4 Compressible Flow

A flow is said to be compressible when the density is varying. For most fluids used in
engineering, density changes are negligible, and therefore, they are considered to be incom-
pressible. However, this assumption is not valid for gases, since large variations of density
can be produced as a result of the changes of pressure.
The compressibility of a fluid flow is defined by the Mach number, M, of the flow.

4.1 Basic Equations for Compressible Gases in Steady Flow Con-

ditions
For incompressible flows, the unknown parameters are usually pressure and velocity. For
compressible flows, density becomes an additional variable to be solved. Furthermore, sig-
nificant variations in fluid temperature may occur as a result of density or pressure changes.
We therefore, require four equations in order to solve the four unknown, i.e:

1. Continuity equation,

2. Momentum equation,

3. Energy equation,

4. Equation of state.

Let us consider a control volume as shown in figure 12.

Figure 12: Flow parameter in a fluid element

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4.1.1 Continuity Equation

The conservation of matter requires that

Mass of flow through section 1 = Mass of flow through section 1,

   
∂ρ ∂A ∂v
ρAv = ρ + δs A+ δs v+ δs .
∂s ∂s ∂s
Expanding the above equation and ignoring high order terms, yields

∂v ∂A ∂ρ
ρA + ρv + Av = 0, (59)
∂s ∂s ∂s

or
∂
(ρAv), (60)
∂s
which is the continuity equation in differential form. It can be integrated to get

ρAv = constant, ⇒ ρ1 A1 v1 = ρ2 A2 v2 . (61)

4.1.2 Momentum Equation

The forces acting on the body are pressure and body forces. Thus, the net force acting on
the control volume in direction of flow is given as

    
∂p ∂A ∂p δs
F = pA − p + δs A+ δs + δA p + − W cos α,
∂s ∂s ∂s 2

where the term  

∂p δs
δA p + ,
∂s 2
is the average value of pressure acting on the curved surface of area δA.
Conservation of momentum requires that the rate of change of momentum in a given
direction is equal to the net force in the same direction. Thus,

F = ma,

25
     
∂v ∂p ∂A ∂p δs
ρAδs = pA − p + δs A+ δs + δA p + − ρgAδs cos α, (62)
∂t ∂s ∂s ∂s 2
and ignoring higher order terms,

∂v ∂p
ρ = − − ρg cos α.
∂t ∂s

But
∂v ∂v ∂s ∂v δz ∂z
= =v , and cos α = = in the limit δs → 0.
∂t ∂s ∂t ∂s δs ∂s
Therefore,
∂v 1 ∂p ∂z
v + +g = 0. (63)
∂s ρ ∂s ∂s
Integration of Eq. (63) yields

v2
Z
1 ∂p
+ ds + gz = constant.
2 ρ ∂s

The second term in the above equation can only be integrated if the relationship between p
and ρ is known. For incompressible flow, ρ is constant and, thus

v2 p
+ + gz = constant,
2 ρ

which is the Bernoulli’s equation.

4.1.3 Energy Equation

From the first law of thermodynamics energy is conserved, i.e

∆Q − ∆W = ∆E. (64)

The total (internal, kinetic and potential) energy of a unit mass of fluid at point 1, E1 is
given by
v2
E1 = cv T1 + 1 + gz1 ,
2
and at point 2, E2
v22
E2 = cv T2 + + gz2 .
2

26
Therefore,
v22 v2
∆E = cv T2 + + gz2 − cv T1 + 1 + gz1 . (65)
2 2
The work done is Z 2
∆W = pδV,
1

where δV is change in volume. For a constant pressure case,

∆W = p2 V2 − p1 V1 ,

and since V = 1/ρ and RT = p/ρ, then

p2 p1
∆W = − = RT2 − RT1 . (66)
ρ2 ρ1

Therefore, substituting Eqs (65) and (66) into (64), gives

v22 v2
∆Q = (cv T2 + + gz2 + RT2 ) − (cv T1 + 1 + gz1 + RT1 ), (67)
2 2

but cp = cv + R, so that

v22 v2
∆Q = cp T2 + + gz2 − cp T1 + 1 + gz1 . (68)
2 2

The potential energy for gases is usually negligible and can be ignored. For adiabatic flow
(∆Q = 0),
v2 v2
cp T2 + 2 − cp T1 + 1 = 0, (69)
2 2
or
v22 v2
cp T2 + = cp T1 + 1 , (70)
2 2
v2
⇒ cp T + = constant. (71)
2

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4.1.4 Equation of State

It gives the relationship between pressure, density and temperature for a pure substance.
The perfect gas law is given as
p = ρRT. (72)

4.2 Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas

The flow of compressible fluid in a duct is affected by area change, friction, heat transfer,
electromagnetic, etc. If all these parameters are included in the equations of motion, then
a lot of mathematical complexities arise. An isentropic flow is where there is no heat
transfer involved and the entropy remains constant. Therefore, the effect of area alone is
considered.
Using continuity equation (61) and momentum equation (63), it is possible to show that

dA
dp(1 − M 2 ) = ρv 2 , (73)
A

and
dv dA
(M 2 − 1) = , (74)
v A
where M is the Mach number given by

v
M= ,
c

where c is the velocity of sound and is defined by

 
2 ∂p
c = .
∂ρ isentropic

From Eqs (73) and (74), if M<1 (subsonic flow), then the term (1 − M 2 ) is always
positive and (M 2 − 1) always negative and thus an increase in area is always accompanied
by an increase in pressure and a decrease in velocity.
If M>1 (supersonic flow), then the term (1 − M 2 ) is always negative and (M 2 − 1) always
positive and thus an increase in area is always accompanied by an decrease in pressure and
a increase in velocity. These are illustrated in figure 13.
Therefore, a flow cannot be accelerated from rest to a velocity greater than the velocity
of sound (M > 1) in a converging duct regardless of the pressure difference imposed. To

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achieve a supersonic speed, a converging-diverging nozzle is used.

