Unity University Unit 3 Cell Biology

Unit 3
Cell Biology
Cell biology studies about the physiological properties of cells, their behaviors, interactions, and
environment.
Cell:
- the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms
- sometimes called the “building block of life”
- the simplest structure capable of existing as an individual living unit in unicellular organisms
There are certain chemical reactions within a cell, required to maintain life.
With time cellular organization has led to cell-differentiation and that has given rise to organs
and organ systems. This is possible only by division of labor, an individual comprised of many
organ systems working in a co-coordinated manner:
Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organs systems → Individuals
Cell, though very small, is extremely complex:
- acts as an autonomous unit i.e. able to carry out its activities independently:
☞ can carry out all biological processes
☞ can oxidize the food molecules to produce energy and store this energy rich molecule
☞ by using nutrient molecules, it can build new structures and can replace worn out cells
☞ can respire and exchange gases with its surroundings
☞ can replace its own self
☞ can maintain homeostasis
☞ each cell has its own life span
The cell Theory:

- the collection of different ideas of biologists about cell
- mainly based on the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living things
The development of cell theory during the mid-17th C was made possible by advancement in
microscopy because cells are so small that they were not observed until microscopes were
invented.
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Discovery and a timeline for the development of the cell theory
Robert Hooke: 1665
 a British scientist who had built one of the earliest compound microscopes
 examined a thin slice of cork, a non-living tissue (dead cork cells in cork tissue) found in the
bark of certain trees using crude microscope of his own invention
 observed a honeycomb of tiny, empty (since the cells were dead) compartments in the cork
cellulose
 made drawings of the cork cells and saw the tiny structures that he calls „cells‟
 coined the word „cell‟ because the compartments (box-like structures) of the cork he saw
examined him of the small rooms where monks live in during that period in a monastery
 got the word from the Latin word „Cellula‟ which means small rooms
 known for identifying cells
 the first person to observe and describe cells
Anton van Leeuwenhoek: 1674

- a Dutch man who was shopkeeper and crafter of lenses (maker of microscope) and
produced his own more power full microscope
- the first person to witness (see) the first living cells under his microscope
- observed living, moving tiny (unicellular)organisms (protoctistans) in a drop of water from
ponds, rivers and rain under his microscope and called them „animalcules‟ which means “little
animals”
- He also saw bacteria (from his teeth), which he also calls „tiny animalcules‟.
Rene Dutrochet: 1824

- a French biologist who stated that that all organisms (living things) are composed of cells
- This follows many years work in which he also discovers:
i). the stomata in theepidermis is of leaves

ii). the process of osmosis
iii). chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis to occur
iv). respiration occurs in both animals and plants

Dutrochet is the man who first stated the cell theory by recognizing that:
i). all organisms are made of cells and

ii). all growth occurs b/c of the increase in volume of cells or by the addition of more little cells
Matthias Schleiden (a botanist) and Theodor Schwann (a zoologist): 1839
Mathias Schleiden (in 1838)

- after careful study of plant tissues, made the first statement of the cell theory
- stated that all plants are “aggregates of fully industrialized, independent, separate beings,
namely the cells themselves"
Theodor Schwann (in 1839)

- reported that all animal tissues are also composed of individual cells
After observing many tissue sections of plants and animals under light microscope, they put
forward the first clearly stated cell theory which states that:
i). the cell is the unit of structure, physiology and organization in living things
ii). the cell retains a dual existence (involving 2 parts or components usually in pairs)as:
– a distinct entity, and
– a „building block‟ in the formation of organisms
iii). cells form by free-cell formation (spontaneous generation)
But the theory was NOT an accurate cell theory because of the last statement (iii)).
Rudolf Virchow: 1858

- a German doctor who developed many surgical techniques
- promoted several fields of modern medicine
- declared „Omnis cellula e cellula‟, which means a cell can only arise from another cell like it
- with this, he completed the first accepted version of the cell theory which states that:
a. all organisms are made up of one or more cells
b. all cells come from pre-existing cells
c. the cell is the unit of structure, physiology and organization in living things
d. the cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the construction of
organisms

The formulation of cell theory and the present day knowledge of cell structure and function
in the chronological order of scientific works:
 in 1665 Robert Hook was the first to observe the tiny box-like structure in the tree cork and
called it 'cell'
 in the mid-16th Antony Van Leeuwenhoek (using his own compound microscope) was the
first person to see micro-organisms
 in 1838 a formal hypothesis that cells make up the part of living thing was advanced by
Mathias Schleiden and Theador Schwann
 in 1855 Virchow showed that all cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell division
The modern cell theory in its modified and extended approach in the light of the increased
knowledge of genetics and cell biology includes the following three principles:
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells within which the life processes of
metabolism and heredity occur.
2. Cells are the smallest unit in living things; the basic units of organizations of all organisms.
3. Cells arise only by division of a previously existing cell.
The modern cell theory, in its broad approach, includes the following statements:
1). all known living things are made up of cells
2). the cell is a structural and functional unit of all living things
3). all cells come from pre-existing cells by division (there is no spontaneous generation
of cells)
4). cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division
5). all cells have basically the same chemical composition
6). all energy flow (the metabolism and biochemistry of life) occurs within cells

Cell Size
Different cells vary in size, shape and function.
Generally cells are microscopic.

