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New approaches for the nesting of

two-dimensional shapes for press
tool design
a a
H. S. Ismail & K. K. B. Hon
a
University of Liverpool, Department of Industrial Studies ,
147 , Liverpool , L69 3BX , UK
Published online: 23 Mar 2012.

To cite this article: H. S. Ismail & K. K. B. Hon (1992) New approaches for the nesting of
two-dimensional shapes for press tool design, International Journal of Production Research,
30:4, 825-837, DOI: 10.1080/00207543.1992.9728459

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 INT. J. PROD. RES., 1992, VOL. 30, No.4, 825-837

New approaches for the nesting of two-dimensional

shapes for press tool design

H. S. ISMAILt and K. K. B. HONt

In this paper two approaches to the automatic pairwise clustering of two-

dimensional shapes for press tool design are discussed. The first is based on
extracting the edge information in the form ofedge arrays. which are manipulated to
obtain the optimum pairing; while the second applies the non-deterministic
concepts of genetic algorithms. The results of applying bOth approachys are also
presented.
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I. Introduction
The nesting of two-dimensional shapes for press tool design is a subset ofa general
optimization problem known as the two-dimensional cutting stock problem. The
objective, in both cases, is to minimize material wastage by the optimum layout of two-
dimensional workpieces within the constraints imposed by the stock size and material.
This problem is commonly encountered in a number of industries such as sheet metal,
aerospace, ship-building, clothes and shoemaking industries.
The aim of this research is to develop a computer-aided approach to the nesting of
similar two-dimensional shapes. In this paper two approaches are discussed. The first
approach is based on a simple edge detection algorithm, and the second is an
experimental procedure based on tbe concepts of genetic algorithms (Goldberg t 989).
The programs discussed were developed in 'C' on an IBM-compatible personal
computer, and form an integral part of a computer-aided press tool design package
currently under development

2. Background
A considerable amount of research has been carried out on developing algorithms
for solving the two-dimensional cutting stock problem, with the aim of achieving
potential saving through maximum material utilization. For such algorithms to be
efficient they must compete with experts who can achieve layouts with wastage of 10-
20% (Dagli and Tatoglu 1987~ Due to the arbitrary type of shapes available and the
infinite number of possible orientations and positions those shapes could attain, an
exact or closed form general solutions to the problem is difficult to obtain.
Initially, due to the limitations on computing speed and the difficulties of the
problem. some of the research was directed at developing semi-automatic or interactive
systems in which only the implications of user layout decisions were calculated (Qian
et al. 1976~
However, with advances in computing. different approaches to solving certain
aspects of the problem were developed. Some of these procedures were directed at the

Received July 1991.

t University of Uverpoot. Department of Industrial Studies P.O. Box 147 Liverpool
L69 30X. UK. "
0020-7S43192 S300 C 1992 Taylor &. Francis Ltd
 826 H. S. Ismail and K. K. B. Hon

layout of rectangular shapes (Adamowicz and Albano 1976a, Israni and Sanders 1985)
using various mathematical procedures of heuristics. Others adopted a two-stage
approach in which irregular shapes are initially converted into an approximated
standard manageable shape, such as a rectangle or a convex polygon, which are then
nested (Dori and Ben-Bassat 1984a, Adamowicz and Albano 1976a, 1971, Qu and
Sanders 1987, MacCallan and Smith 1978).
In the case of nesting similar shapes, the approaches adopted by Dori and
Ben-Bassat (1984 b) involved converting the shape into a convex polygon which was
then used as a paver covering the rectangular cutting stock. In this approach a set of
standard paver shapes, which can easily be interlocked and produce optimum layouts.
were also identified.
In Adamowicz and Albano (1976 b1 the concept of,no-fit-polygons' constructed for
each arrangement of two shapes, was introduced. Such polygons represent zones in
which layouts without overlapping are not feasible. It is therefore possible with
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manipulation of the no-fit-polygons to identify some optimum or good layouts.

The algorithm developed by Nee (1984) was designed to perform pairwise clustering
based on an exhaustive search in which shapes are rotated in increments of 1800 until all
possible sides are paired. The algorithm includes routines to execute co-ordinate
rotational and translational transformations whilst detecting any overlapping of the
shapes.

