Running head: WHY DO BIRDS MIMIC 1

Why Do Birds Mimic

Name

Institution

Author’s Note
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Table of Contents

1.0 Abstract..........................................................................................................................4

2.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................6

3.0 Methodology..................................................................................................................7

3.1 Research questions.........................................................................................................7

3.2 Search Strategy..............................................................................................................7

4.0 Findings.........................................................................................................................8

4.1 Definition of Mimicry....................................................................................................8

4.2.0 Reasons why Birds Mimic..........................................................................................9

4.2.1 Reproduction...............................................................................................................9

4.2.2 Migration....................................................................................................................9

4.2.3 Wintering..................................................................................................................10

4.3.0 Behaviors in Response to Other Birds......................................................................11

4.3.1 Territoriality..............................................................................................................11

4.3.2 Alarm calls................................................................................................................12

4.4.0 Determining Whether Certain Traits Are Harmful To Any Species........................12

4.4.1 Predation...................................................................................................................12

4.4.2 Mating.......................................................................................................................13

4.5 Benefits of Imitation....................................................................................................13

4.6 Benefit (s) of detecting imitation and deceit................................................................14

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5.0 Conclusion...................................................................................................................14

6.0 References....................................................................................................................16

7.0 Appendices..................................................................................................................18

7.1 Appendix A: Relationship between Icterine species song and territoriality................18

7.2 Appendix B: Social Dominance..................................................................................19

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1.0 Abstract

A series of evolution has taken place in mimicry. Every researcher is keen on reviewing

the literature on birds’ mimicry. This study reviews articles on birds’ mimicry to establish facts

to respond to areas such as the definition of mimic, rationale behind mimicry in birds, behavioral

responses and traits, species of birds harmed by behavioral traits such as predation and mating,

benefits of imitation, as well as benefits of detecting imitation and deceit.

Keywords: Mimicry, birds, predation mating, alarm calls, territoriality

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WHY DO BIRDS MIMIC 6

2.0 Introduction

The fact that some species of birds can vocally reproduce the sounds from other sources

including human, is a remarkable and widely celebrated phenomenon in the animal kingdom.

None the concern has been to establish the definition of mimicry, elements that trigger mimic,

conditions under which birds mimic, how birds behave while respond to other birds, identifying

traits harmful to any species of birds that mimic, and benefits of imitation as well detecting

imitation or deceit (Goodale et al., 2014). Dalziel et al. (2015) state that explaining the reason as

to why some species of birds reproduce sounds while many do not has been an extensive field of

mere speculation since the field has little theoretical and empirical research.

It is surprising to encounter cases of vocal learning in birds through birdsong. An

instigation done by Goodale et al. (2014) established that while birds can learn various

vocalizations, they tend to learn specific kinds of vocalizations, called, conspecific vocalizations.

More interestingly, variation exists in the strength of filters, with some bird species singing

hetero-specific songs while other species do not. There are controversial benefits of vocal

mimicry. According to Goodale et al. (2014), despite little evidence, vocal mimicry in birds has

evolved to serve vital functions. Vocal mimicry plays different functions in different species of

birds (Goodale et al., 2014). Dalziell & Welbergen (2016) posit that mimic reproduces cues of

signals in various ecological contexts to avoid predation, attract mates or prey and facilitate

parasitism, but, the main questions scholars keep on asking is, “how do they do it?”

This study seeks to review Literature to (1) establishes what mimicry is and how is it

triggered? (2) Why do birds mimic; are activities such as migration, reproduction or wintering

playing linked to mimicry in birds? (3) How doe birds behave while responding to other birds by
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territoriality and alarm calls? (4) Are traits such are predation and mating harmful to mimicking

species of birds (5) what are the benefits of imitation as well as detection of imitation and deceit?

3.0 Methodology

Thematic model based on Braun and Clarke. (2016) was applied to conceptualize themes

and carry out analysis based on research themes. A recursive process was involved in

researching journals, articles, blogs, and websites to develop an analysis that best fit suit research

questions.