Unfertilized ostrich egg is the largest cell in the world
What units shall we measure cells in?

There are three smaller units commonly used:
Millimeters (mm) =1/1000 of a meter
Micrometers (μm) = 1/1000 of a millimeter, and
=1/1 000 000 of a meter
Nanometers (nm) =1/1000 of a micrometer,
=1/1 000 000 of a millimeter, and
=1/1000 000 000 of a meter
The consequences of the different sizes of cells

- when a cell gets bigger, all its dimensions changes
- when a cell doubles all its dimensions, it is twice as big
- as a cell gets bigger, its surface area and volume increases
Does it matter if the surface-area-to-volume ratio of a cell changes?

Think about the functions of the surface area and volume of the cell:
Surface area:
- largely determines the amount (extent) of substances (e.g. oxygen, nutrient) exchanged between
the cell and its environment
e. g. the amount of oxygen that can be delivered into the cell is decided largely by how much
‘surface’ there is, since it is through the surface of the cell that the oxygen enters.
Volume:
- largely determines how much activity there is in a cell
e.g. the amount of energy released in respiration is decided largely by the volume.
Suppose our cell is a cube (but the same principles hold true for other shapes also).

Think of three cubic „cells‟ having linear dimensions of 1 au, 2 au and 4 au, respectively.
The linear dimensions double from the 1st cell to the 2nd and double again from the 2nd to the 3rd
cell
- But the surface area and volume of the cell doesn’t double
- There are six sides to a cube
- We calculate the area of each side by multiplying length by breadth
- The volume of a cube is length × breadth × height
i). For the first cell:
 the area of one side is 1 a.u. × 1 a.u. = 1 a.u.2
 the total surface area (that of the 6 sides) is 6(1 a.u. × 1 a.u.) = 6 a.u.2
 the volume is 1 a.u. × 1 a.u. × 1 a.u. = 1 a.u.3
 the ratio of the total surface area to the volume is 6:1
ii). For the second cell:

 the linear dimensions have doubled, but the surface area is 24 a.u.2 and the volume is 8 a.u.3
- the ratio of the total surface area to volume is 24 ÷ 8 = 3:1; half that of the smaller „cell‟
iii). For the thrid cell:

- the ratio of the total surface area to volume of the third cell is 96:64, i.e., 1.5:1
Increasing size affects surface area and volume.

The measurements are in arbitrary units (a.u.).
Arbitrary units are units we use when we don‟t know actual dimensions but we know the
mathematical relationship between different conditions

Generally a large cell will have more processes happening, or at least the same processes
happening faster, than a smaller cell.
A large surface-area-to-volume ratio means that it is likely that the surface will be able to
supply the demands of the cell.
As cells increase in size:
• the volume increase faster than the surface area and
• the surface-area-to-volume ratio decrease
How will this affect the ability of the cell to release the energy it needs?
 Think of this surface-area to-volume ratio in terms of „supply‟ and „demand‟.
 The volume of the cell creates the „demand‟ for oxygen, which is „supplied‟ through the
surface area of the cell.
Types of cells:
Cells can be divided into two major classes based on their complexity and structure as
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells
The word prokaryote comes from two Greece words:
 pro means “before” (“primitive”)
 karyon means “nucleus”
Therefore prokaryote means before nucleus.
- cells lacking a membrane-bound nucleus (without true nucleus / without nucleus) or
without membrane-bound organelles
E.g. bacteria, blue-green algae = the kingdom monera
- were probably the first form of life on earth (evolved before eukaryotic cells)
- refer to a bacterial cell where the hereditary material called DNA is not enclosed in a
membrane and there is no internal structure like nucleus
- also lack other intracellular cell organelles

Absence of intracellular organelles indicates primitive nature of prokaryotic cell.
- much smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells; even so these cells must carry out all the
same functions that a eukaryotic cell carries out in order to survive
- There is, therefore, some division of labor (but much less division of labor) within the cell
and there are specialized regions for certain functions.
Much more division of labor is found in eukaryotic cells.
Division of labor is the specialization of different parts to carry out certain functions.

