremely effective, and
simple, under the right circumstances. Their use often simplifies the piping arrangement
and essentially eliminates routine valve maintenance.

ARC valves are best bought as part of the pump package. In this way the responsibility
for ensuring that they match the pump rests with the party that is most familiar with it.

The pump curves used in this article represent an actual pump but are by no means
typical of all pumps. Multistage pumps, in particular, may have little quirks in the curves
that can complicate controls. If the characteristic curve droops as it approaches the zero
flow axis, (the shutoff pressure is less than their peak pressure) the minimum flow
setting must be well to the right of the peak or severe instability can result. Boiler feed
pumps discharge into a compressible volume. If they have a reverse slope near shutoff,
they may experience surge much like a centrifugal compressor does. Note that API STD
6102, the American Petroleum Institute standard for centrifugal pumps, explicitly bans a
drooping characteristic.

SEAL FLUSHING and COOLING. Pumps in certain special services require flushing
and/or cooling fluids to be injected into the seals. The details are provided in API STD
6102, Appendix D. In general the instrumentation is rather simple, consisting of
rotameters, pressure gauges and thermometers.

In certain hazardous services, sealing becomes a more complex issue. If the danger of
a seal leak is sufficiently serious, specialized leak detection may be required. One
simple method is the installation of a pressure switch, or better yet, a transmitter,
between the tandem seals. This can then be connected to the plant alarm system.

SAFETY. Centrifugal pumps are not generally hazardous pieces of equipment.

However, there is one special safety consideration whenever a pump is drawing volatile
hydrocarbons or other flammable liquids from a vessel with significant capacity. (API
RP-7503, defines this as five tons.) Volatile liquids have a low viscosity and seal leaks
are not uncommon. The leaked liquid often catches fire and it is absolutely essential
that the pump be shut down to prevent feeding the flames further. In such situations it is
desirable to have a remotely controlled block valve between the pump suction and the
source vessel. This valve and its actuator should be fire safe. Since closing the valve
can cause low flow damage to the pump, it must have a limit switch to shut down the
pump whenever the valve is not fully open. It should also have both opened and closed
status indication in the control room so the operator can be fully confident that the valve
is open when the pump is running and that the valve is closed when a hazardous
situation exists. If the block valve has an electric actuator, it is a good idea to have an
alarm on the main panel to indicate if there is a power failure, if the local switch is not in
the 'Remote' position, or if there is any other reason the valve might not work when
called upon to do so. In extremely critical processes, one may wish to interlock the
pump so that it cannot start unless the valve is in working condition.

Any indoor pump in flammable service should have adequate fire detection in the
building. Ultraviolet detectors are preferred because they are sensitive to flame. They
are extremely fast acting since they do not depend on heat buildup or the generation of
smoke. (There is an exception to this rule: If the flammable material produces a lot of
smoke, it may obscure the vision of the UV detector. In such a case one might be
advised to install both smoke and UV detectors.) A certain amount of care must be
taken when UV detectors are installed. They are sensitive to sunlight and to welders.
The sensitivity to welders is probably a good thing since it forces all welding to be co-
ordinated with the control room. The sensitivity to sunlight means that they must be
positioned so that they are unlikely to 'see' the sun. The usual position is high up under
the eaves of the building in diagonally opposite corners. This is not always fool proof.
The author is aware of one case where a pipeline compressor was shut down because
a UV detector saw a welder working out in the parking lot. The welder was directly in
line with a gap around a pipe that went through the building wall. "Smart" combined
UV/IR detectors are becoming available that are able discriminate between sunlight,
welding arcs and fire. This type is also suitable for outdoor use.

Fusible link sprinkler systems are extremely reliable and can contribute greatly in
cooling down a fire that is too hot to approach. Their drawback is that they only become
active once considerable heat has been developed. In critical applications they are best
used together with a faster detection system.

It may be worthwhile installing flammable vapour detectors near the base of large
pumps if leakage is a possibility.