3.1 Research questions

Research questions were derived from thematic research objectives. The research was

framed to answer the following research questions.

What is mimicry?

Why do birds mimic?

What are the benefits of imitation?

What are the benefits of detecting imitation and deceit?

3.2 Search Strategy

Different search strategies were applied to document the search. The key search terms

used for this research were identified from prior experience with the research topic; with the

main search term as “mimicry in birds”. The information was obtained from various sources by

keying in the main search term. These sources include Google, Google Scholar, and Ebscohost.
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While searching Google, the word pdf was added to get academically recommended articles;

thus search under Google was keyed in as, “mimicry in birds’ pdf.”

Selection of article for inclusion conducted as a three-stage process. The first stage

involved the selection of articles based on the title. In this stage, 35 articles were identified. The

next stage involved the selection of articles after reading the abstract. The final selection includes

12 papers. The inclusion and exclusion principle used was based on the study conducted by

Heckman & Williams (2010); excluding if unrelated paper unrelated with the topic of study or

including when related to the topic of study, more specifically, “mimicry in birds”. This is

because mimicry as evolved and several studies are addressing the topic as a common

phenomenon across diversified vertebrates (Dalziell & Welbergen, 2016). The content selection

was based on whether the paper is answering research question.

State Selection Criteria Papers Added papers Total Papers

1st Tittle 35 0 35
2nd Abstract 25 1 26
3rd Content 20 1 21
Final Selected studies 14 2 (replaced) 14

Table 1: illustrating how article selection criteria

4.0 Findings

4.1 Definition of Mimicry

Various studies have defined mimicry in different ways. Goller and Shizuka (2018)

describe vocal mimicry as communication that involves imitation of all types of non-conspecific

sounds from anthropogenic sources, other animals and environments. According to Kelley and

Healy (2011), mimicry refers to the process by which an individual learns sound from either
WHY DO BIRDS MIMIC 9

another species or from the environment. Grim (2013) states that mimicry can be defined based

on proximate or ultimate perspective; that is to say, mimicry is either a perceptive or an

evolutionary phenomenon.

4.2.0 Reasons why Birds Mimic

4.2.1 Reproduction

Mimicry might be assisting birds to attract mates from other species, especially when

females prefer only males that utilize imitations to increase their repertoires’ size. According to

Goodale et al. (2014), females judge the quality of males by the accuracy of their imitation.

Kelley and Healy (2011) outline that the common reason for mimicry, particularly, in male

songbirds is to attract females or repel rivals (La, 2012). Birds mimic to allow them to mate

effectively. Most species of songbird, females seem to prefer males that sing varied and multiple

songs (Kelley and Healy, 2011). The use of mimicry to attract mates is a common phenomenon

male satin bowerbird (Ptilonorphynchus violaceus). In this species, males that have larger

mimetic repertoires mate with more females than males with shorter mimetic repertoires.

Moreover, females not only seem to pay attention to the accuracy of the sound produced but also

the diversity of sound (Kelley and Healy, 2011). The application of mimicry to repel

heterospecific competitors is observed in great tits (Parus major) versus blue tits (P.caeruleus),

which compete for breeding sites and food when breeding. Great tits use songs to intimidate blue

tits (Kelley and Healy, 2011). A similar case is observed between song sparrows (Melospiza

melodia) and white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys).

4.2.2 Migration
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Some species of birds mimic to help them in migration. Slagsvold & Wiebe (2011)

describe mimicry as a form of social learning, involved in migration of avian species.

Inexperienced birds are guided by adults in finding suitable migration routes. Birds also apply

mimicry in the selection of habitat. Moreover, mimicry seems to be applicable in nest building;

this is the reason as to why some species of birds build complex nets, despite having sufficient

survival mechanisms; these species of birds have limited movements. Flight calls are known for

maintaining contacts in flocks, especially during migration. La (2012) states that many diurnal

birds migrate at night because their movements are stimulated by calmer winds and to avoid

diurnal birds of prey. The calls are utilized in maintaining flock and contact during nocturnal

migration. Birds that make nocturnal vocalizations to cause nocturnal migration are called

nocturnal migrants. Examples of species of birds that utilized mimicry in migration include

Cedar Waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum), Baltimore oriole (Icterus galbula), Red-necked

Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus), and Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius). Species of

birds that mimic to migrate are very many; they are summarized in APPENDIX.

