HUMEN GEOGRAPHY NOTES

SECOND SEMESTER BY ACHONA

LINGGI

CONTENT

UNIT1 INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN

GEOGRAPHY : DEFINATION
NATURE AND SCOPE , CONCEPT IN HUME
GEOGRAPHY : (PLACE , SPACE, AND
LANDSCAPE ),UNDERSTENDING MEN NATURE
RELATIONSHIP : DETERMINISIM POSIBILISM
AND NEODETERMINISM ,
FIELD AND SUB -FIELD OF GEOGRAPHY

UNIT 2 POPULATION AND SE TTLEMENT :

GROWTH OF POPULATION ,
DISTRYBUTION AND DENSITY OF THE
WORLD ;
MIGRATION : CAUSE TYPE AND
CONSEQUENCES ,THEORY OF
POPULATION GROWTH : MALTHUS AND
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSI
 -TION THEORY , ORIGIN FUNCTION AND
CLASSIFICATION OF
RURAL AND URBAN SETTLEMENT

UNIT 1
MEANING
Human geography is the branch of geography which studies spatial (relative and absolute
location.) relationships between human communities, cultures, economies, and their
interactions with the environment,

Human geography studies the inter-relationship between the physical environment and
sociocultural environment created by human beings through mutual interaction with each other.

DEFINATIONS

Human geography is the synthetic study of relationship between human societies and earth’s
surface”. Ratze

“Human geography is the study of “the changing relationship between the unresting man and the
unstable earth”. Ellen C .Sample

Human geography is the "study of the nature and distribution of the relationships between
geographical environment and human activities and qualities.“ Elseworth Huntington

NATURE

The nature of human geography are as follow

1. Interrelationships: Human geography is all about the connections between:

 People and Place: It explores how humans interact with and shape the
spaces they inhabit, creating cultural landscapes.
 Society and Environment: It examines how physical features like mountains,
rivers, or climate influence human activities and settlements, while also
acknowledging how humans impact the environment.
  Social, Cultural, and Economic Processes: Human geography looks at
how these factors influence where people live, how they use land, and the
overall organization of societies.
2. Spatial Focus: Human geographers are particularly interested in how things are
arranged across space, and how these spatial patterns influence human behavior.
They analyze phenomena at various scales, from local communities to global trends.
3. Dynamic and Evolving: The relationships between humans and their
environment are constantly changing. Human geography considers how historical
processes, cultural shifts, and technological advancements impact these
relationships over time.
4. Interdisciplinary: Human geography borrows concepts and methods from
various disciplines like sociology, economics, anthropology, and environmental
science to gain a holistic understanding of human-environment interactions.
5. Multifaceted: Human geography is a broad field with various subfields that focus
on specific aspects of human-environment interactions. Some examples include:
 Urban Geography: Studies the growth, structure, and function of cities.
 Population Geography: Analyzes patterns of population distribution,
migration, and demographic changes.
 Economic Geography: Examines the spatial organization of economic
activities and systems.
 Cultural Geography: Explores the geographical variations in cultural
practices, languages, and identities.
6. Addressing Global Challenges: Human geography plays a crucial role in
understanding and addressing global issues like poverty, inequality, environmental
degradation, and the impacts of globalization.
SCOPE
The scope of human geography is vast and ever-evolving, encompassing a wide
range of topics that explore the relationships between humans and the spaces they
inhabit.

1. Population Geography: This subfield delves into the study of human populations,
analyzing patterns of distribution, migration, demographics, and population growth. It
examines factors influencing these patterns, such as social, economic, political, and
environmental conditions.