Eukaryotic cells:
The word eukaryote comes from two Greece words:
Eu means “true” ,“good” or “well”
karyon means “nucleus”
☞ Therefore eukaryote means true nucleus.
- cells characterized by having true nucleus or membrane-bound nucleus and organelles
The hereditary material (DNA) is found within the nucleus (enclosed by nuclear membrane).
- found in plants, algae (except some), protozoa, fungi and animals
- contain many more different individual structures, called organelles
There are also manymore membranes in the cell. Some of these form the complex membrane
system that is found throughout the cell called the endoplasmic reticulum.
- many of the organelles are surrounded by membranes, and found in the cytoplasm and are
called membrane -bound organelles and include:
 nucleus
 mitochondria
 chloroplasts
 lysosomes
 Golgi apparatus …
Having membrane-bound structures increase the efficiency of the cell because it reduces the
interruption of the activities of the different organelles by other cellular activities
the reaction that takes place in one organelle is not affected by other cellular reactions
There are also a number of non-membranous organelles like centriole and ribosomes found
inside the cytoplasm.
Each organelle performs a specific function.
Organelles are structures inside a cell with some specific (characteristic) functions.
NB: All cells (both prokaryotes and eukaryotes) have chromatin or genetic material.

Parts of the cell and their functions:
Biological membranes are membranes of cells and intracellular organelles w/c are highly organized
systems, composed mainly of proteins.
Membranes typically include:

- plasma membrane, which all cells contain
- nuclear membrane
- cell organelle membranes (for membrane-bound organelles)
- endoplasmic reticulum and
- Golgi complex
Some important features of membranes:

i). Permeability barrier
- The obvious function of the cell membrane, which isolates the content of the cell from its
environment
- Impermeable to large molecules, many ions and polar metabolites except for those that are
lipophilic
- However, small molecules such as water, ammonia and CO2 permeate the plasma membrane
by simple diffusion
ii). Selective permeability/partial permeability or semi permeability/ differential permeability
for cell membrane
- Cells exchange materials with their environment, taking in nutrients and removing waste
products
- Similarly, organelles exchange metabolites with the cytoplasm
- Hence impermeability of lipid membrane is modified by inserted proteins that act as:
1). Ion channels (for ions like Na+ , K+ and Ca+)
2). Transport proteins that act as a molecular pump
3). Permease proteins that act like enzymes to facilitate in or out movement of metabolites

iii). Intracellular compartment
- In eukaryotic cells, organelles such as mitochondria have their own membranes
- Localization of a particular metabolic pathway within organelles increases the efficiency of
metabolism by creating favorable conditions in terms of pH, metabolic concentration and
enzyme concentration.
iv). Attachment of enzymes
Membranes provide attachment site for enzymes.
- Some enzymes (ecto-enzymes) are attached to the surface of membranes (such as endoplasmic
reticulum)
- Other enzymes such as the mitochondrial electron transport system & oxidative phosphorylation
are integral part of membrane
v). intracellular communication
 Cells communicate with each other.
 Communication could be through hormones that are produced in special organs and transported
to the target cells through the blood
 Many hormones bind to specific protein receptors on the surface of the cell and bring about
alteration in the intracellular metabolic processes
 A cell interacts with a nearby cell through specific protein component on the surface of
membranes, and these proteins are mainly glycoproteins and glycolipids
Cell membrane or plasma membrane/ plasma lemma or cell surface membrane
 the membrane that surrounds and encloses a cell.

 separates one cell from another and permits cell individuality
 functionally they are dynamic as in active transport and in the receptor system of the cell
 elastic and porous
 has little mechanical strength to support the cell

Functions of cell membrane:
1. Controls what enters and leaves the cell (Controls movement of substances)
The cell membrane clearly has a vital role in isolating the cell from its environment, whilst
allowing necessary exchanges with that environment.
The plasma membrane moves substances in and out of the cell by:
a). simple diffusion
b). facilitated diffusion
c). Osmosis
d). active transport
e). Endocytosis
f). Exocytosis
2. Cell signaling:
- various molecules in the membrane allow the cell to be recognized by hormones and the
immune system (in animals) and (in plants) growth regulator substances, such as auxins.
Structures of the cell/plasma membrane:
The basis of plasma membranes is a phospholipid bilayer.

But a plasma membrane is much more complex than a simple bilayer.
Lipids of the membrane are structural components whereas proteins carry out specific functions
such as that of enzymes, transport proteins and receptors
There have been several models of the structure of the plasma membrane.
The following chart shows some key events in developing the current model of membrane
structure.