4.2.3 Wintering

Birds mimic to help them avoid the harsh effects of climate change. A study conducted

by Germain et al. (2010) show that adult-like plumage coloration is utilized by some species of

birds to predict winter territory quality as well as the timing of arrival on the breeding grounds of

yearling male. Species such as American Redstart (Setophaga ruticilla) compete for habitat

occupancy; adult males occupy the majority of high-quality habitat. American Redstart prefers

wintering in high-quality habitat and places characterized by abundant food supply throughout

the winter (Slagsvold & Wiebe, 2011). American Redstart experiences habitat segregation based
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on size; larger females out-compete smaller females. For the case of males, they do not use body-

sized but rather carotenoid-based plumage features, for instance, brighter tail feathers.

4.3.0 Behaviors in Response to Other Birds

4.3.1 Territoriality

Some species of birds have developed a defense mechanism to protect their territory; for

males, the territory is crucial for attracting females and successful breeding. These species

protect their territory from being invaded into by migrating nocturnal birds throughout the day

(La, 2011). They if even do it at night when they are prospecting individuals such as nocturnal

migrants to be active during night hours. They use vocalization alone to deter prospecting

individuals from entering their territory. Territorial vocalizations are more successful at night

because other signals such as visual ornaments are very difficult to evaluate. Birds vocalizing at

night to defend territory make as specific kind of vocalization known as territorial vocalization.

Such species of birds have a territory to defend and are afraid to bear the risk of losing their

territory, probably to floaters or nocturnal migrants. Species of birds whose nocturnal

vocalizations are territorial include Western Meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta), Cetti’s Warbler

(Cettia cetti), and Willet (Tringa semipalmata). Species of birds using nocturnal vocalization

successfully defend their territories against being invaded into by other species.
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4.3.2 Alarm calls

Alarm calls are a rapid means used by some species of birds to signal danger. Some

species of birds not only can respond to conspecific alarm calls but can also establish an identity

of alarm call from other species. Eavesdropping on alarm calls is a common phenomenon,

occurring in most birds. According to Fallow et al. (2013), eavesdropping species of birds use

the ability to recognize heterospecific alarm calls to reduce vigilance in presence hetero-specifics

and increase foraging efficiency as a consequence. Learning and acoustic similarity play a vital

role in the identification of hetero-specific alarm calls. Riegert and Jůzlová (2018), Icterine

Warblers (Hippolais icterine), mimic alarm calls more frequently to deter potential intruders and

threats (Appendix A). Alarms calls produced by this specie, induces an escape behavior to a

targeted competitor to escape danger. The species that signals have an advantage over specie that

detects the signal and flees (Riegert and Jůzlová, 2018). A good example is observed in Fork-

tailed drongos (Dicrurus adsimilis), known for stealing food from the recipient that is confused

through deceptive behavior. Mockingbirds (Mimus polyglottos) demonstrate plasticity to alarm

calls.

4.4.0 Determining Whether Certain Traits Are Harmful To Any Species

4.4.1 Predation

Predation trait is harmful to some species of birds. Giving away one’s location to an

eavesdropping predator has potential costs. La (2012) indicates that species of birds that are

under have higher diurnal predation and more nocturnal predation pressure, especially when

predators are active. Predation pressure affects nocturnal vocalizations. Predation is a limiting

factor to the birds’ population. Some of the species that are affected by predation include House
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Sparrows (Troglodytes troglodytes), Otters (Lutra lutra). Prum (2014) indicates that social

dominance contributes to the significance of dietary differentiation between species of birds

(Appendix B). Moreover, social exclusion through predation has a larger impact on the fitness of

subordinate species (prey) (Prum, 2014). Thus predation trait harms the pray by reducing the

population of prey, causing a lack of fitness, as well as minimizing preys’ potential to access

resources such as food.