2. Settlement Geography: This branch focuses on the location, form, function, and
evolution of human settlements, ranging from rural villages to megacities. It explores
factors like historical context, resource availability, and transportation networks that
influence settlement patterns.
3. Cultural Geography: This subfield explores the geographical variations in
cultures, languages, religions, ethnicities, and traditions. It examines how these
cultural elements shape landscapes, social practices, and identities across different
places.
4. Economic Geography: This area focuses on the spatial organization of economic
activities and systems. It analyzes the location of industries, agriculture, trade
patterns, and the development of markets across regions. It also explores the impact
of globalization on economic landscapes.
5. Political Geography: This subfield studies the geographical dimensions of
political systems and processes. It examines how borders are drawn, how power is
distributed across space, and how political ideologies influence territorial control.
6. Urban Geography: This branch focuses on the growth, structure, function, and
challenges faced by urban areas. It explores issues like urban planning,
transportation networks, social segregation, and the impact of urbanization on the
environment.
7. Social Geography: This subfield examines the spatial variations in social
structures, inequalities, and social processes. It analyzes factors like class, gender,
race, and ethnicity, and how they influence social interactions and access to
resources across different places.
8. Environmental Geography: This branch explores the interactions between
human societies and the natural environment. It examines issues like climate
change, resource depletion, pollution, and sustainability practices at different scales.
9. Development Geography: This subfield focuses on the geographical patterns of
development and underdevelopment. It analyzes factors like poverty, inequality,
access to resources, and the impact of development policies on different regions.
10. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Human geographers increasingly
utilize GIS to analyze spatial data, visualize patterns, and create maps that enhance
understanding of human-environment interactions.

APPROCHES TO STUDY HUMaN GEOGRAPHY

Human geography, utilizes a diverse set of approaches to understand the intricate

relationships between humans and their environment. Here's a glimpse into some of
the prominent approaches:

1. Spatial Analysis: This approach utilizes geographic information systems (GIS)

and statistical methods to analyze spatial patterns and relationships. It involves
techniques like mapping, spatial clustering, and spatial autocorrelation to identify
patterns in population distribution, economic activity, or cultural practices across
different places.
2. Quantitative Approach: This method relies on statistical data and mathematical
models to quantify and analyze human-environment interactions. It employs tools
like surveys, censuses, and economic data to understand demographic trends,
migration patterns, or economic disparities across regions.
3. Qualitative Approach: This approach emphasizes in-depth understanding of
lived experiences through interviews, focus groups, and participant observation. It
explores how people perceive and interact with their environment, uncovering social
and cultural meanings attached to places.
4. Historical Approach: This method examines how human-environment
relationships have evolved over time. It analyzes historical records, maps, and
artifacts to understand how past events, cultural shifts, and technological
advancements have shaped current spatial patterns.
5. Feminist Geography: This approach critiques traditional geographical studies
that often overlook gendered experiences of space. It explores how gender interacts
with factors like class, race, and ethnicity to influence access to resources, control
over space, and participation in social processes.
6. Marxist Geography: This approach examines the role of power relations and
economic systems in shaping spatial inequalities. It analyzes how capitalism and
class structures influence access to land, resources, and economic opportunities
across different regions.
7. Postcolonial Geography: This approach critiques the legacies of colonialism on
human-environment interactions. It examines how colonial policies continue to
influence spatial inequalities, resource exploitation, and development patterns in
former colonies.
8. Behavioral Geography: This approach focuses on how individuals make
decisions about space and mobility. It explores the psychological factors, cultural
norms, and social interactions that influence people's use of space and their daily
routines.
9. Critical Geography: This approach challenges traditional geographical thinking
by incorporating critical theory. It examines how power structures, social inequalities,
and environmental degradation are embedded in spatial processes.
10. Non-representational Theory: This approach critiques the idea that maps and
other representations accurately capture the complexity of human-environment
interactions. It focuses on the embodied experiences, emotions, and sensory
perceptions of people in relation to space.

CONCEPTS IN HUMEN GEOGRAPHY

In human geography, the concepts of space, place, and landscape are intricately
linked, yet they hold distinct meanings that shed light on human-environment
interactions. Here's a breakdown of each concept:
Space: space in human geography is the foundation where human activities and
interactions take place, giving it meaning and constantly shaping how we experience
the world.

 In human geography, space is often viewed as relative and relational.

o Relative: Space is not absolute but defined by its relationship to other
objects and locations. For example, the distance between two cities is
not just a fixed number but also depends on the available
transportation options.
o Relational: Space is shaped by social processes, power relations, and
cultural practices. The meaning and function of a space can vary
depending on who uses it and for what purpose.
Place:
 Represents a specific location imbued with meaning and significance.
 Places are not just physical locations; they are also social constructs shaped
by human experiences, memories, and attachments.
 The sense of place refers to the emotional connection and identity people
develop with a particular location.
Landscape:
 Often refers to the visible features of an area, including natural and human-
made elements.
 In human geography, landscape goes beyond just the visual; it encompasses
the totality of the environment, including the physical, biological, social, and
cultural elements.
 Landscapes are dynamic and constantly evolving due to human interaction
and natural processes.