Never overlook the placement of check valves. This is a safety related issue that should
not be left to other disciplines as check valves are an integral part of the functioning of
many control schemes. It is generally self-evident that parallel pumps need check
valves on each individual discharge. This check is also needed downstream of the
control valve on single pumps. When the pump is not running, the discharge valve will
most probably go wide open. A reverse flow could have some peculiar effects on the
upstream process. A check valve is also required downstream of the recycle valve if a
fire safe valve is necessary. Any time the fire safe valve isolates the pump from the
supply vessel, the recycle valve will open wide. ARC valves should be checked to make
sure all necessary check functions are included.

ACCESSORY INSTRUMENTS. Centrifugal pumps require few accessory instruments.

Since the purpose of the pump is to develop pressure, it is a good idea to have a
pressure gauge on the discharge. If the application requires a low suction pressure
interlock, a pressure gauge should also be provided at the suction. It would be nice to
have a local flow indicator but they are invariably expensive and inconvenient to install
so they are rarely used. A thermometer on the suction may serve to warn of cavitation if
the vapour pressure is temperature sensitive.

PARALLEL PUMP INSTALLATIONS. Centrifugal pumps are frequently operated in

parallel. Their smooth operating curve allows this to be done without complication. If it is
intended that the pumps are usually operated individually and not simultaneously, it is
sufficient to have a common discharge throttling valve and suction block fire safety
valve. However it is essential that each have its own recycle arrangements. Do not be
swayed by the argument that the two pumps will never be run simultaneously. The most
obvious reason for simultaneous operation is to switch from one to the other so that
maintenance can be done without shutting down the process. In this case the pump that
is being started will be operating against a blocked discharge check valve and is in no
position to make use of a common recycle valve. Remember that the throttling valve is
there to serve the process but the recycle is there to protect the machine. You don't
share seat belts do you?

Parallel variable speed pumps obviously have individual controls. The most effective
arrangement is to provide constant flow controls to the majority of the pumps. The
setpoints should be at the peak efficiency for each individual pump. The remaining
pump should have its controller set to handle the swings. Actually this an example of the
complex subject of Supply and Demand Control and deserves a discussion of its own.
Note that is meaningless to have two pumps each on pressure control pumping into the
same header. They will not share the load.

SERIES PUMP INSTALLATIONS. Sometimes centrifugal pumps are operated in

series. The usual situation is when a multistage pump has an NPSHR greater than what
is available. In such a case, a single-stage pump with a low NPSHR is used as a
booster. This is common with boiler feed pumps especially if the pump is drawing hot
water whose vapour pressure is already elevated.

Process demand control is applied to the high pressure pump. The booster pump
should be on discharge pressure control. The author was involved in one situation
where oil field injection water was drawn from a cistern connected directly to a river. In
this case the booster pumps were pressure controlled by recycle back to the cistern.
This allowed the recycle water to keep the water in the cistern agitated, preventing an
accumulation of silt.
It is not unusual for a group of booster pumps in parallel to supply a group of high
pressure pumps in parallel. In such cases care must be taken to ensure that the various
operating combinations are matched in capacity.

Every individual pump in a series installation must have its own minimum flow
arrangement.

SUMMARY. Figure 1-10 shows a complete set of instrumentation for a typical

centrifugal pump application. The drawing illustrates a pump drawing volatile
hydrocarbons from a large surge vessel. The following features are illustrated:

 A level / flow cascade loop on the pump discharge to provide process

control.
 A check valve on the discharge downstream of the control valve to
prevent reverse flow when the pump is shut down.
 A fire safe motor operated valve (MOV) in case of seal leakage and fires.

 An interlock from the MOV to stop the pump if the valve is not fully
opened.
 A low level interlock from the vessel to stop the pump if the vessel loses
its liquid seal.
 A pressure gauge on the suction to indicate adequate NPSHA.
 A thermometer on the suction to indicate potentially high vapour
 pressure.
 A minimum flow recycle loop back to the vessel.
 A check valve on the recycle line to prevent reverse flow when the pump
is shut down, especially when the fire valve is closed.
 A pressure gauge on the pump discharge to indicate that the pump is
working.
REFERENCES