4.4.2 Mating

Mating harms some species of birds. Bird species that neither occupy quality habitat nor

get access to adequate food because they are scared by the aggressive character of other species

rarely reproduce. Males with high-quality vocalizations attract more females; thus males with

low-quality vocalization have rare chances of accessing female counterparts (La, 2011). For

example, Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater) increases their song output and perhaps

counter-sing to aid more successful copulation and produce more offspring.

4.5 Benefits of Imitation

Generally, imitations assist birds to communicate. This occurs through the recruitment of

mobs, deterring predators directly and, and attracting secondary predators. Imitation helps in

recruitments of mobs. Birds mimic to attract others to assist in mobbing the predator (Goodale et

al., 2014). Most passerine species respond rapidly to alarm calls from conspecifics through

moving closer to such calls. Upon locating the predator, they may attack or harass it. Attracting

other species by mobbing calls reduces the risk of predation for the caller through diluting the

impact of trick and confusing the predator. The pray attracts more appealing prey by mimicry;

hence the predator becomes more conspicuous. An investigation done by Dalziel et al. (2015)
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shows that imitation benefits the mimic through fostering mobbing; for example, mobbing calls

from buff-barred warbler (P. pulcher) are responded to by greenish warbler (Phylloscopus

trochiloides).

Imitation assists to deter predators directly. Most species of birds avoid predation by

utilizing dramatic signals, which gives the prey enough time to escape. Unexpected vocal

mimicry deters predator if helpless prey mimic sound that is relevant to the predation, for

instance, territorial vocalization are used to scare the predator directly (Dalziel et al., 2015). In

this regard, if a predator fails to respond to an actual sound model, then they become sensitive to

the imitation of the sound model. Nestlings are known for producing such sounds, “snake-like”

hiss when distracted by a predator. For example, Northern Flicker (Colaptes auratus) produces a

buzzing sound similar to a hive of bees to bar predatory squirrels from interfering with their

nests.

4.6 Benefit (s) of detecting imitation and deceit

Detection of imitation and deceit enables birds to avoid danger. Jamie (2017) posits that

by failing to respond to multiple alarm calls from predators, hosts remain safer. Goodale et al.

(2014) demonstrate flee response by babblers (Turdoides rufescens) after realizing Drongo

(Dicrurus paradiseus lophorinus) mobbing mimicry is associate with predation.

5.0 Conclusion

The conceptual framework explored in this paper covers sub-tropical areas of mimicry in

birds. These areas include a definition of mimicry, reasons why birds mimic, response behaviors

such as territoriality or alarm calls, determination of whether predation and mating are harmful to

certain species of birds, benefits of predation as well as the benefit of detecting predation and
WHY DO BIRDS MIMIC 15

deceit. Although some definitions are included, mimicry does not have an exact definition. This

is because multiple-mimicry may be occurring at the same time but cannot be identified. Grim

(2013) indicates mimicry may be a mix of mimetic and non-mimetic similarities, which

complexes its identification. Research in mimicry cannot be explored fully since mimicry a

multidisciplinary that requires the integration of knowledge from different study subjects to fully

understand evolution in behavior, sensory and ecology. Many pieces of research simply focus on

ecological aspect of mimicry. Nonetheless, from this research, mimicry plays a crucial role in

birds’ physical, biological and ecological activities.

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6.0 References

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2016). (Mis) conceptualizing themes, thematic analysis, and other

problems with Fugard and Potts’(2015) sample-size tool for thematic analysis.

International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 19(6), 739-743.