Here's how these concepts interrelate:

 Space provides the stage: It's the physical canvas where places and
landscapes exist.
 Places emerge from the interaction with space: Human activities, cultural
practices, and historical events imbue spaces with meaning, transforming
them into places.
  Landscapes are the expressions of place on the ground: They reflect the
interplay between the physical environment and human actions over time.

HUMAN NATURE RELATIONSHIP

Man and Nature Relationship: The relationship between the man and the nature has

been established in the early periods. Human beings live in the nature and interact
with it regularly. The influence of nature in the form of the air we breathe, the water
he drinks, the food he eats, and the flow of energy and information. Any change in
the environment can not only result in devastating effects, but can also become a
threat to the human race.

There are three concepts which explore the relationship between humans and their
neture or environment, particularly focusing on how much control humans have over
their choices and actions.

1. Determinism (Environmental Determinism):

 Core Idea: This philosophy argues that the physical environment (climate,
geography, resources) strictly determines human societies, cultures, and
activities. Humans are essentially passive actors at the mercy of their
surroundings.
 Examples:
o Arid regions might lead to nomadic lifestyles due to limited water
availability.
o Mountainous regions might foster isolated cultures due to difficulty in
travel and communication.
 Criticisms:
o Ignores human agency: Humans can adapt and modify their
environment to some extent through technology, social organization,
and innovation. (e.g., irrigation systems in dry regions)
o Oversimplifies complex relationships: Cultural and social factors also
play a significant role in shaping human societies.
2. Possibilism:
  Core Idea: This philosophy emphasizes human agency and freedom of
choice. The environment presents possibilities and limitations, but humans
ultimately decide how to use those possibilities.
 Examples:
o Different societies might utilize the same resources (e.g., fertile land) in
very different ways depending on their cultural practices and
technological advancements.
o Advancements in technology can open up new possibilities for utilizing
the environment (e.g., greenhouses in cold climates).
 Criticisms:
o Downplays the impact of the environment: Sometimes, environmental
constraints can be so severe that they significantly limit human options.
(e.g., building a city in the middle of a desert)
3. Neo-Determinism:
 Core Idea: This philosophy suggests a middle ground between determinism
and possibilism. The environment sets some limitations, but humans have the
ability to adapt and work within those limitations. It emphasizes finding a
balance between respecting the environment and utilizing its resources for
development.
 Examples:
o Sustainable development practices that aim to meet human needs
without exceeding the carrying capacity of the environment.
o Societies adapting their agricultural practices based on soil quality,
rainfall patterns, etc.
 Strengths:
o Offers a more nuanced view of the human-environment relationship.
o Acknowledges both the limitations imposed by the environment and the
potential for human ingenuity.
In conclusion:

These concepts provide a framework for analyzing how humans and their
environment interact. While determinism focuses on the limitations imposed by the
environment, possibilism emphasizes human agency, and neo-determinism seeks a
middle ground, acknowledging both aspects. Understanding these concepts helps us
appreciate the complex interplay between humans and the world around them.

FIELD AND SUB – FIELD OF HUMEN GEOGRAPHY

Human geography is a vast and multifaceted field that delves into the relationships
between humans and the spaces they inhabit. It encompasses a wide range of
subfields that focus on specific aspects of these interactions. Here's a breakdown of
the two:

Field:
 Human Geography: This is the overarching field encompassing the entire
study of human-environment interactions. It considers the social, cultural,
economic, and political processes that shape how people live, interact, and
organize themselves in space. Human geography utilizes various approaches
and methodologies to analyze these interactions across different scales, from
local communities to global trends.
Subfields:

These are more specialized areas within human geography that focus on particular
aspects of human-environment interactions. Here are some prominent subfields:

