Political Institution Notes

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Short answer type questions
1. What is the composition of the Constituent Assembly?

Answer: The Constituent Assembly of India was composed of 389 members, including representatives
from different regions, communities, and political parties. It consisted of 292 representatives elected by the
Provincial Legislative Assemblies, 93 representatives nominated by the Princely States, and 4 members
representing the Chief Commissioner Provinces.
2. What were the ideological moorings of the Constituent Assembly members?

Answer: The members of the Constituent Assembly had diverse ideological moorings, representing
various political, social, and cultural backgrounds. They were influenced by ideologies such as
nationalism, socialism, liberalism, and Gandhian principles. The assembly consisted of leaders like
Jawaharlal Nehru, B.R. Ambedkar, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, who played
crucial roles in shaping the constitution.
3. What is the role of the preamble in the Indian constitution?

Answer: The preamble of the Indian constitution serves as an introductory statement that outlines the
objectives and guiding principles of the constitution. It highlights the ideals of justice, liberty, equality, and
fraternity, which are the core values of the Indian democracy. The preamble acts as a source of inspiration
and provides the basic structure for the interpretation and implementation of the constitution.
4. Name one fundamental right guaranteed by the Indian constitution.

Answer: One of the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Indian constitution is the right to freedom of
speech and expression. This right ensures that every citizen has the freedom to express their opinions,
ideas, and thoughts through various mediums such as speech, writing, printing, and electronic media.
5. What are directive principles of state policy?

Answer: Directive Principles of State Policy are the guidelines or principles laid down in Part IV of the
Indian constitution. They serve as a directive for the government to strive towards achieving social,
economic, and political justice in society. These principles are not legally enforceable but are considered
fundamental in the governance of the country.
6. How has democracy contributed to social change in India?

Answer: Democracy in India has played a significant role in bringing about social change. It has provided
a platform for marginalized sections of society to voice their concerns and demand equal rights and
opportunities. Through democratic processes such as elections, citizens have the power to elect
representatives who can address their social issues and work towards inclusive development.
7. What is the concept of national unity in India?

Answer: National unity in India refers to the idea of fostering a sense of oneness and solidarity among the
diverse population of the country. It emphasizes the importance of promoting harmony, understanding,
and respect for different cultures, religions, languages, and traditions. National unity is crucial for
maintaining peace, stability, and progress in a multicultural and pluralistic society like India.
8. Name one check and balance mechanism in the Indian constitution.

Answer: One check and balance mechanism in the Indian constitution is the system of separation of
powers. It ensures that the powers of the government are divided among three branches - the legislature,
the executive, and the judiciary. Each branch acts as a check on the others, preventing any one branch
from becoming too powerful and ensuring a system of checks and balances.
9. How are constitutional amendments made in India?

Constitutional amendments in India are made through a specific procedure outlined in Article 368 of the
Indian Constitution. First, a proposed amendment must be introduced as a bill in either house of
Parliament. The bill must then be passed by a special majority, which requires a majority of the total
membership of each house, as well as a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting. After
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passing both houses, the bill is sent to the President for assent. Once the President gives assent, the
amendment becomes a part of the Constitution.
10. Who is the head of the state in India?

The President of India is the head of the state. The President is the ceremonial head and represents the
unity and integrity of the nation. The President is elected by an electoral college consisting of the elected
members of both houses of Parliament, as well as the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of
the states.
11. Who is the head of the Union executive?

The Prime Minister of India is the head of the Union executive. The Prime Minister is the leader of the
political party or coalition that has the majority in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament. The Prime
Minister is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the government and exercises executive
powers.
12. What is the structure of the Union Parliament?

The Union Parliament of India consists of two houses: the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok
Sabha (House of the People). The Rajya Sabha is the upper house and represents the states and union
territories, while the Lok Sabha is the lower house and represents the people. Both houses have specific
roles and functions in the legislative process.
13. Name one parliamentary committee in India.

One of the parliamentary committees in India is the Public Accounts Committee (PAC). The PAC is a
standing committee of Parliament that examines the audit reports of the Comptroller and Auditor General
(CAG) and scrutinizes the government's financial transactions. It plays a crucial role in ensuring financial
accountability and transparency in the government.
14. What is the role of the Supreme Court in India?

The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial authority in the country. Its primary role is to interpret
the Constitution and to safeguard the fundamental rights of citizens. The Supreme Court acts as the final
court of appeal and has the power of judicial review, which allows it to strike down laws or government
actions that are unconstitutional. It also resolves disputes between the central government and the state
governments.
15. What are high courts and what is their role?

High courts are the highest judicial bodies at the state level in India. Each state has its own high court,
which has jurisdiction over that particular state. The role of high courts is to hear appeals from lower
courts and to exercise original jurisdiction in certain cases. They play a crucial role in the administration of
justice within their respective states.
16. What is judicial review?

Judicial review is the power of the courts to review the constitutionality of laws, acts, or government
actions. It allows the judiciary to determine whether a law or action is in accordance with the provisions of
the Constitution. By exercising judicial review, the courts can strike down laws or actions that are found to
be unconstitutional, thereby safeguarding the rights and liberties of individuals.
17. Define judicial activism.

Judicial activism refers to the proactive role played by the judiciary in shaping and influencing public
policy. It involves the courts taking an active role in interpreting the law and expanding the scope of
constitutional rights. Judicial activism often involves the courts addressing social and political issues, and
making decisions that have far-reaching implications for society.
18. Name one state executive position in India.
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One state executive position in India is the Chief Minister. The Chief Minister is the head of the state
government and is responsible for the administration of the state. The Chief Minister is usually the leader
of the political party or coalition that has the majority in the state legislative assembly.
19. Who is the head of the state executive in a state?

The Governor is the head of the state executive in a state. The Governor is appointed by the President of
India and represents the President at the state level. The Governor's role is primarily ceremonial, but they
also have certain constitutional powers, such as the power to appoint the Chief Minister and dissolve the
state legislative assembly.
20. What is the structure of the state legislature?

The state legislature in India is bicameral in some states and unicameral in others. In states with a
bicameral legislature, it consists of two houses: the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) and the
Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad). The Legislative Assembly is the lower house and represents the
people, while the Legislative Council is the upper house and represents various interests, including those
of local governments, teachers, and graduates. In states with a unicameral legislature, there is only a
Legislative Assembly.
21. Name one Legislative Council in India.

Answer: The Legislative Council of Karnataka.
22. What is the concept of strong center framework in Indian federalism?

Answer: The concept of a strong center framework in Indian federalism refers to a system where the
central government holds significant powers and authority over the state governments. It allows the central
government to have control over key policy areas such as defense, foreign affairs, and finance, while the
state governments have limited autonomy in decision-making.
23. What are asymmetrical federal provisions?

Answer: Asymmetrical federal provisions are provisions that allow for variations in the distribution of
powers and resources among different states or regions within a federal system. These provisions
recognize and accommodate the unique historical, cultural, or geographical characteristics of certain
states or regions, granting them specific powers or privileges that other states or regions may not have.
24. Name one intergovernmental coordination mechanism in India.

Answer: The National Development Council (NDC) is an intergovernmental coordination mechanism in
India. It is a forum where the central and state governments come together to discuss and coordinate on
matters related to economic planning and development.
25. What is the role of the Inter-State Council?

Answer: The Inter-State Council in India serves as a platform for dialogue and consultation between the
central and state governments on matters of common interest. Its role includes discussing and resolving
disputes between states, reviewing the working of the constitutional provisions pertaining to inter-state
relations, and making recommendations on various issues to promote cooperative federalism.
26. What is the role of the Election Commission of India?

Answer: The Election Commission of India is responsible for the conduct and supervision of elections in
the country. Its role includes the preparation and updating of electoral rolls, delimitation of constituencies,
monitoring election campaigns, enforcing the Model Code of Conduct, and ensuring free and fair
elections.
27. Name one electoral reform in India.