Models of the structure of cell membrane
The two models: the Davson-Danielli model and fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
1). The Davson-Danielli model of membrane structure (1935):
Davson and Danielli:
- phospholipid bilayer is the basic structure of cell membrane
- found that both proteins and phospholipids were involved in the structure of plasma
membranes
- suggested that phospholipid bilayer is sandwiched b/n two layers of globular proteins
(Without any direct observational evidence to assist them)
This was based on what they knew of the proportions of the two substances in the membrane.
 the protein was to form the „bread‟ of the sandwich
 the phospholipid forming the „filling‟
- they proposed a revised model in which they included protein-lined pores (in 1954)
As more and more evidence accumulated about how molecules moved across membranes, the
Davson-Danielli model could not adequately explain all the new evidence and the model,
therefore, had to be rejected.
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2). The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure (1972):
Singer and Nicholson:
‐ retained the idea of a phospholipid bilayer, but rejected the sandwich arrangement
‐ proposed a totally different arrangement of the phospholipids and proteins in the plasma
membrane
‐ they suggested that proteins were „studded‟ into the bilayer at different points
 the proteins are scattered through the membrane in an
irregular fashion that varies from membrane to membrane
‐ proposed that membrane proteins are dispersed and individually inserted into the
phospholipid bilayer
. this would mean that the non-polar parts of the protein would be in contact with non-
polar interior of the bilayer
. the polar hydrophilic portions of the proteins protrude far enough from the bilayer to be
exposed to water
‐ they also suggested that the arrangement was not static, but was fluid and constantly
changing
Fluid – the proteins float in a fluid bilayer.
- The bilayer is flexible and can move fairly freely.
- the proteins themselves can move in and out of the membrane as well as laterally through the
bilayer.
Mosaic – a “mixture” or “variety” or “assortment”
The following is the difference b/n the Davson-Danielli model & the original fluid mosaic model
Figure the two models of membrane structure
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The key features of the current fluid mosaic model of membrane structure:
1). The phospholipid bilayer as the basis for the membrane
2).Membrane proteins include
Integral proteins
Peripheral proteins
A). Integral proteins
‐ also known as intrinsic proteins and trans-membrane proteins
‐ proteins that span both phospholipid layers in a plasma membrane
‐ some of them play an important role in moving (transporting) substances across the membrane
These transport proteins are:
i). Channel proteins:
- integral proteins with pores that allow ions to pass through the membrane
- have a channel through them along which a specific ion can pass
There are different channel proteins for different ion.
ii). Carrier proteins:
- integral proteins that move medium-sized particles across the membrane
- act in a more sophisticated way to move larger molecules through the membrane by facilitated
diffusion or active transport
The ones involved in active transport are often referred to as pumps.
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B. Peripheral proteins
- also known as extrinsic proteins
- span only one layer (or sometimes less) of the membrane
- have a range of functions:
some are enzymes,
others anchor integral proteins to the cytoskeleton
3). Glycoproteins and glycolipids:
- protein and lipid molecules that have carbohydrate chains attached to them
- often serve as signals to other cells
- also act as receptor sites for hormones and drugs
The carbohydrate component of each can be cell-specific and so allow identification of the cell
by the immune system.
4). Cholesterol - reduces the fluidity of the membrane.
Why the fluid mosaic model is named as fluid?

It is mainly because the phospholipids in the membrane can move and change position.
The nature of the fatty acids (saturated or unsaturated) and the amount of cholesterol in the
membrane both influence the fluidity of the membrane.
The „mosaic‟ part of t h e name comes from the way the proteins in the membrane
give a patchwork appearance when viewed from the inside or outside. This is rather like a
mosaic.

Transport of substance across the plasma membrane:
Not all particles can actually pass through a plasma membrane unaided. This is because of the
largely lipid nature of the membrane.
The processes by w/c substances cross plasma membranes can be grouped into two:
1). Passive processes: No dynamic
‐ rely only on the kinetic energy of the particles of the substances and on concentration gradients
‐ need no extra energy from the cell‟s metabolism(respiration) No need ATP
‐ include simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis
2). Active processes:

‐ require energy from the cell‟s metabolism in the form of ATP to drive the transport
‐ include passive transport, endocytosis and exocytosis
1). Passive processes:

- include simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis
Simple diffusion:
Diffusion is the random movement of molecules or particles from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration down a diffusion or concentration gradient.
E.g. when a bottle of perfume with a strong smell is opened in a closed room, the perfume spreads
by diffusion from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, until a point is
reached where the perfume is eventually distributed throughout the room.
This is referred to as the point of equilibrium.
Diffusion occurs due to the random movement of molecules = due to their kinetic energy
To pass through the plasma membrane by simple diffusion particles must be:
 Small, lipid soluble and non-charged
- This excludes particles such as:
 ions (are charged)
 sugars and amino acids ( are not lipid soluble and are not small particles) and
 any of the really large particles, such as proteins
In fluids - liquids and gases - the particles that make up the fluid are free to move around.
This is their kinetic energy which drives diffusion.
If particles are, for some reason, concentrated in a small area, they will move in such a way that
the particles „spread out’ and occupy all the space that is available to them.
This is a result of random particular motion.
When particles diffuse across a plasma membrane, there must be a concentration difference (a
concentration gradient) between the two sides of the membrane to drive the process.
- as diffusion proceeds, the high concentration will decrease and the low concentration will
increase until the two concentrations are the same; at this point there will be no further net
diffusion
- this means that although particles will still move across the membrane, they will move equally
in both directions, so there will be no overall effect
☞ we say that the concentrations are in equilibrium