 Population Geography: Analyzes patterns of population distribution,

migration, demographics, and population growth. It examines factors
influencing these patterns, such as social, economic, political, and
environmental conditions.
 Settlement Geography: Focuses on the location, form, function, and
evolution of human settlements, ranging from rural villages to megacities. It
explores factors like historical context, resource availability, and transportation
networks influencing settlement patterns.
 Cultural Geography: Explores the geographical variations in cultures,
languages, religions, ethnicities, and traditions. It examines how these cultural
elements shape landscapes, social practices, and identities across different
places.
  Economic Geography: Focuses on the spatial organization of economic
activities and systems. It analyzes the location of industries, agriculture, trade
patterns, and the development of markets across regions. It also explores the
impact of globalization on economic landscapes.
 Political Geography: Studies the geographical dimensions of political
systems and processes. It examines how borders are drawn, how power is
distributed across space, and how political ideologies influence territorial
control.
 Urban Geography: Focuses on the growth, structure, function, and
challenges faced by urban areas. It explores issues like urban planning,
transportation networks, social segregation, and the impact of urbanization on
the environment.

There are many other subfields within human geography, each with its own specific
area of focus. Some emerging subfields include:

 Health Geography: Examines the spatial patterns of diseases, healthcare

access, and the impact of the environment on human health.
 Behavioral Geography: Explores how individuals make decisions about
space and mobility, and how psychological factors influence spatial
interactions.
 Time Geography: Analyzes how time interacts with space, considering daily
rhythms, routines, and accessibility in different locations.

Human geography as a field encompasses the entire study of human-environment

interactions, while subfields represent more specialized areas within that broader
field. Each subfield contributes to a deeper understanding of the complex ways
humans interact with and shape the world around them.
 UNIT 2
GROWTH OF POPULATION

The population on the earth is more than six billion. It has grown to this size over
centuries. In the early periods population of the world grew very slowly. It is only
during the last few hundred years that population has increased at an alarming rate
 After the evolution and introduction of agriculture about 8,000 to 12,000 years
ago, the size of population was small – roughly 8 million.
 In the first century A.D. it was below 300 million.
 The expanding world trade during the sixteenth and seventeenth century, set
the stage for rapid population growth.
 Around 1750, at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, the world population
was 550 million. World population exploded in the eighteenth century after the
Industrial Revolution. Technological advancement achieved so far helped in
the reduction of Death rate and provided a stage for accelerated population
growth.
It took more than a million years for the human population to attain the one billion mark.
But it took only 12 years for it to rise from 5 billion to 6 billion. the world population is 8.1
billion in 2024

DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY OF POPULATION

The term population distribution refers to the way people are spaced over the earth’s
surface. Broadly, 90 per cent of the world population lives in about 10 per cent of its land
area. The 10 most populous countries of the world contribute about 60 per cent of the
world’s population. Of these 10 countries, 6 are located in Asia. Identify these six countries
of Asia.
  Factors Affecting Distribution: Several factors influence population
distribution, including:
o Climate: Favorable climates with moderate temperatures and reliable
rainfall tend to attract larger populations for agriculture and comfortable
living conditions.
o Topography: Flat, arable land is more suitable for settlements and
agriculture compared to mountainous or hilly terrains.
o Water Availability: Access to freshwater is crucial for human
settlements and economic activities, leading to higher populations near
rivers, lakes, and coastlines.
o Economic Opportunities: Areas with abundant resources, job
opportunities, and infrastructure attract people seeking a better
livelihood.

DENSITY OF POPULATION

This refers to the number of people living per unit area, usually expressed as people per
square kilometer.

Density of Population = population/ area

High-Density Areas

These regions have a large number of people per square kilometer:

 East and South Asia:

o China: Population - 1.45 billion, Density - 148 people/km²
o India: Population - 1.41 billion, Density - 464 people/km²
o Bangladesh: Population - 215 million, Density - 1,119 people/km²
 Southeast Asia:
o Indonesia: Population - 279 million, Density - 147 people/km²
o Vietnam: Population - 99 million, Density - 311 people/km²
o Philippines: Population - 112 million, Density - 348 people/km²
 Europe:
o Germany: Population - 83 million, Density - 231 people/km²
o United Kingdom: Population - 68 million, Density - 274 people/km²
 North America:
o United States (Northeast): Population Density varies by state, but some
states like New Jersey have densities exceeding 1,200 people/km².
o Mexico (Central Region): The Valley of Mexico has a population
exceeding 20 million people.