Answer: The introduction of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) is a significant electoral reform in India.
EVMs have replaced traditional paper ballots and have streamlined the voting process, making it more
efficient, transparent, and tamper-proof.
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28. What are the functions of the local government institutions?
Answer: The functions of local government institutions in India include providing essential public services
such as water supply, sanitation, and waste management, maintaining local infrastructure, promoting local
economic development, implementing social welfare programs, and ensuring citizen participation in
decision-making processes at the grassroots level.
29. Name one constitutional and statutory body in India.

Answer: The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) is both a constitutional and statutory body in
India. It is responsible for the protection and promotion of human rights in the country, investigating
complaints of human rights violations, and making recommendations for their redressal.
30. What is the role of the Comptroller and Auditor General?

Answer: The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India is responsible for auditing the accounts and
financial transactions of the central and state governments. Its role includes ensuring transparency,
accountability, and efficiency in the use of public funds, conducting performance audits, and providing
independent assessments of the government's financial management.
Long answer type questions
1. Who were the key figures involved in the Indian national movement leading up to the making of
the Indian constitution?
The Indian national movement for independence was a complex and multifaceted struggle that involved
the contributions of numerous leaders and activists. The movement spanned several decades and went
through various phases, ultimately leading to India gaining independence from British rule in 1947. Some
key figures who played pivotal roles in the Indian national movement and were also instrumental in the
framing of the Indian Constitution include:
1.Mahatma Gandhi: Also known as the "Father of the Nation," Gandhi was a central figure in the Indian
independence movement. He advocated for nonviolent civil disobedience and played a crucial role in
various campaigns, such as the Salt March and the Quit India Movement.
2.Jawaharlal Nehru: A close associate of Gandhi, Nehru was a prominent leader of the Indian National
Congress and became the first Prime Minister of independent India. He played a key role in the
Constituent Assembly and was one of the architects of the Indian Constitution.
3.Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: Known as the "Iron Man of India," Patel was a key leader in the Indian
National Congress and played a crucial role in the integration of princely states into the Indian Union. He
also served as the Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister of India.
4.B.R. Ambedkar: A prominent jurist, social reformer, and politician, Ambedkar was the principal architect
of the Indian Constitution. He chaired the drafting committee and played a pivotal role in ensuring social
justice and the inclusion of fundamental rights in the constitution.
5. Rajendra Prasad: The first President of independent India, Prasad was a key leader in the Indian
National Congress and played a significant role in the Constituent Assembly. He later became the
President of the Constituent Assembly and then the President of India.
6.J.B. Kripalani: A senior leader in the Indian National Congress, Kripalani was actively involved in the
Quit India Movement and later served as the president of the Indian National Congress.
7.C.Rajagopalachari: A freedom fighter, statesman, and the last Governor-General of India,

Rajagopalachari played a significant role in the negotiations leading to the integration of princely states.
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8.Maulana Abul Kalam Azad: A prominent leader in the Indian National Congress and the first Minister of
Education in independent India, Azad was involved in the freedom struggle and played a role in the
educational and cultural development of the country.
2. How was the Constituent Assembly of India composed?

The Constituent Assembly of India was composed of representatives from various sections of Indian
society. The members of the assembly were elected by the members of the provincial legislatures.
The composition of the Constituent Assembly was as follows:
1. Members elected by the Provincial Legislative Assemblies: 292 members were elected by the
members of the provincial legislatures. These members represented the different provinces and were
elected through a proportional representation system.
2. Princely States: 93 members were nominated by the rulers of the princely states. These members
represented the princely states and were nominated by the respective rulers.
3. Partly Acquired Territories: 4 members were nominated by the Chief Commissioner of four partly
acquired territories (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Manipur, and Tripura).
4. Chief Commissioner's Provinces: 3 members were nominated by the Chief Commissioner of three
Chief Commissioner's Provinces (Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg, and British Baluchistan).
5. Anglo-Indian Community: 2 members were nominated by the Governor-General to represent the

Anglo-Indian community.
In total, the Constituent Assembly had 389 members. The assembly was a diverse body representing
different regions, communities, and interests of India.
3. What were the ideological moorings of the Constituent Assembly members?

The members of the Constituent Assembly of India had diverse ideological moorings. They represented a
wide range of political, social, and cultural backgrounds, and their ideologies varied accordingly. Here are
some of the major ideological groups and their representation in the Constituent Assembly:
1. Indian National Congress (INC): The Indian National Congress, led by figures like Jawaharlal Nehru,
Mahatma Gandhi, and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, had a significant presence in the Constituent Assembly.
The Congress members were predominantly nationalist and believed in the principles of democracy,
secularism, and social justice.
2. Muslim League: The Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, represented the interests of the
Muslim community. They advocated for the creation of a separate Muslim-majority state, which eventually
led to the partition of India and the formation of Pakistan.
3. Socialists: The socialist members in the Constituent Assembly, such as Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and
Jayaprakash Narayan, championed the cause of social equality, justice, and welfare. They emphasized
the need for land reforms, elimination of caste discrimination, and upliftment of marginalized sections of
society.
4. Communists: The Communist Party of India (CPI) had a small but influential presence in the
Constituent Assembly. The communist members, like P.C. Joshi and S.A. Dange, advocated for a socialist
revolution and the establishment of a classless society.
5. Liberals: There were members in the Constituent Assembly who espoused liberal ideologies,
emphasizing individual rights, freedom of speech, and limited government intervention. They believed in a
market economy and the protection of civil liberties.
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6. Regional and Minority Interests: The Constituent Assembly also included members representing
various regional and minority interests. These members advocated for the rights and aspirations of their
respective regions or communities.
4. What were some of the significant constitutional debates that took place during the formation of
the Indian constitution?
During the formation of the Indian Constitution, several significant constitutional debates took place in the
Constituent Assembly. These debates shaped the provisions and principles of the Constitution. Here are
some of the key debates:
1. Nature of the State: One of the major debates was regarding the nature of the Indian state. There
were discussions on whether India should be a federal or a unitary state. Ultimately, a federal structure
with a strong center was adopted, known as a "quasi-federal" system.
2. Fundamental Rights: The inclusion and scope of fundamental rights in the Constitution were
extensively debated. The discussions revolved around the balance between individual rights and the
collective good, as well as the limitations and exceptions to these rights.
3. Language: The issue of language was a significant debate in the Constituent Assembly. There were
discussions on the recognition and status of different languages in India, particularly Hindi and English.
Eventually, Hindi was adopted as the official language of the Indian government, with English as an
associate language.
4. Reservation and Affirmative Action: The Constituent Assembly debated the issue of reservation and
affirmative action to address social and economic inequalities. The provisions for reservation of seats and
quotas for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes were discussed and
included in the Constitution.
5. Role of the President: The powers and role of the President of India were debated in the Constituent
Assembly. The debates focused on the balance of power between the President and the Prime Minister,
as well as the President's role as the head of state.
6. Judiciary: The structure and powers of the judiciary, including the Supreme Court, were extensively
discussed. The debates focused on the independence of the judiciary, the appointment of judges, and the
role of judicial review.
7. Directive Principles of State Policy: The inclusion and scope of Directive Principles of State Policy,
which provide guidelines for the government to achieve social and economic justice, were debated. The
discussions revolved around the enforceability and prioritization of these principles.
5. Explain the significance of the preamble in the Indian constitution.