Factors that affect the rate at which diffusion proceeds across membrane:
a). concentration gradient: the steepness of the diffusion gradient:
‐ a bigger difference in concentration results in faster diffusion than a smaller gradient
‐ the greater the difference between the area of high concentration to the area of low
concentration, the faster the molecule will move
b). thickness of the membrane – the distance that the diffusing substance have to move
- the shorter the distance, the faster the rate of the diffusion
- the greater the distance, the slower the rate of the diffusion
- the rate of diffusion decreases rapidly with distance
- so diffusion is therefore effective only over very short distance
As all plasma membranes are the same thickness, this is not really an issue when considering
diffusion into and out of cells.
But for other situations where particles must cross some kind of barrier, a shorter distance results
in faster diffusion.
c). surface area of the membrane:
‐ the greater the surface area of the membrane through which diffusion takes place, the greater
the rate of diffusion
‐ the larger the cell, the smaller its surface-area will be in relation to its volume
This place a limit on cell size:
If the cell is too big, it will have too small surface-area and so not enough diffusion can take
place to sustain the cell.
For example, a very large aerobic cell could not obtain oxygen fast enough to satisfy its needs
if it relied on diffusion alone.
Another example, of surface area is the microvilli in the gut of animals. The folds in the
microvilli increase the surface area for absorption purpose.
Other example is cristae; folding of the inner membrane of mitochondria; increase surface
area for respiration
‐ If there is more membrane where diffusion can take place, diffusion will happen faster.
These features (a, b, & c) are all related in an equation called Fick‟s law of diffusion.
Fick‟s law of diffusion:
d). temperature
- as temperature increases, the rate of diffusion increases
Diffusion occurs faster at higher temperatures because the particles have more kinetic energy and
so move faster.
Facilitated diffusion
 the transport of molecules across membrane by a carrier or channel protein from high
concentrated area to low concentration
 is essentially the same process as diffusion, in that it depends on a concentration gradient to
allow particles to cross the membrane (particles move from a high concentration to a low
concentration as with simple diffusion)
 but differs from simple diffusion in that the particles must be helped (facilitated) by a carrier
protein or a channel protein with an ion pore to diffuse across the membrane
The ions can simply move straight through the ion pore of a channel protein.
The carrier protein must undergo a conformational change (change in shape) to move
particles through the membrane.
Factors that affect the rate at which diffusion proceeds across membrane:
 The rate of facilitated diffusion is affected by the same factors that affect simple diffusion with
the exception that it is not the actual surface area of the membrane that determines the rate,
but the number of carrier proteins (or channel proteins) presents.
i). concentration gradient
ii). thickness of the membrane – the distance that the diffusing substance have to move
iii). the number of carrier proteins (or channel proteins) presents in the membrane (but not the
surface area of the membrane)
iv). temperature.

Osmosis
- effectively the diffusion of water (a special form of diffusion of water)

- the movement of water from a system with a high (less negative) water potential to a system
with a lower (more negative) water potential, across a partially permeable membrane
Water potential:
 the concentration of water molecules
 of a system is due to the concentration of free water molecules in that system
 symbolized by the Greek letter Ψ (psi)
 measured in units of pressure - pascals (Pa), kilopascals (kPa) or mega pascals (MPa)
Pure, liquid water has a higher water potential than any other system.
Pure water is assigned a water potential of zero, the solution must have a less negative water
potential.
 Ψ (pure water) = 0 Pa
 in pure water, there are only water molecules
When a solute is added, some of the water molecules form „hydration shells‟ around the solute
molecules and this reduces the number of free water molecules in the system and so the water
potential is reduced.
All other systems (cells, solutions and suspensions):
 have a water potential that is lower than that of water
 their water potential values must be negative

A more concentrated solution will take more free water molecules out of the system and lower the
water potential still further, making it more negative.
The rate at which osmosis proceeds is influenced by the same factors as simple diffusion:
1). surface area of the membrane
2). difference in water potential
3). distance the molecules must travel

