DIFFEERNCE BETWEEN WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather and climate are related but different concepts, and here's a simple way to understand the
difference:

1. **Weather**: Weather refers to the short-term atmospheric conditions in a specific place at a

specific time. It includes things like temperature, humidity, wind speed, and precipitation (rain, snow,
etc.) for a particular day or even a few hours. When you check the daily forecast to decide what to
wear, you're looking at the weather.

2. **Climate**: Climate, on the other hand, is the long-term average of weather patterns over a
much larger region and a more extended period, typically 30 years or more. It describes the typical
weather conditions you can expect in a specific area over a long time, like the fact that some places
tend to be hot and dry (desert climate), while others are cold and snowy (polar climate). Climate tells
you what to expect over the seasons and years, rather than on a specific day.

In a nutshell, weather is what you see when you look out the window today, while climate is the
average of what you typically see out the window over many years.

ELEMENTS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Sure, I can explain the elements of weather and climate in simple words:

**Elements of Weather**:

1. **Temperature**: This is how hot or cold it is. You feel it as warmth or coldness in the air.

2. **Precipitation**: This is any form of water falling from the sky, like rain, snow, sleet, or hail.

3. **Humidity**: Humidity is how much moisture is in the air. It makes the air feel sticky when it's
high.

4. **Wind**: Wind is the movement of air. It can be gentle or strong, and it's what you feel when the
air is moving.
5. **Clouds**: Clouds are collections of tiny water droplets or ice crystals in the sky. They can block
the sun or make it cloudy.

**Elements of Climate**:

1. **Temperature**: Just like in weather, temperature is a part of climate. Climate tells you the
typical temperature in a place over a long time, such as whether it's generally hot or cold.

2. **Precipitation**: Climate also includes how much rain or snow a place usually gets in a year,
which affects whether it's dry or wet.

3. **Seasons**: Climate tells you how seasons change. Some places have four distinct seasons, while
others may have only rainy and dry seasons.

4. **Sunshine**: It includes how much sunshine a place typically gets. Some areas are sunnier than
others throughout the year.

5. **Wind Patterns**: Climate considers the usual wind patterns in a region. For example, coastal
areas might have breezy conditions, while inland places may have different wind patterns.

These elements help us understand what the weather is like on a day-to-day basis and what the long-
term climate is for a particular location.

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHARE

What is atmosphere?
We all know that earth is a unique planet due to the presence of life. The air is one
among the necessary conditions for the existence of life on this planet. The air is a
mixture of several gases and it encompasses ( COVER) the earth from all sides.
The air surrounding the earth is called the atmosphere.

 Atmosphere is the air surrounding the earth.

 The atmosphere is a mixture of different gases. It contains life-giving
gases like Oxygen for humans and animals and carbon dioxide for
plants.
  It envelops the earth all round and is held in place by the gravity of the
earth.
 It helps in stopping the ultraviolet rays harmful to the life and
maintains the suitable temperature necessary for life.
 Generally, atmosphere extends up to about 1600 km from the earth’s
surface. However, 99 % of the total mass of the atmosphere is
confined to the height of 32 km from the earth’s surface.

Composition of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelope a planet and is held in place
by the gravity of the planetary body. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great
and the temperature of the atmosphere is low.

 The atmosphere of earth is composed of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.9%), carbon
dioxide (0.04%) and trace gases. A variable amount of water vapour is also present in the
atmosphere (approx.1% at sea level) and it decreases with altitude.
 Carbon dioxide gas is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect. It is transparent to the
incoming solar radiation but is opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation. It absorbs a part of
terrestrial radiation and reflects back some of it towards the earth’s surface.
 Dust particles are also present in the atmosphere. They originate from different sources like fine
soil, smoke-soot, pollen, dust and disintegrated particles of meteors. Dust and salt particles act as
hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses to produce clouds.

Composition of the Atmosphere – Ozone Gas

 Present around 10-50 km above the earth’s surface and acts as a sieve, absorbing UV (ultraviolet
rays) from the sun.
 Ozone averts harmful rays from reaching the surface of the earth.

Composition of the Atmosphere – Water Vapour

 Water vapour is a variable gas, declines with altitude.
 It also drops towards the poles from the equator.
 It acts like a blanket letting the earth from becoming neither too hot nor too cold.
 It also contributes to the stability and instability in the air.
Composition of the Atmosphere – Dust Particles
 Dust particles are in higher concentrations in temperate and subtropical regions due to dry winds
in contrast to the polar and equatorial regions.
 They act as hygroscopic nuclei over which water vapour of the atmosphere condenses to create
clouds.