The Preamble of the Indian Constitution holds immense significance as it serves as the introductory
statement and guiding spirit of the Constitution. It outlines the fundamental values, principles, and
objectives that the Constitution seeks to achieve. Here are the key aspects that highlight the significance
of the Preamble:
1. Expression of Sovereign Will: The Preamble begins with the phrase "We, the people of India,"
emphasizing that the power of the Constitution emanates from the citizens of India. It reflects the idea of
popular sovereignty, where the ultimate authority lies with the people.
2. Core Values: The Preamble enshrines the core values of the Constitution, including justice, liberty,
equality, and fraternity. These values serve as the guiding principles for the functioning of the state and
the protection of citizens' rights.
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3. Objective Resolution: The Preamble incorporates the Objective Resolution, which was moved by
Jawaharlal Nehru and adopted by the Constituent Assembly. It outlines the broader goals of the Indian
state, such as securing social, economic, and political justice, promoting unity and integrity, and ensuring
the welfare of the people.
4. Source of Constitutional Interpretation: The Preamble is considered as a key source for interpreting
the Constitution. It provides a lens through which the provisions of the Constitution are to be understood
and applied. Courts often refer to the Preamble while interpreting and upholding the spirit of the
Constitution.
5. Reflecting India's Identity: The Preamble reflects the diverse identity of India as a democratic,
secular, socialist, and sovereign nation. It emphasizes the commitment to religious and cultural pluralism,
social justice, and the unity of the nation.
6. Evolutionary Nature: The Preamble is not just a static statement but also evolves with time. It has
been amended once to include the term "socialist" and "secular" through the 42nd Amendment Act in
1976, reflecting the changing aspirations and values of the Indian society.
7. Inspiration for Constitutional Amendments: The Preamble acts as an inspiration for constitutional
amendments. It provides a benchmark against which the legitimacy of any constitutional amendment can
be assessed. Any amendment that seeks to undermine the basic structure or the core values of the
Preamble can be challenged in the courts.
6. What are fundamental rights in the Indian constitution?

Fundamental Rights are a set of basic rights and freedoms that are guaranteed to every citizen of India
under Part III of the Indian Constitution. These rights are considered essential for the development,
dignity, and well-being of individuals. Here are the fundamental rights enshrined in the Indian Constitution:
1. Right to Equality (Articles 14-18): This includes the right to equality before the law, prohibition of
discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth, equality of opportunity in matters
of public employment, abolition of untouchability, and prohibition of titles.
2. Right to Freedom (Articles 19-22): This includes the right to freedom of speech and expression,
assembly, association, movement, residence, and the right to practice any profession, occupation, trade,
or business. It also includes protection of certain rights regarding conviction for offenses and protection of
life and personal liberty.
3. Right against Exploitation (Articles 23-24): This includes the prohibition of trafficking in human
beings, forced labor, and child labor. It also prohibits employment of children in hazardous industries.
4. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25-28): This includes the freedom of conscience and the right
to freely profess, practice, and propagate religion. It also includes the freedom to manage religious affairs,
subject to public order, morality, and health.
5. Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29-30): This includes the right of any section of citizens to
conserve their culture, language, or script, and the right of minorities to establish and administer
educational institutions of their choice.
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32): This provides individuals with the right to move to the
Supreme Court for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It ensures that individuals have access to
justice and can seek remedies in case of violation of their fundamental rights.
7. Discuss the directive principles of state policy and their role in governance.
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Directive Principles of State Policy are a set of guidelines and principles enshrined in Part IV of the Indian
Constitution (Articles 36-51). They provide a framework for the government to formulate policies and laws
that aim to promote the welfare of the people and establish a just and equitable society. While not legally
enforceable, these principles are considered fundamental in the governance of the country. Here's a
discussion on the Directive Principles and their role in governance:
1. Social Justice: The Directive Principles emphasize the importance of social justice by promoting
equality, eliminating discrimination, and ensuring the welfare and well-being of all citizens. They direct the
state to take steps to secure equal opportunities, provide adequate means of livelihood, and promote the
interests of marginalized sections of society.
2. Economic Justice: The principles aim to achieve economic justice by advocating for equitable
distribution of resources, minimizing inequalities, and preventing the concentration of wealth and means of
production in the hands of a few. They emphasize the need for the state to promote a just and equitable
economic system that benefits all sections of society.
3. Welfare State: The Directive Principles envision the establishment of a welfare state where the
government takes responsibility for the social and economic well-being of its citizens. They emphasize the
provision of basic necessities such as food, clothing, housing, education, and healthcare for all.
4. Promotion of Education: The principles highlight the importance of education and call for the state to
provide free and compulsory education for children up to the age of 14. They also emphasize the
promotion of scientific temper, moral values, and the spread of literacy.
5. Environmental Protection: The Directive Principles recognize the importance of environmental

protection and sustainable development. They direct the state to protect and improve the environment,
conserve natural resources, and promote the principles of ecological balance.
6. Promotion of Culture: The principles emphasize the preservation and promotion of India's rich cultural
heritage. They call for the protection of monuments, sites, and objects of national importance and
encourage the promotion of diverse cultures and languages.
7. International Peace and Cooperation: The principles promote international peace and cooperation.
They urge the state to foster a just and equitable international order, respect international law, and
promote peaceful relations with other nations.
8. How has democracy contributed to social change in India?

Democracy has played a significant role in bringing about social change in India. Here are some ways in
which democracy has contributed to social change in the country:
1. Equality and Social Justice: Democracy has provided a platform for marginalized and oppressed
sections of society to have a voice and demand equal rights and social justice. Through democratic
processes such as elections, marginalized communities have been able to elect representatives who
advocate for their rights and work towards their upliftment.
2. Empowerment of Women: Democracy has played a crucial role in empowering women in India.
Through democratic institutions and processes, women have been able to participate in decision-making,
hold positions of power, and advocate for gender equality. Laws and policies promoting women's rights,
such as the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act and the Maternity Benefit Act, have been
enacted due to the democratic nature of the Indian polity.
3. Social Movements: Democracy has provided a fertile ground for social movements to emerge and
bring about social change. Various social movements, such as the Dalit rights movement, women's rights
movement, and environmental movements, have been able to mobilize public opinion, raise awareness,
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and demand policy changes through democratic means. These movements have played a crucial role in
challenging social norms, advocating for equality, and bringing about legislative reforms.
4. Right to Information: Democracy has facilitated the right to information, which has been instrumental
in exposing corruption, promoting transparency, and holding the government accountable. The Right to
Information Act, enacted in 2005, has empowered citizens to access information about government
functioning, leading to greater accountability and reducing corruption.
5. Social Welfare Programs: Democracy has facilitated the implementation of social welfare programs
aimed at addressing socio-economic inequalities. Through democratic processes, governments have
been able to formulate and implement programs such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), which provides employment opportunities and social security to
rural households. These programs have contributed to reducing poverty, improving access to education
and healthcare, and uplifting marginalized communities.
6. Protection of Minority Rights: Democracy has played a crucial role in protecting the rights of minority
communities in India. The democratic framework ensures that the voices and concerns of minority
communities are heard and addressed. Constitutional provisions such as the reservation of seats for
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, as well as the protection of religious and cultural rights, have
been possible due to the democratic nature of the Indian polity.
9. Explain the concept of national unity in the Indian context.