100% pure water has ψ = 0, which is the highest possible water potential, so all solutions have ψ
< 0, and you cannot get ψ > 0.
Hypertonic solution Isotonic solution Hypotonic solution Remains of cell

surface membrane
Crenation: RBC RBC swells up Haemolysis: RBC finally burst

in hypotonic solution
shrinks and turns spiky
Crenation and haemolysis

of red blood cell

The effect of different solutions on plant cell
In the hypertonic solution, the cytoplasm of the cells loses water by osmosis and shrinks.
Because of this, there is no pressure from the cytoplasm on the cell wall.
The cell is said to be flaccid.
If the cytoplasm shrinks too much, it loses contact with the cell wall and we say the cell has been
plasmolysed.
In the hypotonic solution, the cells gain water by osmosis and swell.
What are the followings?
1. Turgor pressure
2. Wall pressure
However, because of the cell wall, the cell cannot become much larger.
Plant cells in this condition are turgid.
There is no change in the isotonic solution
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2). Active processes
a). Active transport
– the movement of substances against concentration gradient - from a low concentration area
to a higher one
– the movement of molecules will take place in one direction only
– energy is required because the substance must be moved against its natural tendency to diffuse
in opposite direction
– like moving a transport truck uphill – not the normal route that molecules choose to follow
– can only happen if metabolic energy is used to drive the process (energy released from the
ATP produced in respiration)
This can‟t happen by diffusion, since diffusion would tend to concentrate particles rather than
spread them out.
 The proteins used to actively transport substances across plasma membranes are called Pumps.
 The cell surface membranes of most cells have sodium pump that actively pump Na+ ions out
of the cell.
 In animal cells, the sodium pump is coupled with a potassium pump that actively moves K+
ions from outside the cell to inside the cell
e.g. movement of Na+, K+ and Cl+ ions in RBCs and their environment

b). Endocytosis
‐ large particles are engulfed by a cell
‐ involves the bulk transport of materials through a membrane into the cell
‐ part of the plasma membrane surrounds the particles to form a vesicle which is then processed
by the cell
‐ occurs by an infolding or extension of the cell surface membrane to form a vesicle or vacuole
‐ require ATP to move the membrane around the particles to form the vesicle
‐ there can be two types of these vesicles or vacuoles
i). phagocytosis or cell eating
• material is taken up in solid form contained in phagocytic vacuole (vesicle) by phagocytes
(the cells)
• involves the creation of pseudopodia to enclose large particles or even whole organisms outside
the cell
• once enclosed by the pseudopodia, they form an internal vesicle which is then moved further
inside the cell
ii). pinocytosis or cell drinking
differs from phagocytosis only in scale
material is taken in liquid form or small particles
extremely small vesicles are formed
involves the ingestion of smaller particles (but particles that are still too large to cross the
membrane by other methods) and does not require the formation of large pseudopodia to
engulf the particles
iii). receptor-mediated endocytosis
☞ specific molecules bind with specific receptor proteins embedded in the cell membrane
☞ the binding stimulates the infolding
☞ the membrane infolds to form vesicles only in regions where particles have bound to specific
receptors

c). Exocytosis
‐ the reverse process of endocytosis
‐ the bulk transport of materials out of the cell
‐ substances are moved from the inside to the outside of the cell in what is, effectively, the
reverse of endocytosis
‐ the process by which enzymes and hormones are secreted
‐ again, ATP is used to alter the configuration of the membrane

The structures and functions of other cell structures:
Cytoplasm
- contained between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane
- can be divided into two parts:
i). cytoplasmic matrix and
ii). the various cytoplasmic organelles
i). Cytoplasmic matrix
– a translucent, homogenous liquid that fills the space b/n cell membrane and the nucleus
– consists of various inorganic molecules such as water; salts of sodium, potassium, etc
– also consist of organic compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids (proteins),
nucleotides, RNA, ATP, a variety of enzymes, etc
ii). Cytoplasmic organelles
– cytoplasm contains various organelles with specific functions
– these include:
The nucleus = cell‟s information center
- typically occupies about 10% of the volume of a cell
- has several components:
i). nuclear envelope
• a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus
• has many nuclear pores, which allow the passage of some molecules between the nucleus and
the cytoplasm
ii). nucleolus
• discrete densely stained structure found in the nucleus
• an organelle within the nucleus which is not membrane-bound and sometimes called sub-
organelle
• nucleolar organizer region (NOR)
• synthesizes the components (subunits) of ribosomes; rRNA and ribosomal protein
• ribosome builder (assembles rRNA and ribosomal protein to make ribosome)
iii). chromatin
- consists of DNA molecules bound with proteins called histone
- for most of the cell cycle, the chromatin fibres are loosely dispersed throughout the nucleus
- just before a cell is about to divide, the chromatin condenses into distinct, recognizable
structures called chromosomes
Mitochondria = the power generators
– function in converting energy in the food into biologically useful energy or ATP
– Because of this it is called the “power house of cells” or “cells‟ power plant”
– found in large number in cells that expend more energy (metabolically very active cells)
E.g. muscle cells, liver cells, secretory cells, etc.
– the site of most of the reactions of aerobic respiration (cellular respiration)
– granular structures surrounded by two or double membrane:
 the outer membrane and
 the inner membrane