Composition of the Atmosphere – Nitrogen

 The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen.
 Nitrogen cannot be used directly from the air.
 Biotic things need nitrogen to make proteins.
 The Nitrogen Cycle is the way of supplying the required nitrogen for living things.

Composition of the atmosphere – Oxygen

 The atmosphere is composed of 21% oxygen.
 It is used by all living things and is essential for respiration.
 It is obligatory for burning.

Composition of the Atmosphere – Argon

 The atmosphere is composed of 0.9% argon.
 They are mainly used in light bulbs.

Composition of the Atmosphere – Carbon Dioxide

 The atmosphere is composed of 0.03% carbon dioxide.
 Plants use it to make oxygen.
 It is significant as it is opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation and transparent to incoming solar
radiation.
 It is also one of the gases responsible for the greenhouse effect.
STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHARE
 Troposphere:
o Earth’s troposphere extends from Earth’s surface to, on
average, about 12 kilometers in height, with its height
lower at Earth’s poles and higher at the equator.
 Yet this very shallow layer is tasked with
holding all the air that plants need
for photosynthesis and animals need to
breathe, and also contains about 99% of all
water vapor and aerosols (minute solid or
liquid particles suspended in the
atmosphere).
o The temperature in the troposphere also decreases
with height. On top of this layer is what is referred to
as tropopause.
 o It is the densest atmospheric layer, compressed by the
weight of the rest of the atmosphere above it.
o Most of Earth’s weather happens here, and almost
all clouds that are generated by weather are found
here.
 Most aviation takes place here, including in
the transition region between the troposphere
and the stratosphere.
 Stratosphere:
o Located between approximately 12 and 50 kilometers
above Earth’s surface, the stratosphere is perhaps best
known as home to Earth’s ozone layer.
o In this region, the temperature increases with
height. Heat is produced in the process of the formation
of Ozone, and this heat is responsible for temperature
increase.
o It is nearly cloud- and weather-free, but polar
stratospheric clouds (occur mainly at high latitudes
during the winter) are sometimes present in its lowest,
coldest altitudes.
 It’s also the highest part of the atmosphere
that jet planes can reach.
 Mesosphere:
o Located between about 50 and 80 kilometers above
Earth’s surface, the mesosphere gets progressively
colder with altitude.
 The top of this layer is the coldest place
found within the Earth system, with an
average temperature of about minus 85 °C (-
120 °F).
o The very scarce water vapor present at the top of the
mesosphere forms noctilucent clouds, the highest
clouds in Earth’s atmosphere.
o Most meteors burn up in this atmospheric
layer. Sounding rockets and rocket-powered aircraft
can reach the mesosphere.
  The transition boundary which separates the
mesosphere from the stratosphere is called
the stratopause.
 Thermosphere:
o It is located between about 80 and 700 kilometers above
Earth’s surface, whose lowest part contains
the ionosphere.
 Because this layer is much closer to the
sun, it can reach temperatures up to 2,000
°C (3,600 °F)
o In this layer, temperatures increase with altitude due to
the very low density of molecules found here. It is both
cloud- and water-vapor-free.
o The aurora borealis (Northern lights) and aurora
australis (Southern lights) are sometimes seen here.
 The International Space Station
(ISS) orbits in the thermosphere.
o Ionosphere:
 It is not a distinct layer as the others
mentioned above. Instead, the
ionosphere overlaps the mesosphere,
thermosphere, and exosphere.
 It’s a very active part of the atmosphere,
and it grows and shrinks depending on the
energy it absorbs from the sun.
 It is an electrically conducting
region capable of reflecting
radio signals back to Earth.
 The electrically charged atoms and
molecules that are formed in this way are
called ions, giving the ionosphere its
name and endowing this region with some
special properties.
 Exosphere:
o It is located between about 700 and 10,000 kilometers
above Earth’s surface, the exosphere is the highest
layer of Earth’s atmosphere and, at its top, merges
with the solar wind.
o Molecules found here are of extremely low density,
so this layer doesn’t behave like a gas, and particles
here escape into space.
o While there’s no weather in the exosphere, the aurora
borealis and aurora australis are sometimes seen in its
lowest part.
 Most Earth satellites orbit in this layer.
 Diqagram: structure of atmosphare

Air presure and wind

pressure Systems
 Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in
variations in the atmospheric pressure.
 The differences in atmospheric pressure causes the movement of air from high
pressure to low pressure, setting the air in motion. Atmospheric pressure also
determines when the air will rise or sink.
 Air in horizontal motion is wind. The wind redistributes the heat and moisture
across latitudes, thereby, maintaining a constant temperature for the planet as a
whole.
 The vertical rising of moist air forms clouds and bring precipitation.