Low-Density Areas:

While vast, these regions have very few people per square kilometer. Here are some
specific examples with data to illustrate the sparseness:

 Deserts:
o Sahara Desert: This vast desert in North Africa has an average
density of less than 1 person per square kilometer.
 o Gobi Desert: Spanning parts of China and Mongolia, the Gobi Desert
has an average density of below 2 people per square kilometer.
o
 Polar Regions: Extremely cold temperatures and limited resources make
permanent settlements challenging:
o Arctic: The average density in the Arctic falls below 0.1 person per
square kilometer.
o Antarctica: Almost entirely uninhabited, with a very small, transient
research population, resulting in a density close to zero.
o
 Mountainous Areas: Harsh weather and difficult terrain limit populations:
o Himalayas: The average density in the Himalayas falls below 5
people per square kilometer.
o Andes Mountains: Density varies by region, but generally
remains below 25 people per square kilometer. While there are
pockets of higher density in valleys, vast stretches remain sparsely
populated.
o Rocky Mountains: These mountains are sparsely populated with
some valleys having slightly higher densities. However, overall, the
density remains significantly lower compared to global averages.

MIGRATION

Migration, the movement of people from one place to another with the intention of
staying for an extended period or permanently. It's a fundamental human phenomenon that
has been happening for centuries, driven by various factors and shaping societies around
the world.

Causes of Migration:

These factors can be broadly categorized as "push" and "pull" factors:

 Push Factors: These factors compel people to leave their place of origin,
often due to undesirable conditions. Examples include:
o Economic Factors: Poverty, unemployment, lack of economic
opportunities, or natural disasters can push people to seek better
livelihoods elsewhere.
o Political Factors: War, political instability, persecution, or violence can
force people to flee their homes.
o Environmental Factors: Natural disasters, environmental
degradation, or resource scarcity can push people to migrate to safer
or more resource-rich areas.
 o Social Factors: Social unrest, discrimination, or lack of educational
opportunities can motivate people to seek a better life elsewhere.
 Pull Factors: These factors attract people to a new destination, offering them
a perceived improvement in their lives. Examples include:
o Economic Opportunities: Job availability, higher wages, and better
living standards in the destination area can be a strong pull factor.
o Social Factors: Reuniting with family, seeking a better quality of life, or
a more desirable social environment can attract migrants.
o Political Stability: Safety, security, and political stability in the
destination area can be a major pull factor, especially for those fleeing
conflict or persecution.
o Environmental Factors: A more desirable climate, access to
resources, or better environmental conditions can attract migrants.
Types of Migration:

Migration can be classified in various ways, depending on the distance traveled and
the duration of the move:

 Internal Migration: Movement of people within a country's borders, such as

rural-to-urban migration.
 International Migration: Movement of people across national borders.
 Temporary Migration: People move for a specific period, like seasonal
workers or students studying abroad.
 Permanent Migration: People relocate with the intention of settling in a new
place.
 Skilled Migration: Movement of highly skilled or educated individuals seeking
better job opportunities.
 Refugee Migration: People fleeing war, persecution, or natural disasters who
seek international protection.
Consequences of Migration:

Migration has wide-ranging consequences for both the origin and destination areas:

 For Origin Areas:

 o Brain Drain: Loss of skilled or educated individuals can hinder
development in the origin area.
o Demographic Changes: Out-migration can lead to an aging
population or gender imbalances.
o Economic Impact: Remittances (money sent back home by migrants)
can be a source of income, but the loss of working-age population can
also affect the economy.
 For Destination Areas:
o Labor Force: Migration can fill labor shortages and contribute to
economic growth.
o Cultural Diversity: Migrants bring new cultures, ideas, and customs,
enriching the destination society.
o Social Challenges: Integration of migrants can be challenging, leading
to issues like social tensions or discrimination.
o Strain on Resources: A rapid influx of migrants can put pressure on
housing, infrastructure, and social services.

Understanding the causes, types, and consequences of migration is crucial for

addressing global challenges like refugee crises, brain drain, and ensuring a smooth
integration process for migrants in new societies.

NOTE Do you realise that the same person is both an

immigrant and an emigrant? Immigration: Migrants who
move into a new place are called Immigrants.
Emigration: Migrants who move out of a place are
called Emigrants.

Some Basic Concepts of Population Geography

Growth of Population : Change of population in particular area between

two points of time is known as growth of population.

Growth Rate of Population : This is the change of population expressed in

percentage
 Natural Growth of Population: This is the population increased by
difference between births and deaths in a particular region between two
points of time.