3. Problem definition
The two approaches discussed in this paper are applicable in the nesting or pairwise
clustering of both convex and concave similar shapes. Nesting is used in the design of
single and multi-pass press tools. The object is to maximize usage of the cutting stock,
which is in the shape of a strip. The results of these approaches are optimum layouts.
strip width, pitch and material utilization.
In press tool design, certain practical aspects (Nee 1984), which influence the
optimum nesting result, must first be considered. These are:
(1) Bridge width. One of the necessary requirements in the layout of parts for
press tools is that a sufficient distance between the nested shapes, and the
material edges is maintained. This distance is the bridge width and depends
mainly on the material thickness and type.
(2) Grain orientation. Due to the anisotropic properties of the cutting stock,
limitations are sometimes imposed on the layout and orientation ofthe nested
shapes. These limitations could be imposed by the workpiece mechanical
properties, or by additional operations, such as bending, if required.
(3) Stock size and type. In certain cases the size and type ofcutting stock, i.e. strip
or coiled stock, affects the optimum layouts possible. As an example, if coiled
stock is used, then only a single row with a repetitive unidirectional positioning
layout is adopted, since pairwise clustering will involve running the coil
through the press twice which is not always possible. However, in most cases
the cutting stock is cut to fit the calculated optimum layout and therefore no
limitation of workpiece orientation is imposed.

4. Proposed approaches
The two proposed approaches to the nesting of similar two-dimensional shapes
discussed in this paper are based on edge detection and genetic algorithms. Common to
 Nesting two-dimensional shapes 827

both approaches is the procedure by which the data describing the two-dimensional
shape, is defined. The preliminary data transformation procedures required to convert
the shape into a format acceptable to the main processing routines are given in Fig. 1
and illustrated with the example in Fig. 2 (a). These steps are described in the following
sections:
1. Data input. The data input routine accepts data in one of three formats. The
first is a simple continuous point-to-point representation in which the number and co-

'011T tI
'Ollt till Ale DIr
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counT to
POIIt TO
'aliT

P<:I
paOlillO

ADD III Del

ClAP

DPTI.VII
01UltAtlDI

IIIAPI
COUU1101

P<:I CUEflC
DltlCflOI
"1001IU.5

Figure 1. Data conversion stages.

 828 H. S. Ismail and K. K. B. Hon

(a) (b) (c)

Original Shope Simplified Shope Shope with half
bridge width

1 11 1 1 1 1
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1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 11 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 &0 00
1 1 1 0 o &6
1 1 1 0 o o
0
1 1 1 1 100
1~ 100
'c1--
1 1 1 1 100
1 1 1 0 000
1 1 1 0 000
1 1 1 0 000
1 1 1 0 000
1 1 1 0 000

(d) (e) (J)

Optirrum circumscribing Grid representation Grid array
rectangle

Figure 2. A data conversion example.

ordinates of the shape vertices are listed in an anti-clockwise direction. This format can
only be used to represent shapes bounded by linear edges. The second is a line-arc
format where the shape edges are represented by lines and arcs. The lines are defined by
the end point co-ordinates while the arcs are defined by the two end points, a point on
the arc and the radius. The third format is the data exchange format DXF used in
AutoCAD (Autodesk 1990).
2. Data conversion. This routine converts input data of the line-arc and OX F
format to point-to-point format. Arc and nonlinear edges are converted to a series of
discrete small lines for which a set of end points are generated.
3. Edge smoothing. This routine is used to remove small concave features within
the shape. These are selected based on the proportion of the enclosed feature area to the
overall shape area and bridge gap. The routine is applied without affecting the overall
features of the shape as shown in Fig. 2 (b) and results in considerable reduction to
processing time.
4. Adding bridge width. As discussed above it is neces ary that the nested shapes
are separated by a gap. The bridge width is added through offsetting the shape edges by
half the bridge width. This results in creating a surrounding exclusion zone as shown in
Fig. 2 (c), and in increasing the size of the nested shape.
5. Optimum orientation. At this stage the initial optimum orientation of the
shape is calculated. This is achieved by finding the minimum circumscribing
rectangular area. For any polygon there are a 'number of potentially good orientations'
(Dori and Ben-Bassett 1984 a). These usually occur when one or more of the shape
 Nesting two-dimensional shapes 829

edges coincide(s) with the edges of the optimum circumscribing rectangular shape as
shown in Fig. 3. The adjusted shape and optimum enclosing rectangle are the basic
elements used in the main processing routines, as shown in Fig. 2 (d).
6. Shape conversion. The shape is approximated by a number of equally sized
connected squares (MacCallum and Smith 1978) as shown in Fig. 2(e). These are
calculated by superimposing a rectangular grid on the optimum oriented shape. The
rectangular grid size is calculated from the maximum dimensions of the optimum
circumscribing rectangle and the user selected number of grid elements. The grid is
scanned both horizontally and vertically to determine whether an element lies inside
the shape or is bisected by the shape edge. These elements are defined as solid elements
while all other elements are defined as empty. This approximation results in an
increased shape area which can be minimized by increasing the number of grid
elements. The result of the shape conversion routine is a two dimensional array in
which solid elements are numerically represented by 'I' and empty elements are
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represented by '0', as shown in Fig. 2 (f).