The concept of national unity in the Indian context refers to the idea of a cohesive and inclusive society
where people from diverse backgrounds, cultures, religions, and languages come together as one nation.
India is a country with immense diversity, and national unity is essential to maintain social harmony,
ensure equal opportunities for all, and foster a sense of belonging and pride in being Indian.
Here are some key aspects of national unity in the Indian context:
1. Unity in Diversity: India is known for its cultural, linguistic, religious, and regional diversity. National
unity in India recognizes and celebrates this diversity while promoting a sense of belonging and shared
identity as Indians. The idea is to appreciate and respect the different cultures and traditions while
recognizing that they are all part of the larger Indian identity.
2. Constitutional Framework: The Constitution of India plays a crucial role in promoting national unity. It
provides a framework that guarantees fundamental rights, equality, and social justice to all citizens,
irrespective of their background. The Constitution also recognizes the diversity of the country and provides
for the protection of minority rights and the promotion of cultural and educational rights.
3. Secularism: Secularism is a fundamental principle enshrined in the Indian Constitution. It ensures that
the state remains neutral in matters of religion and treats all religions equally. Secularism in India
promotes religious tolerance, respect for all faiths, and the freedom to practice and propagate one's
religion without discrimination.
4. Unity in Governance: The Indian government, at both the central and state levels, plays a crucial role
in promoting national unity. Policies and programs are designed to address the needs and aspirations of
different sections of society, ensuring equal opportunities and social justice. The principles of federalism
and cooperative federalism also contribute to national unity by fostering cooperation and coordination
between the central and state governments.
5. National Symbols and Institutions: National symbols such as the national flag, national anthem, and
national emblem play a significant role in fostering a sense of unity and pride among Indians. Institutions
like the Parliament, judiciary, and the armed forces also contribute to national unity by upholding the
principles of democracy, justice, and national security.
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6. Social Cohesion and Integration: National unity in India is also promoted through social cohesion and
integration. Efforts are made to bridge the gaps between different communities, promote intercultural
dialogue, and foster a sense of brotherhood and solidarity. Social initiatives and programs are
implemented to promote inclusivity and reduce social and economic disparities.
7. Unity in Times of Crisis: National unity is often tested during times of crisis, such as natural disasters,
communal tensions, or external threats. In such situations, the spirit of unity and resilience is crucial in
overcoming challenges and maintaining social harmony.
10. What are the checks and balances in the Indian constitution?
The Indian Constitution provides for a system of checks and balances to ensure that no single organ of
the government becomes too powerful and to safeguard the rights and liberties of citizens. These checks
and balances are designed to maintain the separation of powers and prevent any abuse of authority. Here
are some key checks and balances in the Indian Constitution:
1. Separation of Powers: The Indian Constitution divides the powers of the government among three
separate branches: the Legislature, the Executive, and the Judiciary. Each branch has its own distinct
powers and functions, and they act as checks on each other.
2. Parliamentary System: India follows a parliamentary system of government where the executive is
responsible to the legislature. The Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister, is collectively
responsible to the Parliament. This ensures that the executive is accountable to the legislature and can be
questioned and held accountable for its actions.
3. Bicameral Legislature: The Indian Parliament consists of two houses - the Rajya Sabha (Council of
States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The Rajya Sabha represents the states and acts as a
check on the Lok Sabha. Both houses have equal legislative powers, and any legislation must be passed
by both houses to become law.
4. Judicial Review: The Indian judiciary has the power of judicial review, which allows it to review the
constitutionality of laws and executive actions. If a law or action is found to be unconstitutional, the
judiciary can strike it down. This power acts as a check on the legislative and executive branches and
ensures that they do not exceed their constitutional limits.
5. Independent Judiciary: The Indian judiciary is independent of the executive and legislative branches.
Judges are appointed through a rigorous process and enjoy security of tenure. This independence allows
the judiciary to act as a check on the other branches and ensure the protection of fundamental rights and
the rule of law.
6. Fundamental Rights: The Indian Constitution guarantees fundamental rights to all citizens, which are
enforceable by the judiciary. These rights act as a check on the government's power and protect
individuals from any arbitrary action. Citizens can approach the courts if their fundamental rights are
violated.
7. Federal Structure: India has a federal structure where powers are divided between the central
government and the state governments. This division of powers acts as a check on the central
government's authority and ensures that states have autonomy in certain areas.
8. Election Commission: The Election Commission of India is an independent body responsible for
conducting free and fair elections. It acts as a check on the executive and ensures that elections are
conducted impartially.
11. Discuss the basic structure debates in relation to the Indian constitution.
The "Basic Structure" doctrine is a significant aspect of constitutional law in India. It refers to the idea that
certain fundamental features or principles of the Indian Constitution are beyond the amending power of
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the Parliament. The doctrine was established by the Supreme Court of India in the landmark case of
Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala in 1973. Here are the key points and debates surrounding the
Basic Structure doctrine:
1. Origin and Significance: The Basic Structure doctrine was introduced to prevent any arbitrary
changes to the Constitution that could undermine its core principles and values. It ensures that the basic
structure of the Constitution, which includes principles of democracy, federalism, secularism, and the
protection of fundamental rights, remains intact and cannot be altered through ordinary amendments.
2. Kesavananda Bharati Case: The Kesavananda Bharati case was a constitutional challenge to the
24th Amendment Act, which sought to curtail the power of the judiciary to review constitutional
amendments. The Supreme Court, in its judgment, held that while the Parliament has the power to amend
the Constitution, it cannot alter its basic structure.
3. Basic Structure Elements: The Supreme Court did not provide an exhaustive list of the elements of
the basic structure, but it identified certain principles that are considered part of the basic structure, such
as supremacy of the Constitution, rule of law, independence of the judiciary, separation of powers,
federalism, secularism, and protection of fundamental rights.
4. Judicial Review and Constitutional Amendments: The Basic Structure doctrine limits the power of
the Parliament to amend the Constitution. While the Parliament has the authority to amend the
Constitution, it cannot amend it in a manner that violates or destroys the basic structure. Any amendment
that violates the basic structure can be struck down by the judiciary.
5. Scope and Interpretation: The scope and interpretation of the Basic Structure doctrine have been the
subject of debates and discussions. Some argue that the doctrine should be narrowly interpreted to
include only the explicitly mentioned principles in the Constitution, while others advocate for a broader
interpretation to include evolving principles and values.
6. Criticisms and Challenges: The Basic Structure doctrine has faced criticism on various grounds.
Some argue that it gives excessive power to the judiciary and undermines the democratic process. Others
contend that the doctrine lacks clarity and provides scope for judicial activism. There have been calls for a
constitutional amendment to define the scope and limits of the Basic Structure doctrine.
7. Evolution of the Doctrine: Over the years, the Basic Structure doctrine has evolved through
subsequent judgments of the Supreme Court. The court has identified additional principles and elements
that form part of the basic structure, such as the independence of the Election Commission, free and fair
elections, and the principle of equality.
12. How can constitutional amendments be made in India?

In India, constitutional amendments can be made through a specific procedure outlined in Article 368 of
the Indian Constitution. Here is an overview of the process:
1. Introduction of Amendment: The process of amending the Constitution begins with the introduction of
a bill in either house of Parliament. The bill must be passed by a majority of the total membership of that
house and by a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting.
2. Approval by Both Houses: After being passed by one house, the bill is sent to the other house for
consideration. The second house must also pass the bill by a majority of the total membership and by a
two-thirds majority of the members present and voting.
3. Presidential Assent: Once the bill is passed by both houses of Parliament, it is sent to the President of
India for assent. The President has the power to either give assent to the bill or withhold assent. If the
President gives assent, the bill becomes law and the Constitution is amended.
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4. Special Majority and Ratification: Some amendments require a special majority and ratification by the
states. Amendments that affect the federal structure, the powers of the states, or certain fundamental
rights require the support of at least half of the states. These amendments must be ratified by the
legislatures of at least half of the states before they can become law.
5. Judicial Review: The Supreme Court of India has the power of judicial review and can examine the
constitutionality of constitutional amendments. If a constitutional amendment is found to be violative of the
basic structure of the Constitution, as defined by the Supreme Court, it can be struck down.
13. Describe the role and powers of the President of India.