Natural Growth = Births – Deaths

Actual Growth of Population : This is Births – Deaths + In Migration – Out

Migration

Positive Growth of Population: This happens when the birth rate is more than
the death rate between two points of time or when people from other countries
migrate permanently to a region.

Negative Growth of Population: If the population decreases between two points

of time it is known as negative growth of population. It occurs when the birth rate
falls below the death rate or people migrate to other countries

MALTHUS THEORY

Malthusian theory was, developed by Thomas Malthus in the late 18th century,
argues that human population growth will inevitably outpace the growth of food
production, leading to poverty and famine.

Core Ideas:
 Exponential Population Growth: Malthus believed that human population
tends to grow exponentially, meaning it increases at an increasingly rapid
rate. He envisioned population growth following a geometric progression (1, 2,
4, 8, 16...).
 Arithmetic Food Supply Growth: In contrast, Malthus argued that food
production increases arithmetically, meaning it grows at a constant rate (1, 2,
3, 4, 5...). This linear growth wouldn't be enough to keep pace with the
exponential population boom.
Graphical Representation:
Consequences:

Malthus predicted that this imbalance would lead to several consequences:

 Poverty: As food becomes scarce due to population outstripping supply, its

price would rise, making it less accessible to the poor.
 Famine: In extreme cases, food shortages could lead to widespread famine
and starvation.
 War and Disease: Competition for scarce resources could trigger wars and
social unrest. Disease outbreaks could also become more frequent due to
malnutrition and overcrowding.
Criticisms:

Malthus' theory has been heavily criticized over time for several reasons:

 Technological Advancements: The theory didn't account for advancements

in agriculture and food production that have significantly increased yields.
 Declining Birth Rates: Birth rates have been declining in many developed
countries, challenging the prediction of exponential population growth.
 Focus on Population: Critics argue that focusing solely on population
ignores issues like resource distribution and unequal access to food.
Malthus' Legacy:
Despite criticisms, Malthus' theory remains relevant for sparking discussions about
population growth, resource sustainability, and food security. The concept of
population outpacing resources continues to be a concern in some parts of the
world.

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY

The demographic transition theory is a framework used to describe the historical shift
in population dynamics that societies experience as they develop economically and
socially. It outlines a series of stages that a population goes through, characterized
by changes in birth and death rates.

Here's a breakdown of the theory with key points:

Stages of Demographic Transition:

The theory typically proposes four stages:

 Stage 1: Pre-transition: This stage characterizes pre-industrial societies with

high birth rates and high death rates. Factors like limited access to healthcare,
high infant mortality, and reliance on agriculture for subsistence contribute to
these high rates. The population growth remains relatively slow due to the
high number of deaths canceling out some of the births.
 Stage 2: Early Transition: As societies begin to develop economically and
socially, improvements in healthcare, sanitation, and nutrition lead to a decline
in death rates. However, birth rates often remain high due to factors like
cultural traditions, religious beliefs, and lack of access to family planning
methods. This stage creates a period of rapid population growth.
 Stage 3: Late Transition: Economic advancements, urbanization, and
increased education levels often lead to a decline in birth rates during this
stage. Factors like rising costs of child-rearing, smaller family sizes becoming
the norm, and greater female empowerment contribute to this decline. The
population growth starts to slow down.
  Stage 4: Post-transition: In this stage, both birth rates and death rates reach
low and relatively stable levels. Populations may experience slow growth,
stagnation, or even decline depending on specific circumstances.
Criticisms and Considerations:
 Not Universally Applicable: The theory is a general model, and the pace
and timing of transitions can vary significantly between countries.
 Focus on Developed Countries: The theory was developed based on
observations of European and North American countries. It may not perfectly
fit the demographic patterns of all societies, particularly developing nations.
 Emerging Trends: The theory doesn't fully capture recent trends like
declining fertility rates even in less developed countries, or the impact of
factors like HIV/AIDS or large-scale migration on population dynamics.
Importance of the Theory:

Despite its limitations, the demographic transition theory provides a valuable

framework for understanding:

 Population Growth: The theory helps explain the historical shifts in

population growth and the factors driving these changes.
 Economic Development: It highlights the link between economic progress
and changes in birth and death rates.
 Social Change: The theory sheds light on how social factors like education
and women's empowerment influence population dynamics.