Dalziell, A. H., & Welbergen, J. A. (2016). Mimicry for all modalities. Ecology Letters, 19(6),

609-619. Doi: 10.1111/ele.12602

Dalziell, A. H., Welbergen, J. A., Igic, B., & Magrath, R. D. (2015). Avian vocal mimicry: a

unified conceptual framework. Biological Reviews, 90(2), 643-668. Doi:

10.1111/brv.12129

Fallow, P. M., Pitcher, B. J., & Magrath, R. D. (2013). Alarming features: birds use specific

acoustic properties to identify heterospecific alarm calls. Proceedings of the Royal

Society B: Biological Sciences, 280(1754), 20122539.

Germain, R. R., Marra, P. P., Kyser, T. K., & Ratcliffe, L. M. (2010). Adult-like plumage

coloration predicts winter territory quality and timing of arrival on the breeding grounds

of yearling male American redstarts. The Condor, 112(4), 676-682. DOI:

10.1525/cond.2010.090193

Goller, M., & Shizuka, D. (2018). Evolutionary origins of vocal mimicry in songbirds. Evolution

Letters, 2(4), 417-426. Doi.10.1002/evl3.62

WHY DO BIRDS MIMIC 17

Goodale, E., Ratnayake, C. P., & Kotagama, S. W. (2014). Vocal mimicry of alarm‐associated

sounds by a Drongo elicits flee and mobbing responses from other species that participate

in mixed‐species bird flocks. Ethology, 120(3), 266-274. Doi: 10.1111/eth.12202

Grim, T. (2013). Perspectives and debates: Mimicry, signaling and co‐evolution (Commentary

on Wolfgang Wickler–Understanding Mimicry–With special reference to vocal

mimicry). Ethology, 119(4), 270-277. Doi: 10.1111/eth.12067

Heckman, S., & Williams, L. (2011). A systematic literature review of actionable alert

identification techniques for automated static code analysis. Information and Software

Technology, 53(4), 363-387. Kelley, L. A., & Healy, S. D. (2011). Vocal mimicry.

Current Biology, 21(1), R9-R10. DOI:10.1016/j.infsof.2010.12.007

Jamie, G. A. (2017). Signals, cues and the nature of mimicry. Proceedings of the Royal Society

B: Biological Sciences, 284(1849), 20162080. Doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.2080

La, V. T. (2012). Diurnal and nocturnal birds vocalize at night: a review. The Condor, 114(2),

245-257. doi.org/10.1525/cond.2012.100193

Prum, R. O. (2014). Interspecific social dominance mimicry in birds. Zoological Journal of the

Linnean Society, 172(4), 910-941.

Riegert, J., & Jůzlová, Z. (2018). Vocal mimicry in the song of Icterine warblers (Hippolais

icterine): possible functions and sources of variability. Ethology Ecology & Evolution,

30(5), 430-446. DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2017.1412356

WHY DO BIRDS MIMIC 18

Slagsvold, T., & Wiebe, K. L. (2011). Social learning in birds and its role in shaping a foraging

niche. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,

366(1567), 969-977. DOI:10.1098/rstb.2010.0343

7.0 Appendices

7.1 Appendix A: Relationship between Icterine species song and territoriality

Figure 1: Demonstration of relationship between Icterine species song and Icterin

Warbler male territories.

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7.2 Appendix B: Social Dominance

Figure1: images of 5 examples of interspecific social dominance mimicry in bird species; on the

left, and mimic species on the right { A, Chesnut-mandibled Toucan (Ramphastos swainsoni) ;

B, Choco Toucan (Ramphastos brevis); C, Guayaquil Woodpecker (Campephilus

gayaquilensis); D, Lineated Woodpecker (Dryocopus lineatus ); E, Greater Yellowlegs (Tringa

melanoleuca); F, Lesser Yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes); G, Ornate Hawk Eagle (Spizaetus

WHY DO BIRDS MIMIC 20

ornatus ); H, Immature plumage Pale-bellied Goshawk (Accipiter poliogaster); I, Rufus Motmot

(Baryphthengus ruficapillum martii); and J, Broad-billed Motmot Electron (platyrhynchum

pyrrholaemum) (Prum, 2014).

Appendix 2