The President of India is the head of state and the highest constitutional authority in the country. The role
and powers of the President are outlined in the Constitution of India. Here is an overview of the key
responsibilities and powers of the President:
1. Head of State: The President is the ceremonial head of state and represents the unity and integrity of
the nation. The President performs various ceremonial functions such as the opening of Parliament,
addressing the nation on important occasions, receiving foreign dignitaries, and conferring awards and
honors.
2. Executive Powers: The President is the head of the executive branch of the government. The
President appoints the Prime Minister, who is the head of the government, and other members of the
Council of Ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister. The President also appoints the Attorney General
of India, the Comptroller and Auditor General, and other high officials.
3. Legislative Powers: The President has certain legislative powers. The President can summon,
prorogue, and dissolve the Parliament. The President also gives assent to bills passed by Parliament,
making them law. In some cases, the President can also withhold assent to a bill, sending it back to
Parliament for reconsideration.
4. Emergency Powers: The President has emergency powers in times of national crisis. The President
can declare a state of emergency in the country if there is a threat to the security or integrity of the nation.
During a state of emergency, the President can suspend certain fundamental rights, take over the
administration of states, and exercise other powers as deemed necessary.
5. Diplomatic Powers: The President represents India in its international relations. The President
appoints ambassadors and high commissioners to other countries and receives foreign envoys. The
President also concludes treaties and agreements with other nations on behalf of India.
6. Pardoning Powers: The President has the power to grant pardons, reprieves, and remissions of
punishment. The President can exercise these powers in cases where the judiciary has convicted a
person of a crime and sentenced them.
7. Role in Appointment of Judges: The President plays a role in the appointment of judges to the
Supreme Court and High Courts. The President appoints judges based on the recommendations of the
Chief Justice of India and a collegium of senior judges.
14. Explain the role and functioning of the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.
The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers play pivotal roles in the functioning of a parliamentary
system of government. While specific roles can vary based on the country's constitution and political
traditions, I'll provide a general overview of their roles and functioning:
Prime Minister:
Head of Government: The Prime Minister (PM) is the head of the government and is usually the leader of
the political party that has the majority in the lower house of parliament.
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Executive Authority: The PM holds executive powers and is responsible for the day-to-day
administration of the government. They oversee government agencies and ministries.
Policy Formulation: The PM plays a key role in formulating and implementing government policies. They
set the agenda and direction for the government.
Cabinet Leadership: The PM leads the Cabinet, which consists of senior government ministers
responsible for specific portfolios. The Cabinet is collectively responsible for government decisions.
Representative of the Government: The PM represents the government domestically and

internationally. They often engage in diplomatic activities, negotiations, and interactions with other world
leaders.
Parliamentary Accountability: The PM is accountable to the parliament. They regularly participate in

parliamentary debates, answer questions, and seek approval for major policy initiatives.
Council of Ministers:
Cabinet Ministers: The Council of Ministers is composed of Cabinet Ministers, each responsible for a
specific government department or portfolio, such as finance, defense, or education.
Policy Implementation: Ministers are tasked with implementing government policies within their
respective departments. They work on translating the broader policy goals into actionable initiatives.
Collective Decision-Making: Cabinet meetings involve collective decision-making. Ministers discuss and
decide on major policy issues, and decisions are often binding on the entire government.
Advice to the PM: Ministers provide advice to the Prime Minister based on their expertise and the needs
of their respective departments. They contribute to the policy-making process.
Parliamentary Responsibilities: Cabinet Ministers are also accountable to the parliament. They may be
called upon to answer questions, present departmental budgets, and participate in parliamentary debates.
Coordination and Cooperation: Ministers collaborate with each other to ensure a coherent and
coordinated government approach. They work towards achieving the overall goals of the government.
15. What is the structure of the Union Parliament in India?

The Union Parliament of India, also known as the Parliament of India or the Sansad, is the supreme
legislative body of the country. It follows a bicameral system, consisting of two houses:
1. Rajya Sabha (Council of States): The Rajya Sabha is the upper house of Parliament. It represents the
states and union territories of India. It is a permanent body, with members serving staggered terms. The
Rajya Sabha consists of a maximum of 250 members, of which 238 are elected by the members of the
State Legislative Assemblies and Union Territory Legislative Assemblies. The President of India can also
nominate 12 members with special knowledge or experience in various fields. The Vice President of India
serves as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
2. Lok Sabha (House of the People): The Lok Sabha is the lower house of Parliament. It represents the
people of India. Members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people through general elections.
The Lok Sabha consists of a maximum of 552 members, including two members nominated by the
President to represent the Anglo-Indian community. The Speaker of the Lok Sabha presides over its
sessions.
Both houses of Parliament have specific roles and responsibilities in the legislative process. They are
involved in the making and passing of laws, discussing and debating important issues, and overseeing the
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functioning of the government. The President of India is the head of state and is an integral part of the
Parliament. The President's assent is required for a bill to become law.
The Parliament of India has the power to legislate on subjects listed in the Union List, Concurrent List, and
some subjects in the State List. It plays a crucial role in the democratic governance of India, ensuring
representation, accountability, and the functioning of the government.
16. Discuss the role and functioning of parliamentary committees in India.

Parliamentary committees play a vital role in the functioning of the Indian Parliament. These committees
are formed to examine and scrutinize various aspects of governance, legislation, and policy
implementation. Here are some key points about the role and functioning of parliamentary committees in
India:
1. Types of Committees: There are two types of parliamentary committees in India - Standing
Committees and Ad hoc Committees. Standing Committees are permanent committees that are
constituted for a specific period, usually one year. They are further categorized into Departmentally
Related Standing Committees (DRSCs) and other committees like the Public Accounts Committee (PAC)
and the Estimates Committee. Ad hoc Committees are formed for specific purposes and cease to exist
once their tasks are completed.
2. Functions and Responsibilities: Parliamentary committees have multiple functions and

responsibilities. They examine bills, scrutinize the budget, conduct inquiries, and review the functioning of
various ministries and departments. They play a crucial role in ensuring accountability, transparency, and
efficiency in governance. The committees also provide a platform for lawmakers to have detailed
discussions, seek expert opinions, and make informed decisions.
3. Composition: The composition of parliamentary committees reflects the proportional representation of