4.1. The edge detection approach

The edge detection approach aims at using edge information obtained from the
two-dimensional array representing the shape, to determine the optimum pairing. This
is achieved by comparing the maximum overlap or material utilization factors for each
possible combination of the four sides ofthe optimum rectangle. These are obtained as
follows:
1. Constructing edge arrays. Edge arrays represent the contour of the shape as
viewed from each of the four sides of the rectangular grid. For each side the edge array
contains the number ofadjacent empty or '0' grid elements within each row or column
respectively, as shown in Fig. 4.
2 Identifying possible orientations. At this stage the possible number of
orientations that the edges can assume are identified. These orientation involve fixing
one of the shapes while the other can assume one or more of the following shape
transformations:
(a) 90° rotation
(b) Mirroring relative to the X axis
(c) Mirroring relative to the Y axis

Figure 3. Potential1y optimum circumscribing rectangles.

 830 H. S. Ismail and K. K. B. Hon

[4]

o
10
1 ,
0 0 0 0 0 01
1 1 1 1 1 o
o 1 1 1 f 1 f 1 o
o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o
a 1 1 1 0 000 4
a 1 1 1 0 000 4
o 1 1 1 0 000 4
a 1 1 1 1 100
~ [1]
[3] a 1 f 1 f 100
o 1 1 1 1 100 2
o 1 1 1 0 000 4
o 1 1 1 0 000 4
o 1 1 1 0 000 4
o
o ,,
1 1 1 0 000
1 0 000
4
4
y
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10 0 0 5 5 11111
Edge Array [2]
Figure 4. Constructing the edge arrays.

These transformations when combined result in a large number of possible orien-

tations. However, for similar shapes it is reasonable to ignore the orientations based on
90° rotation as these were found to result in low utilization values. The remaining two
transformations result in 12 possible basic orientations. These orientations are shown
in Fig. 5 for the example given in Fig. 2(a).
3. Maximum overlap. The optimum pair orientation is the one that results in
maximum material utilization. This is directly dependent on maximizing the overlap of
the empty elements while avoiding the overlap ofany solid elements shown in Fig. 2 (d).
The overlap area for the different orientations shown in Fig. 5 is calculated by
incrementally scanning the corresponding edge arrays as shown in Fig. 6. At each step
an overlap array is constructed from the sum of the respective elements of the edge
array. The maximum overlap at each stage is the overlap array size multiplied by the
value of the smallest element in the array. The best material utilization for each of the
orientations in Fig. 5 is calculated as follows:
1. For an inclined unidirectional orientation similar to that shown in Fig. 7(a),
which is based on orientations types 1 and 7 shown in Fig. 5:
U=A./[u 2(2RC-Rc-Cr)] (1)
2. For the general type oforientation as shown in Fig. 7 (b) and based on the rest of
the orientation types shown in Fig. 5:
U =2A./[u 2(2R - r)(2C - c)] (2)
where
U: material utilization
A.: enclosed area of the two-dimensional shape
u: area of grid element
R: optimum rectangle width in number of elements
C: optimum rectangle length in number of elements
r. number of overlapping elements in width direction
c: number of overlapping elements in length direction
 eSling two-dimensional shapes 831

1 Z 3 4 5 6

FFFE:tj[j
F 1 l:. j, ~F1 cFi
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11 12

(I) fixed shape

c[jlF] 00
Figure 5. The 12 possible ba ic orientations.

MAXIMUM OVERLAP
EDGE ARRAY 1 4
0 OVERLAP
0 ARRAY
0
4 4
4 41
4 4
2 4
2 4
2 + 2 =
4 2
4 2
4 4
4 4
4 4
0
0
0
EDGE ARRAY 1
(MIRRORED)

Figure 6. alculating the maximum overlap for a ingle orientation.