Figure 13: Variation of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles and diffusers

Stagnation Conditions and Use of Tables

The stagnation conditions define a reference state for compressible flows. these are condi-
tions where the flow velocity is zero. In most cases, the stagnation condition is reservoir or
atmosphere. The fluid must be accelerated to attain actual state or decelerated from the
actual state to stagnation.
From energy view point, stagnation enthalpy is defined as the energy required to bring
isentropically or adiabatically, the fluid to rest.
From conservation of energy between stagnation conditions and any point in the flow
(subscript 0 denote stagnation conditions)

v2
h0 = h + .
2

For a perfect gas

v2
cp T0 − cp T = .
2
Therefore,
v2 v2
 
T0 = +T =T +1 ,
2cp 2cp T

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but
γR v
cp = , γRT = c2 , and M = ,
γ−1 c
so that
v2 γ − 1 v2
     
T0 = T +1 =T +1 ,
2γRT /(γ − 1) 2 c2
Therefore,  
T0 γ−1 2
= 1+ M . (75)
T 2

For a given value of γ (specified gas), it is possible to tabulate T0 /T or T /T0 against M.

The ratio of pressures and densities between the stagnation condition and any point in
the flow can be derived using equation of motion and continuity equation as

 γ
 γ−1
p0 γ−1 2
= 1+ M . (76)
p 2

 1
 γ−1
ρ0 γ−1 2
= 1+ M . (77)
ρ 2

Therefore, for a given gas it is also possible to tabulate p0 /p and ρ0 /ρ against M.

The mass flow rate ṁ becomes

p
ṁ = ρAv = ρAM γRT ,

but ρ = p/RT , hence √ √

pAM γRT pAM γ
ṁ = = √ .
RT RT
Since,
γ
− γ−1 − 12
√
 
γ−1 2 p γ−1 2
p = p0 1+ M , and T = T0 1+ M ,
2 2
then,
√   γ+1
p0 AM γ γ − 1 2 2−2γ
ṁ = √ 1+ M . (78)
RT0 2
We can denote the the conditions when sonic conditions are achieved by superscript ∗. For
an isentropic flow p0 and T0 are constant.
A can be directly related to M by choosing a reference area for which M = 1 and denote

30
the area as A∗ . Since by conservation of mass, ṁ is the same at all section. Thus,

√   γ+1 √   γ+1
p0 AM γ γ − 1 2 2−2γ p 0 A∗ γ γ − 1 2−2γ
√ 1+ M = √ 1+ ,
RT0 2 RT0 2

or " γ+1
# 2−2γ
A 1 1 + γ−1
2
= (79)
A ∗ M 1 + γ−1
2
M2

Again, for a given gas it is also possible to tabulate A/A∗ against M. For a given value
of A/A∗ , there are two possible solution for M. One solution is subsonic and the other is
supersonic, as illustrated in the following diagram (Figure 14).

Figure 14: Variation of cross-sectional area with Mach number

4.2.1 Isentropic Flow in Converging Nozzle

Assume a fluid in a large reservoir is to be discharged through a converging nozzle as shown

in figure 15. For a constant reservoir pressure pr , it is desired to determine the rate of mass
flow through the nozzle as a function of back pressure pb imposed on the nozzle.
The are several possibilities of flow depending on the magnitude of the back pressure:

1. For pb > pr , the flow is reversed.

31
 Figure 15: Variation of cross-sectional area with Mach number

2. For pb = pr , there will be no flow in the nozzle.

3. For pb < pr , the flow is introduced into the nozzle.

4. pb can be reduced further, therefore accelerating the velocity at the nozzle exit until
the exit velocity equals the velocity of sound, i.e M = 1 at the exit.

NB: The flow cannot be accelerated beyond sonic conditions as observed earlier in a con-
verging nozzle.
Changes in conditions downstream are communicated to the reservoir through a wave
traveling through the fluid at the velocity of sound. for subsoic flow, changes are commu-
nicated faster than the velocity of the fluid and the reservoir adjusts itself by sending more
fluid. Since the nozzle is able to adjust itself to the back pressure, pexit = pb for subsonic
flow.
When M = 1 at the exit plane, the flow is said to be choked and reduction in pb cannot
result into any increase in ṁ.

4.2.2 Isentropic Flow in Convergent-Divergent Nozzle

Assume a fluid in a large reservoir is to be discharged through a converging-diverging nozzle

as shown in figure ??.

When pb equal to the reservoir pressure, then the pressure distribution in the nozzle is
uniform and there will be no flow induced in the nozzle.

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 Figure 16: Variation of cross-sectional area with Mach number

By reducing the pressure slightly, flow is introduced and is subsonic in both converging
and diverging section. The pressure will decrease in the converging section and increase in
the diverging section.
Further reduction in back pressure causes the velocity to increase at the throat and reach
a sonic condition. Now the pressure wave in the subsonic flow which was communicating
with the reservoir to tell it to release more flow can not pass the throat. Thus any further
decrease in back pressure is not communicated to the reservoir and the mass flow remain the
same. The nozzle is said to be choked. When this happens, there are two possibilities:

• Either the flow continues to accelerate to supersonic flow and thus in the diverging
section the pressure drops resulting in what we call the Laval nozzle.

• Or the flow decelerates so that the flow in the flow in the diverging section is subsonic
and the pressure increases.

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