a). the inner membrane
• folded into cristae (partial partitions in mitochondria) which provides a large surface area for
enzymes‟ activity (for cellular respirations and the reactions associated with them)
(for the reactions of electron-transport system, which produces most of the ATP)
• filled with a fluid called matrix where some of the reactions of aerobic respiration take place
Matrix is a fluid that is found in the inner membrane which contains proteins, RNA, strands of
DNA, ribosomes (which are similar to bacterial ribosomes) and various dissolved substances
b). the outer membrane is smooth.
Ribosomes = the protein production machines

‐ the smallest (tiny), spherical structures that are not surrounded by membrane (non -
membrane bound)
‐ facilitate the synthesis of proteins and called cell's 'protein factories' or
‐ site of protein synthesis (protein builder)
‐ can be found free in the cytoplasm,
‐ but are also found attached to the membrane system of the endoplasmic reticulum, forming
rough endoplasmic reticulum
‐ comprise or made from two subunits, i.e., ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein
The subunits (the rRNA and protein) are manufactured in the nucleolus.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
‐ membrane system found throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells

‐ system of membranous tubes, channels and flattened sacs that form compartment within the
cytoplasm (found inside the cytoplasm)
 the space inside the membrane is called cisterna
 reticulum means network
‐ two kinds types:
i). rough Endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
‐ has ribosomes on its surface

‐ responsible for the manufacture and transport of proteins
‐ these proteins pass the membrane of the RER into cisterna
‐ the proteins can be stored or transported to where it is needed
‐ the proteins can even be transported to the cell membrane and can pass out of the cell
‐ The protein molecules pass through small pores into the lumen (inner space) of the ER and
are then moved in a vesicle to the Golgi body
ii). smooth ER (SER)

‐ has no ribosomes on its surface
‐ concerned lipid synthesis, detoxification and as calcium reservoir
‐ also associated with carbohydrate metabolism
Golgi body (Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus)
– discovered by Camillo Golgi (in 1898)

– consists of a number of flattened membrane-bound sacs in which proteins are modified
For example, converting proteins into glycoproteins (sugars + proteins)
– act as cellular post office that labels and then distributes a molecule
– many of the modified molecules are released from the Golgi body in a vesicle to be carried to
other parts of the cell or to the plasma membrane to pass out of the cell by exocytosis to be
used elsewhere

 Some vesicles form lysosomes
Many of the modifications added in the Golgi apparatus act as a kind of ‘tag’, which determine
the final destination of the molecule.
Lysosomes
- have no specialized internal structure and are surrounded by a single membrane
- are formed and originate from the edge of Golgi apparatus and contain digestive enzymes made
in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and used to break down cellular waste and debris
1). the proteins (enzymes) are made in the ER
2). the enzymes are bud off the ER in a vesicle and
3). transported to the Golgi apparatus, and
4). join with the Golgi
5). inside the cisternae of the Golgi, the enzymes undergo further processing
- Usually, when they are produced in the ER, they are in inactive form
- they are modified in the Golgi to become active enzymes
6). the modified molecules collect at the ends of the Golgi sacs and are packaged into the Golgi
vesicle which pinches off from the Golgi body itself.
These vesicles are called lysosomes
7). these lysosomes transport the enzymes to wherever they are needed in the cell
Lysosomes are particularly abundant in phagocytic white blood cells

Summary of the functions of lysosomes:
Lysosomes:
 consume parts of their own cells, like old and damaged organelles by the processes of
autophagy - a process whereby cells consume old and damaged organelles or parts of the
cell which are no more needed.
The damaged organelle is engulfed into a lysosome vacuole and then digested.
 completely destroy the entire cell in the process of autolysis – a process which describe the
complete destruction of a cell when lysosomes burst and release their digestive enzyme into
the cell
In old and diseased cells, lysosomes release their enzymes internally into the cell and this
brings self-destruction, or, autolysis, of the entire cell.
 digest food for unicellular organisms = digestion
Digestion of food in amoeba: (phagocytosis)
- Amoeba ingest food
- The food is totally engulfed in a food vacuole
- Lysosome fuse with the food vacuole
- Enzymes from the lysosome enter the food vacuole and digestion starts
 consume and digest foreign matters in white blood cells by phagocytosis – a process whereby
cells engulf foreign particles from outside the cell and lysosomes fuse into this vacuole,
releasing digestive enzymes and digesting the particle
 release enzymes to the outside of the cell
Enzymes from the lysosomes digest foreign cells that have been engulfed.
Peroxisomes
 small, membrane-enclosed organelles that contain enzymes involved in a variety of metabolic

reactions, including several aspects of energy metabolism
 although peroxisomes are morphologically similar to lysosomes, they are assembled, like
mitochondria and chloroplasts, from proteins that are synthesized on free ribosome and then
imported into peroxisomes as completed polypeptide chains