Due to the approximate nature of the grid representation, the 'optimum' orientation
fund i u ed to calculate the exact optimum by incrementally moving the off et shapes
clo er until the edge of the e clu ion zone touch a hown in Fig. 8. The actual pitch,
minimum trip width and the material utilization can therefore be calculated.

4.2. The genetic algorithm approach

Genetic algorithm (G ) (Goldberg 19 4) are newly developed techniques which
mimi nature' e olutionar proce in electing ootimum . olutions to an objective
 832 H. S. Ismail and K. K. B. Han

Strip
R
wid h

(a) (b)
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Figure 7. Main two orientation types.

Figure 8. Approximate and exact optimum layouts.

function. It is well suited to problems with a large search space. Genetic algorithms use
a set of probabilistic rules to manipulate the parameters of the objective function which
are represented by a special coding system. The method by which genetic algorithms
operate is illustrated in Fig. 9 and summarized as follows:
(a) Initially an objective function which describes the problem under consider-
ation is constructed.
(b) Parameters of the objective function are identified and coded. The code for
each parameter is usually a representative string of O's and l's.
(c) The coded parameters are combined into a single multi-parameter string code.
This string represents a possible solution to the objective function and is
controlled by the GA to obtain the optimum solution.
(d) A population of individual strings, i.e. feasible solutions, is assembled at
random. The size of this population is usually fixed throughout the process.
The objective function for each of the population members is then calculated. A
new generation of possible solutions is generated from the initial population
using the three basic probabilistic genetic algorithm operators discussed below:
1. The reproduction operator is used to select fitter solutions from the initial
population, based on the value of their objective function. These fitter
strings are assembled in a mating population.
 Nesting two-dimensional shapes 833

OBJECTIVE FUNCTION
CODING
o 0 0 0 000 0

'.,.,
,."".,'"
.._----_.
, .. "
I 1"0 I I'
"'"
...
,
tit

REPRODUCTION 010 100

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000 o 1 1

crossover point
0 1 0 0 0 parents

CROSSOVER
'1'
0 0 0 1 0 1 1

0 , 0 0 1 1 offspring
0 o 0 1 0 0

mutation
0 1m1 0 1 1
0 o 0 1 '00

SAVE OFFSPRING

Figure 9. An example of genetic algorithms.

2 The crossover operator is used to construct the new population by mating

pairs ofstrings from th~ mating population. Each mating pair produce t~o
offspring (i.e. new solutions). The mating process involves initially selectmg
at random two parent strings. A random point along the string is selected as
the crossover po.int Th~ ne~ offsprings are created by swapping those pa~ts
of the parent stnngs whIch he after the crossover point. The frequency WIth
which the ~rossover o~rator is applied is also a randomly weighted process.
3. The mutatlon operator 1.S a secondary random process by which units of the
strings are altered dunng the crossover process. The frequency of these
 834 H. S. Ismail and K. K. B. Hon

alterations small and result in exploring new areas within the search space.
They also prevent the process from rapidly converging to local optima.
The above operators are executed repeatedly until most of the population
members converge at an optimum or near-optimum solution as defined by the
objective function.
The genetic algorithm approach is applied to the pairwise nesting oftwo similar shapes
to determine the best orientation that maximizes the material utilization. The nested
two-dimensional shapes are represented in the grid format discussed above as shown in
Fig. 2 (J). The objective functions used are a modified form of the material utilization
equations (1) and (2) used in the edge detection approach. These are:
U = As/[u 2 (2RC - Rc - Cr + P(n»] (3)
for orientations 1 and 7 while
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U =2A./[u 2«2R - r)(2C - c) +P(n))] (4)

is used for the rest of the orientations.
Due to the probabilistic nature of this approach. some of the solutions derived
during the search procedure could contain overlapping solid elements. To take these
overlapping elements into account an additional function P(n). representing a penalty
component, is introduced to the above objective function. The proposed form of this
penalty function is:
P(n)=an b (5)
where
n: number of overlapping solid elements
a. b: constants which are fixed during the search
The parameters manipulated by the genetic algorithms are those directly influencing
the objective function such as the positional parameters rand c. In addition four extra
transformation parameters mXt. mYt. mX2' and mY2 are also introduced to represent the
mirroring of shapes along the x or Y axis.
Each of the positional parameters rand c is coded using five binary bits while the
transformation parameters are coded using one bit each. The combined multi-parameter
string, defining any single solution selected. is arranged as follows:
r
(6)
0‫סס‬oo

where the values ofrand c discretely vary from 0 to a maximum ofRand C respectively
and are coded by mapping onto a binary string which varies from 0 to 2'.
The genetic algorithm operators discussed above are repeatedly applied to
successive generations of solutions or layouts. The best layout in each generation is
stored and only replaced if a better layout in a subsequent generation is found. The
process is interrupted when an optimum or near-optimum solution is reached. The
optimum solution can be identified by setting an arbitrary maximum material
utilization limit which, when reached or exceeded. courses the process to stop.
Alternatively. the process could be halted if no better layouts emerge after a fixed
number ofgenerations. In both cases the optimum layout is then used to calculated the
actual pitch, strip width and material utilization as discussed under the edge detection
approach.
 e ling lwo-dimensional shapes 835