political parties in the Parliament. The members of these committees are nominated by the Speaker (in
the case of Lok Sabha) or the Chairman (in the case of Rajya Sabha). The strength and composition of
each committee vary depending on the committee's mandate and subject matter.
4. Powers and Authority: Parliamentary committees have the power to summon officials, experts, and
stakeholders to seek their views and gather information. They can also examine witnesses, call for
documents, and conduct site visits. The committees have the authority to make recommendations,
suggest amendments to bills, and present reports to the Parliament.
5. Role in Legislation: Parliamentary committees play a crucial role in the legislative process. Bills
introduced in the Parliament are referred to the concerned committees for detailed examination and
scrutiny. The committees study the bills, consult stakeholders, and make recommendations for
amendments or improvements. The committee reports are then presented to the Parliament for discussion
and decision-making.
6. Oversight and Accountability: Parliamentary committees serve as a mechanism for oversight and
accountability. They review the performance of the government, assess the implementation of policies,
and scrutinize the utilization of funds. The committees can highlight shortcomings, identify areas of
improvement, and hold the government accountable for its actions.
17. Explain the jurisdiction and powers of the Supreme Court in India.
The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial authority in the country and has extensive jurisdiction
and powers. Here is an explanation of the jurisdiction and powers of the Supreme Court:
1. Original Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in certain cases of constitutional
importance. It can directly hear disputes between the Government of India and one or more states, or
between states themselves. It also has the power to hear cases related to the enforcement of fundamental
rights.
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2. Appellate Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court is primarily an appellate court and has the power to hear
appeals from lower courts and tribunals. It hears appeals against the judgments and orders of the High
Courts, as well as appeals from tribunals and other specialized bodies. The Supreme Court has the final
authority to interpret the Constitution and its decisions are binding on all other courts in the country.
3. Writ Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court has the power to issue writs for the enforcement of fundamental
rights guaranteed by the Constitution. These writs include habeas corpus (to produce a person in
custody), mandamus (to compel a public authority to perform its duties), prohibition (to prevent a lower
court from exceeding its jurisdiction), certiorari (to quash the decision of a lower court), and quo warranto
(to inquire into the legality of a person holding a public office).
4. Advisory Jurisdiction: The President of India can seek the opinion of the Supreme Court on any
question of law or fact of public importance. The Court has the power to give advisory opinions on such
matters, although the opinion is not binding.
5. Judicial Review: The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review, which allows it to review the
constitutionality of laws and executive actions. It can strike down laws and actions that are found to be in
violation of the Constitution. This power ensures the supremacy of the Constitution and protects the
fundamental rights of citizens.
6. Contempt of Court: The Supreme Court has the power to punish for contempt of court, which includes
both civil and criminal contempt. It can take action against individuals or entities that show disrespect or
obstruct the administration of justice.
7. Administrative Powers: The Supreme Court has administrative powers to manage its own affairs and
the functioning of subordinate courts. It can make rules regarding the practice and procedure of the court,
appoint judges, and regulate the functioning of the judicial system.
18. What are high courts and what is their role in the Indian judiciary?
High courts are the intermediate level courts in the Indian judiciary system. Each state in India has its own
high court, and some union territories also have their own high courts. The role of high courts in the Indian
judiciary is as follows:
1. Appellate Jurisdiction: High courts have the power to hear appeals against the judgments and orders
of subordinate courts within their jurisdiction. They act as the final court of appeal in their respective states
or union territories.
2. Writ Jurisdiction: High courts have the power to issue writs for the enforcement of fundamental rights
guaranteed by the Indian Constitution. These writs include habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition,
certiorari, and quo warranto.
3. Supervisory Jurisdiction: High courts have supervisory powers over the subordinate courts within
their jurisdiction. They can exercise control and give directions to ensure that justice is properly
administered.
4. Original Jurisdiction: High courts have original jurisdiction in certain cases, such as cases involving
disputes between the state and the central government, cases involving violations of fundamental rights,
and cases involving issues of public importance.
5. Administrative Functions: High courts have administrative functions related to the appointment,
transfer, and promotion of district judges and other judicial officers within their jurisdiction. They also have
the power to make rules and regulations for the efficient functioning of the subordinate courts.
19. What is judicial review and how does it function in India?
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Judicial review is the power of the judiciary to review and determine the constitutionality of laws, executive
actions, and government decisions. It is a fundamental feature of the Indian Constitution and is essential
for upholding the principles of democracy, separation of powers, and the rule of law.
In India, judicial review is primarily carried out by the Supreme Court, which is the highest court in the
country. However, high courts also have the power of judicial review within their respective jurisdictions.
The functioning of judicial review in India can be understood through the following points:
1. Constitutionality of Laws: The Supreme Court has the power to review and strike down any law
passed by the Parliament or state legislatures if it is found to be inconsistent with the provisions of the
Indian Constitution. This power is derived from Article 13 of the Constitution, which declares that any law
that violates fundamental rights shall be void.
2. Executive Actions: The Supreme Court can review and declare executive actions, such as
government orders, notifications, and policies, as unconstitutional if they violate the rights guaranteed by
the Constitution or exceed the powers granted to the executive.
3. Government Decisions: The Supreme Court can review and set aside government decisions if they
are found to be arbitrary, irrational, or in violation of the principles of natural justice. This includes
decisions related to appointments, promotions, dismissals, and administrative actions.
4. Writ Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court and high courts have the power to issue writs, such as habeas
corpus, mandamus, prohibition, certiorari, and quo warranto, for the enforcement of fundamental rights
and for the judicial review of administrative actions.
5. Public Interest Litigation (PIL): In India, the concept of PIL allows any citizen or group to approach
the courts for the enforcement of public rights and for seeking judicial review of government actions that
affect public interest. This has expanded the scope of judicial review and made it more accessible to the
common people.
20. Discuss the concept of judicial activism in India.

Judicial activism in India refers to the active and interventionist role played by the judiciary in interpreting
and shaping laws, policies, and governance. It involves the judiciary going beyond its traditional role of
dispute resolution and actively engaging in social, political, and economic matters to protect and promote
the rights and interests of the people. Here are some key points to understand the concept of judicial
activism in India:
1. Expanding the Scope of Fundamental Rights: The Indian judiciary, particularly the Supreme Court,
has been actively involved in expanding the scope of fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution.
Through judicial activism, the courts have interpreted fundamental rights in a broad and inclusive manner,
recognizing new rights and ensuring their enforcement. This has led to the recognition of rights such as
the right to privacy, right to education, right to clean environment, and right to livelihood.
2. Public Interest Litigation (PIL): Judicial activism in India is closely associated with the concept of
Public Interest Litigation (PIL). PIL allows any citizen or organization to approach the courts on behalf of
the public interest, even if they are not directly affected by the issue. This has enabled the judiciary to take
up cases and address systemic issues that affect the larger society, such as environmental protection,
corruption, human rights violations, and access to justice. PIL has been instrumental in bringing about
social change and holding the government accountable.
3. Social Justice and Marginalized Communities: The Indian judiciary has been actively involved in
addressing social issues and promoting social justice through judicial activism. The courts have taken up
cases related to the rights of marginalized and vulnerable groups, such as women, children, Dalits, tribal
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communities, and LGBTQ+ individuals. They have played a crucial role in advancing gender equality,
protecting the rights of minorities, and combating discrimination.
4. Environmental Protection: Judicial activism has been significant in addressing environmental

concerns in India. The courts have taken up cases related to pollution, deforestation, wildlife protection,
and sustainable development. They have issued directives and monitored the implementation of
environmental laws to ensure environmental conservation and the right to a clean and healthy
environment.
5. Judicial Review of Government Actions: Judicial activism in India involves an active review of
government actions and policies. The judiciary has intervened in matters of governance, public
administration, and policy-making to ensure accountability, transparency, and adherence to constitutional
principles. This includes reviewing government contracts, examining the legality of policies, and directing
the government to take necessary actions for public welfare.
21. What are some of the ongoing judicial reform efforts in India?
There are several ongoing judicial reform efforts in India aimed at improving the efficiency, accessibility,
and accountability of the judiciary. Here are some of the key reform initiatives:
1. National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC): The NJAC was proposed as a constitutional
amendment to replace the existing collegium system of judicial appointments. It aimed to establish a more
transparent and accountable process for the appointment and transfer of judges. However, the Supreme
Court declared the NJAC unconstitutional in 2015, and the collegium system continues to be in place.
2. Case Management and E-Courts: The e-Courts project is an initiative to digitize court processes, case
management, and records. It aims to reduce paperwork, improve access to justice, and expedite the
resolution of cases. The project includes the establishment of computerized case management systems,
online filing of cases, and the use of video conferencing for hearings.
3. Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR): The Indian judiciary has been promoting the use of ADR
mechanisms such as mediation, arbitration, and conciliation to reduce the burden on courts and expedite
dispute resolution. Efforts are being made to create specialized ADR centers and increase awareness
about ADR among litigants.
4. Judicial Infrastructure and Human Resources: There is a focus on improving the infrastructure of
courts and increasing the number of judges to reduce the backlog of cases. Efforts are being made to
establish more courts, upgrade existing infrastructure, and provide better facilities for judges, lawyers, and
litigants. Additionally, steps are being taken to enhance the capacity and training of judicial officers and
court staff.
5. Judicial Ethics and Accountability: Measures are being taken to enhance judicial ethics and
accountability. The judiciary has adopted codes of conduct for judges, and mechanisms are being put in
place to address complaints against judges. Efforts are also being made to promote transparency in
judicial appointments, transfers, and disciplinary proceedings.
6. Legal Aid and Access to Justice: Steps are being taken to improve access to justice, especially for
marginalized and vulnerable groups. Legal aid programs are being strengthened to provide free legal
assistance to those who cannot afford it. Efforts are also being made to simplify legal procedures, promote
legal literacy, and establish specialized courts for specific categories of cases.
22. Describe the role and powers of the Governor in the state executive.
In the Indian federal system, the Governor is the constitutional head of the state executive. The role and
powers of the Governor are defined in the Constitution of India. Here are the key aspects of the
Governor's role and powers in the state executive:
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1. Executive Head: The Governor is the executive head of the state. They represent the President of
India at the state level and act as a link between the state government and the central government. The
Governor is appointed by the President and holds office during the pleasure of the President.
2. Appointment of Chief Minister: After a general election, the Governor appoints the Chief Minister of
the state. The Governor invites the leader of the majority party or coalition to form the government. If no
party or coalition has a clear majority, the Governor may use their discretion in appointing the Chief
Minister.
3. Council of Ministers: The Governor appoints other ministers on the advice of the Chief Minister. The
Governor also has the power to dismiss ministers or the entire Council of Ministers if they lose the
confidence of the legislative assembly.
4. Legislative Functions: The Governor has a role in the legislative process. They summon and
prorogue the sessions of the state legislature and address the legislature at the beginning of each
session. The Governor also gives assent to bills passed by the state legislature before they become law.
5. Ordinance Making Power: The Governor has the power to promulgate ordinances when the state
legislature is not in session. These ordinances have the same force and effect as an act of the state
legislature but must be approved by the legislature within a specified period.
6. Discretionary Powers: The Governor has certain discretionary powers. They can reserve certain bills
for the consideration of the President, seek information from the Chief Minister on administrative and
legislative matters, and submit reports to the President on the state's administration.
7. Emergency Powers: In case of a breakdown of constitutional machinery in the state, the Governor has
emergency powers. They can recommend the imposition of President's Rule and take over the
administration of the state.
8. Role as a Constitutional Guardian: The Governor acts as a constitutional guardian, ensuring that the
state government functions within the framework of the Constitution. They have the power to withhold
assent to bills if they are unconstitutional and can send reports to the President if they believe that the
state government is not functioning properly.
23. Explain the role and functioning of the Chief Minister and the Council of Ministers in a state.
In a state government, the Chief Minister and the Council of Ministers collectively form the executive
branch, responsible for the administration and governance of the state. Here's a detailed explanation of
their roles and functioning:
1. Chief Minister (CM):