Although peroxisomes do not contain their own genomes, they are similar to mitochondria
and that theyreplicate by division.
Organelles found in plant cells
1. Cell wall
The criss-cross arrangement of cellulose fibres in the cell wall gives it both strength and elasticity.
Because there are large „gaps‟ (on a molecular scale) between the fibres, the cell wall is freely
permeable.
Vacuole
The vacuole in a plant cell is a fluid-filled sac that stores a range of solutes.
It is also important in maintaining the turgidity, or turgor, of a cell.
When the vacuole is full of liquid (mainly water), it exerts pressure on the cytoplasm and, in turn, on
the cell wall.
If the vacuole loses water by osmosis, the pressure reduces and turgor is lost.
The cell becomes flaccid.
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes, like mitochondria, but, unlike mitochondria, the
inner membrane is not folded.
There are two main regions in chloroplasts that are linked to the stages of photosynthesis:
a). grana (each of which is a stack of thylakoids) membranous regions - where the light-
dependent reactions occur
Thylakoids is flattened sacs inside a chloroplast where photosynthesis takes place
b). a fluid stroma - where the light-independent reactions occur

How have biologists been able to study the different organelles?
This is possible by a technique called cell fractionation.

Cell fractionation:
‐ based on the fact that the masses of organelles vary and depend on their size
‐ when a mixture of organelles is spun in a centrifuge, the various types settle out at different
speeds of spinning
‐ the large nucleus requires a relatively low centrifuge speed to make it settle out; the much
smaller ribosomes require a much higher speed.
The technique is carried out as follows:
1). The cell sample is stored in a suspension that is:
a). buffered - the neutral pH prevents damage to the structure of proteins, including enzymes
b). isotonic (of equal water potential) - this prevents osmotic water gain or loss by the organelles;
gaining too much water could rupture the organelles
c). cool - this reduces the overall activity of enzymes released later in the procedure
2). The cells are homogenized in a blender and filtered to remove debris.
3). The homogenized sample is placed in an ultracentrifuge and spun at low speed.
The nuclei settle out, forming a pellet.
4). The supernatant (the suspension containing the remaining organelles) is spun at a higher speed
- chloroplasts settle out (if plant tissue is used).

5). The supernatant is spun at a higher speed still - mitochondria settle out.
6). The process is repeated at ever higher speeds until all the organelles have been separated
Summary of the order of sedimentation of the different cell structures
Nucleus → chloroplast (if plant tissue is used) →mitochondrion → lysosome →peroxisome →

fragments of the plasma membrane → endoplasmic reticulum→ ribosomes

Unity University Unit 3 Cell Biology

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Unity University Unit 3 Cell Biology

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Unit 3

The cell Theory:

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Anton van Leeuwenhoek: 1674

Rene Dutrochet: 1824

i). the stomata in theepidermis is of leaves

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i). all organisms are made of cells and

Mathias Schleiden (in 1838)

Theodor Schwann (in 1839)

Rudolf Virchow: 1858

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1). all known living things are made up of cells

5). all cells have basically the same chemical composition

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Different cells vary in size, shape and function.

Generally cells are microscopic.

What units shall we measure cells in?

The consequences of the different sizes of cells

Does it matter if the surface-area-to-volume ratio of a cell changes?

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ii). For the second cell:

iii). For the thrid cell:

Increasing size affects surface area and volume.

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Membranes typically include:

Some important features of membranes:

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Cell membrane or plasma membrane/ plasma lemma or cell surface membrane

 the membrane that surrounds and encloses a cell.

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Structures of the cell/plasma membrane:

The basis of plasma membranes is a phospholipid bilayer.

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Figure the two models of membrane structure

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Why the fluid mosaic model is named as fluid?

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2). Active processes:

1). Passive processes:

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c). surface area of the membrane:

i). concentration gradient

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- effectively the diffusion of water (a special form of diffusion of water)

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1). surface area of the membrane

2). difference in water potential

3). distance the molecules must travel

Hypertonic solution Isotonic solution Hypotonic solution Remains of cell

Crenation: RBC RBC swells up Haemolysis: RBC finally burst

Crenation and haemolysis

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The cell is said to be flaccid.

What are the followings?

Plant cells in this condition are turgid.

There is no change in the isotonic solution

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