Gr;d size = 20x8

Bridge =
2.0
Uti isoron = 51 .5~

igure 10. Layout example I.

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Grid size =
32x29
Br·dge = 2.0
Ut isotlOn = 54.79

igure 11. Layout example 2.

5. T ted ampl
number of two-dimen ional hape were u ed to te t the above approaches and
the are ho n in Fig 1 12. igure 10 and 11 are e ample of the layout and results
produced u ing both the edge detection and genetic algorithm approaches. Only one
et of result i given ince the e were identical for both approache .1n Fig. 12, the two
et of different result for both approaches are given. The above re ults demonstrate
that for all hape e cept the concave one hown in ig. 12, the optimum layout
obtained u ing both approache i the arne. The discrepancy in the last example is due
to the inability of the edge detection approach to extract and utilize information
regarding the internal detail of the model. The main reason for thi is that the internal
detail of the hape are n t detected when viewed from the edges of the optimum
circum cribing rectangle and therefore are not recorded in the edge array. Thi mainly
affect hape with large conca e feature in which the orifice of the feature is small
relati e to the feature ize. ince the genetic algorithm approach doe not rely on edge
informati n, the re ult pr duced are not affe ted by the t pe of hape.
or the ab e example the penalt function parameter 'a' and 'b' were et to 8 and
2 re pe ti el which were ~ und t be appropriate for thi type of problem. The
p pulation ize u ~d a 2? and wa fl. ed for the three e ample. The maximum
number f generall n requIred to obtalO the optimum re ult were 48, 92 and 110
re pc ti el .
 836 R. S. Ismail and K. K. B. Ron

(a)

Grid size =
32x28
Bridge = 1.0
Utilisation =
51.26%
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(b)

Grid size = 32x28

Bridge = 1.0
Utilisation = 70.73%

Figure 12. Layout example 3, (a) edge detection, (b) genetic algorithm.

6. Conclu ions
In this paper two approaches to pairwise clu tering f r pre tool de ign are
discussed. In both approaches the original hape i converted to an approximate
rectangular grid repre entation where non-e ential feature are removed and a bridge
width added. In the first approach the grid representation is used to obtain information
about the shape edges in the form of edge array. Through the manipul tion of the e
edge arrays it is possible to obtain the optimum layout. Unlike previou approache
reported by Nee (1984), the number of possible orientation are fixed and controlled by
the number of elements used in the grid, while no overlap detection routine are
required. Improvements in accuracy can be achieved by increa ing the number of
elements, which also results in an increa e in the number of orientation te ted and th
processing time required. The approach is simple to adopt a the calculati n required
are repetitive and not iterative.
However, the main limitation to the edge detection approach i that it can only
check edge information a viewed through the optimum enclo ing rectangle edge nd
therefore ignores internal details. In the ca e of complex hap with large conca e
feature, as shown in Fig. 12, no information i extracted to utilize the large cavity
within the hape.
The econd approach use the arne grid repre entati nand relie n a earch
mechani m which i probabili tic in nature. The approach ha proven t be u ful
 Nesting two-dimensional shapes 837

as discussed above. However, considerable care must be given to the selection of the
objective function, penalty factors and coding system used. Several tests on the coding
string given in equation (6) were applied in which the order of the variables was
changed. This resulted in either no real optimum solution emerging, or a large number
of generations were required to produce one. Similarly, the penalty function plays an
important role in speeding up the convergency process to an optimum.
The above approaches can also be used as a preliminary step in the paving of a
rectangular cutting stock with similar shapes. This is due to the fact that the resulting
pair layout derived is similar to one ofstandard pavers discussed and used by Dori and
Ben-Bassat (1984 b).
The results of this research are currently being extended to explore the possibility of
applying the genetic algorithms approach to the general cutting stock problem with
dissimilar irregular shapes.
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