Head of the Government: The Chief Minister is the leader of the political party or coalition that has a
majority in the state legislative assembly. As the head of the government, the CM is responsible for overall
governance and policy direction in the state.
Executive Authority: The CM exercises executive powers and is the chief executive of the state. They
oversee the implementation of laws, policies, and programs.
Cabinet Formation: The Chief Minister has the authority to appoint ministers to the Council of Ministers.
The selection is usually based on factors such as competence, political considerations, and representation
of different sections of society.
Policy Formulation: The CM is actively involved in formulating and shaping policies, making important
decisions, and providing leadership to the state government.
2. Council of Ministers:
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Collective Decision-Making: The Council of Ministers, also known as the Cabinet, is a group of senior
ministers chosen by the Chief Minister. They collectively participate in decision-making and policy
formulation.
Departmental Responsibilities: Each minister in the Council is typically assigned a specific portfolio or
department, such as finance, education, health, etc. They are responsible for the functioning and
development of their respective departments.
Policy Implementation: Ministers play a crucial role in implementing government policies within their
designated areas. They work towards achieving the goals and objectives set by the government.
Legislative Interface: Members of the Council of Ministers often represent the government in the state
legislative assembly. They participate in debates, answer questions, and defend government policies.
3. Functions of the Council of Ministers:

Policy Formulation: The Council of Ministers collectively contributes to the formulation of policies and
strategies for the development of the state.
Administrative Efficiency: Ministers are responsible for ensuring the efficient administration of their
respective departments. They oversee the implementation of policies and programs.
Decision-Making: Important decisions related to governance, administration, and development are taken
collectively by the Council of Ministers in consultation with the Chief Minister.
Coordination: Ministers work together to ensure coordination and coherence in the functioning of
different departments, promoting a unified approach to governance.
4. Relationship with the Legislative Assembly:

Accountability: The Chief Minister and the Council of Ministers are collectively accountable to the state
legislative assembly. They must justify their policies and actions through debates, discussions, and
question-answer sessions.
Vote of Confidence: The Chief Minister needs the support of the majority in the legislative assembly. If
the government loses a vote of confidence, it may lead to the resignation of the Chief Minister and the
dissolution of the government.
24. What is the structure of the state legislature in India?

The structure of the state legislature in India is as follows:
1. State Legislative Assembly: Each state has a Legislative Assembly, also known as the Vidhan
Sabha. It is the lower house of the state legislature and is directly elected by the people of the state. The
number of seats in the Legislative Assembly is determined by the population of the state.
2. Governor: Each state has a Governor who is appointed by the President of India. The Governor is the
head of the state and represents the President at the state level. The Governor has certain powers and
functions, including the power to summon and prorogue the Legislative Assembly.
3. Chief Minister: The Chief Minister is the head of the state government and is appointed by the
Governor. The Chief Minister is usually the leader of the political party or coalition that has the majority in
the Legislative Assembly. The Chief Minister is responsible for the administration of the state.
4. Council of Ministers: The Chief Minister appoints other ministers to form the Council of Ministers. The
Council of Ministers assists the Chief Minister in the administration of the state and is collectively
responsible to the Legislative Assembly.
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5. State Legislative Council (Optional): Some states in India also have a Legislative Council, also
known as the Vidhan Parishad. The Legislative Council is the upper house of the state legislature. It is a
permanent body and its members are elected by various methods, including indirect elections and
nominations.
6. Speaker: The Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council have a Speaker who presides over the
proceedings of the house. The Speaker is responsible for maintaining order and decorum in the house.
7. Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs): MLAs are elected representatives who represent the
constituencies within the state. They participate in the legislative process, debate and pass laws, and raise
issues related to their constituencies.
8. Members of the Legislative Council (MLCs): MLCs are members of the Legislative Council. They are
either elected by various methods or nominated by the Governor. MLCs also participate in the legislative
process and contribute to the lawmaking.
25. Discuss the composition and functions of the Legislative Council and the Legislative
Assembly.
Composition of the Legislative Council:
1. Appointed or elected members: The members of the Legislative Council are usually appointed or
elected through various methods, such as direct elections, appointments by the head of state, or by
specialized interest groups.
2. Smaller in number: The Legislative Council typically has a smaller number of members compared to
the Legislative Assembly.
Composition of the Legislative Assembly:

1. Directly elected members: The members of the Legislative Assembly are directly elected by the
general public.
2. Larger in number: The Legislative Assembly generally has a larger number of members compared to
the Legislative Council.
Functions of the Legislative Council:
1. Review and amendments: The Legislative Council reviews and amends legislation proposed by the
Legislative Assembly.
2. Expertise and knowledge: It provides a platform for experts and professionals to contribute their
knowledge and expertise in the legislative process.
3. Revising chamber: The Legislative Council acts as a revising chamber to ensure a thorough
examination of bills before they become law.
4. Representation of specialized interests: It represents regional or specialized interests that may not
be adequately represented in the Legislative Assembly.
Functions of the Legislative Assembly:
1. Legislation: The Legislative Assembly introduces, debates, and passes legislation.
2. Representation of the public: It represents the general public and their interests.
3. Oversight of the executive branch: The Legislative Assembly oversees the executive branch and
holds it accountable through question times, debates, and votes of no confidence.
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4. Budgetary decisions: It makes decisions on budgetary matters and approves government spending.
26. Explain the concept of strong center framework in Indian federalism.

The concept of a "strong center" in Indian federalism refers to a model of federal governance where the
central (union) government has a significant concentration of powers and authority. It is characterized by a
system where the central government plays a dominant role in the governance and administration of the
country, while the state governments have limited autonomy.
The strong center framework in Indian federalism has several key features:
1. Concentration of Legislative Powers: The Constitution of India distributes legislative powers between
the Union and the states. However, the Union government has been granted exclusive or concurrent
powers in important areas, giving it a predominant role in legislation. This means that the central
government has the authority to make laws on subjects that are crucial to the functioning of the nation.
2. Residuary Powers with the Center: The residuary powers, which are powers not specifically assigned
to the states or included in the concurrent list, are vested with the Union government. This means that any
matter not explicitly mentioned in the State List or Concurrent List falls under the jurisdiction of the central
government. It gives the center the authority to legislate on matters that are not assigned to the states.
3. Single Integrated Judiciary: India has a single integrated judiciary with the Supreme Court at the
apex. The Supreme Court has the power to interpret the Constitution, resolve disputes between the center
and states, and hear appeals from the High Courts. This centralized judiciary ensures uniformity in the
interpretation and application of laws throughout the country.
4. Emergency Provisions: The Constitution of India includes provisions for the declaration of
emergencies, such as a state of emergency due to war, external aggression, or armed rebellion. During
such emergencies, the powers of the states are substantially curtailed, and the center assumes a more
direct role in governance. This allows the central government to take control and make decisions in critical
situations.
5. Financial Dependence of States: The fiscal architecture in India often leads to a significant financial
dependence of the states on the central government. States rely on grants-in-aid from the center, and the
central government has the power to impose financial controls and conditions on states. This financial
dependence gives the center leverage and control over the states.
6. Appointment of Governors: Governors, who are the constitutional heads of states, are appointed by
the President of India, who represents the Union. The role of Governors has been a subject of debate,
with concerns about their potential interference in state affairs on behalf of the center. This appointment
mechanism further reinforces the central government's influence over the states.
27. What are the asymmetrical federal provisions and adaptations in India?
In India, there are certain provisions and adaptations in the federal system that can be considered
asymmetrical. These provisions recognize the unique circumstances and characteristics of certain states
and grant them special status or privileges. Here are some examples:
1. Special Category Status: Some states in India, such as Jammu and Kashmir, Assam, and Himachal
Pradesh, have been granted Special Category Status. This status provides them with certain benefits,
including preferential treatment in the allocation of central funds, tax concessions, and relaxed criteria for
central assistance. These states are typically characterized by factors like hilly and difficult terrain,
strategic location, and economic backwardness.
2. Article 371: Article 371 of the Indian Constitution grants special provisions and safeguards to certain
states and regions. These provisions aim to protect the cultural, social, and economic interests of these
regions. For example, Article 371A provides special provisions for the state of Nagaland, including the
01763502165, 87278001
requirement of a legislative assembly resolution for the application of certain laws, protection of customary
laws, and ownership of land and resources by indigenous people.
3. Autonomous District Councils: In certain states, like Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Tripura, Autonomous
District Councils (ADCs) have been established. These ADCs have legislative and executive powers over
specified areas within the state. They are responsible for the governance and development of these areas,
including matters related to land, forests, and local customs.
4. Language-based Provisions: India recognizes multiple languages and has provisions to protect and
promote linguistic diversity. Some states, like Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, have adopted language-based
policies that prioritize the use and promotion of their regional language. These policies include the use of
the regional language in government administration, education, and cultural activities.
5. Hill Councils: In states with hilly regions, such as Himachal Pradesh and Darjeeling in West Bengal,
Hill Councils have been established to address the specific needs and aspirations of these regions. These
councils have powers and responsibilities related to local governance, development planning, and
preservation of cultural identity.
6. Tribal Areas and Fifth Schedule: The Fifth Schedule of the Indian Constitution deals with the
administration and governance of scheduled areas and tribal areas. It provides for the establishment of
Tribal Advisory Councils and grants certain protections and rights to the tribal communities residing in
these areas. States like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha have significant tribal populations and are
covered under the Fifth Schedule.
28. Discuss the role of intergovernmental coordination mechanisms, such as the Inter-State
Council, in India.
Intergovernmental coordination mechanisms play a crucial role in maintaining cooperative federalism in
India. These mechanisms facilitate communication, cooperation, and coordination between the central
government and the state governments, ensuring effective governance and policy implementation. One
such mechanism is the Inter-State Council, which was established under Article 263 of the Indian
Constitution. Here is a discussion on the role of the Inter-State Council and its significance in India:
1. Role and Composition: The Inter-State Council is a constitutional body that serves as a platform for
dialogue and consultation between the central government and the state governments. It consists of the
Prime Minister, Chief Ministers of all states and Union Territories (UTs) with legislatures, Governors of
states without legislatures, and six Union Ministers nominated by the President. The Council is chaired by
the Prime Minister.
2. Promoting Cooperative Federalism: The Inter-State Council promotes the principles of cooperative
federalism by providing a forum for discussion, consensus-building, and resolving inter-state disputes. It
facilitates the exchange of ideas, experiences, and best practices among the states and the center,
fostering a cooperative and collaborative approach to governance.
3. Resolving Inter-State Disputes: One of the primary functions of the Inter-State Council is to inquire
into and advise on disputes between states or between the center and states. It acts as a mediator and
facilitator in resolving conflicts and disputes that may arise due to differences in interpretation or
implementation of laws, policies, or resource-sharing issues.
4. Reviewing Centre-State Relations: The Inter-State Council periodically reviews the working of the
federal structure, including the balance of power between the center and states, and suggests measures
for better coordination and cooperation. It examines the implementation of policies and programs and
identifies areas where improvements can be made to strengthen the federal structure.
5. Policy Formulation and Implementation: The Inter-State Council plays a significant role in policy
formulation and implementation. It provides a platform for states to present their concerns, suggestions,
01763502165, 87278001
and feedback on various policies and programs. The Council's recommendations and advice are
considered by the central government while formulating policies, ensuring that the interests and
perspectives of the states are taken into account.
6. Addressing Regional Imbalances: The Inter-State Council also addresses issues related to regional
imbalances and disparities. It discusses strategies and measures to promote balanced regional
development, equitable distribution of resources, and inclusive growth across states. The Council's
recommendations help in addressing the socio-economic disparities among different regions and ensuring
the overall development of the country.
01763502165, 87278001

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[Type the document subtitle] | India

1. What is the composition of the Constituent Assembly?

2. What were the ideological moorings of the Constituent Assembly members?

3. What is the role of the preamble in the Indian constitution?

4. Name one fundamental right guaranteed by the Indian constitution.

5. What are directive principles of state policy?

6. How has democracy contributed to social change in India?

7. What is the concept of national unity in India?

8. Name one check and balance mechanism in the Indian constitution.

9. How are constitutional amendments made in India?

10. Who is the head of the state in India?

11. Who is the head of the Union executive?

12. What is the structure of the Union Parliament?

13. Name one parliamentary committee in India.

14. What is the role of the Supreme Court in India?

15. What are high courts and what is their role?

16. What is judicial review?

17. Define judicial activism.

18. Name one state executive position in India.

19. Who is the head of the state executive in a state?

20. What is the structure of the state legislature?

21. Name one Legislative Council in India.

22. What is the concept of strong center framework in Indian federalism?

23. What are asymmetrical federal provisions?

24. Name one intergovernmental coordination mechanism in India.

25. What is the role of the Inter-State Council?

26. What is the role of the Election Commission of India?

27. Name one electoral reform in India.

29. Name one constitutional and statutory body in India.

30. What is the role of the Comptroller and Auditor General?

Long answer type questions

7.C.Rajagopalachari: A freedom fighter, statesman, and the last Governor-General of India,

2. How was the Constituent Assembly of India composed?

The composition of the Constituent Assembly was as follows:

5. Anglo-Indian Community: 2 members were nominated by the Governor-General to represent the

3. What were the ideological moorings of the Constituent Assembly members?

5. Explain the significance of the preamble in the Indian constitution.

6. What are fundamental rights in the Indian constitution?

5. Environmental Protection: The Directive Principles recognize the importance of environmental

8. How has democracy contributed to social change in India?

9. Explain the concept of national unity in the Indian context.

12. How can constitutional amendments be made in India?

13. Describe the role and powers of the President of India.

Representative of the Government: The PM represents the government domestically and

Parliamentary Accountability: The PM is accountable to the parliament. They regularly participate in

15. What is the structure of the Union Parliament in India?

16. Discuss the role and functioning of parliamentary committees in India.

2. Functions and Responsibilities: Parliamentary committees have multiple functions and

3. Composition: The composition of parliamentary committees reflects the proportional representation of

19. What is judicial review and how does it function in India?

20. Discuss the concept of judicial activism in India.

4. Environmental Protection: Judicial activism has been significant in addressing environmental

1. Chief Minister (CM):

3. Functions of the Council of Ministers:

4. Relationship with the Legislative Assembly:

24. What is the structure of the state legislature in India?

Composition of the Legislative Assembly:

Functions of the Legislative Council:

Functions of the Legislative Assembly:

1. Legislation: The Legislative Assembly introduces, debates, and passes legislation.

26. Explain the concept of strong center framework in Indian federalism.