Air Pressure
 Since air has mass, it also has weight. The pressure of air at a given place is
defined as a force exerted in all directions by virtue of the weight of all the air
above it.
  The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to
the top of the atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric
pressure is expressed in various units.

Measurement of Air Pressure

 Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air at any given place and
time. It is measured by means of an instrument called barometer.
 The units used by meteorologists for this purpose are called millibars (mb).
 One millibar is equal to the force of one gram on a square centimeter. A
pressure of 1000 millibars is equal to the weight of 1.053 kilograms per
square centimeter.
 In other words, it will be equal to the weight of a column of mercury 75 cm high.
 The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be about 76 centimeters (1013.25
millibars).

Vertical Variation of Pressure

 In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases rapidly with height.
 At the height of Mt. Everest, the air pressure is about two-thirds less than what it is
at the sea level.
 The decrease in pressure with altitude, however, is not constant. Since the factors
controlling air density – temperature, amount of water vapour and gravity are
variable, there is no simple relationship between altitude and pressure.
 In general, the atmospheric pressure decreases on an average at the rate of about
34 millibars every 300 metres of height.
 The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal
pressure gradient. But, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal but
opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not experience strong upward winds.
 Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser and hence has higher pressure. Since
air pressure is proportional to density as well as temperature, it follows that a
change in either temperature or density will cause a corresponding change in the
pressure.
 The pressure decreases with height. At any elevation it varies from place to place
and its variation is the primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind which moves from
high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
 A rising pressure indicates fine, settled weather, while a falling pressure
indicates unstable and cloudy weather.

Horizontal Distribution of Pressure

 Small differences in pressure are highly significant in terms of the wind direction
and velocity. Horizontal distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at
constant levels.
 Isobars are lines connecting places having equal pressure. In order to eliminate
the effect of altitude on pressure, it is measured at any station after being reduced
to sea level for purposes of comparison.
 The spacing of isobars expresses the rate and direction of pressure changes and is
referred to as pressure gradient.
 Close spacing of isobars indicates a steep or strong pressure gradient, while wide
spacing suggests weak gradient. The pressure gradient may thus be defined as the
decrease in pressure per unit distance in the direction in which the pressure
decreases most rapidly.
 There are distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous horizontal pressure
regimes or ‘pressure belts’. On the earth’s surface, there are in all seven pressure
belts.
 The seven pressure belts are :
1. equatorial low,
2. the sub-tropical highs,
3. the sub-polar lows, and
4. the polar highs.
 Except the equatorial low, all others form matching pairs in the northern and
southern hemispheres.
World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure
 The atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1034 gm per square cm at sea level. This
amount of pressure is exerted by the atmosphere at sea level on all animals,
plants, rocks, etc.
 Near the equator the sea level pressure is low and the area is known as equatorial
low. Along 30° N and 30° S are found the high-pressure areas known as the
subtropical highs. Further pole wards along 60° N and 60° S, the low-pressure
belts are termed as the sub polar lows. Near the poles the pressure is high and
it is known as the polar high.
 These pressure belts are not permanent in nature. They oscillate with the
apparent movement of the sun. In the northern hemisphere in winter they move
southwards and in the summer northwards.

Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’

 Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes.
 Width may vary between 5°N and 5°S and 20°N and 20°S.
 This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of trade winds from two
hemispheres from sub-tropical high pressure belts.
 This belt is also called the Doldrums, because of the extremely calm air
movements.
 The position of the belt varies with the apparent movement of the Sun.

Formation
 As this region lies along the equator, it receives highest amount of insolation.
 Due to intense heating, air gets warmed up and rises over the equatorial region
(convection).
 Whenever there is vertically upward movement of air, the region at the surface will
be at low pressure. Thus the belt along the equator is called equatorial low
pressure belt.
Climate
 This belt is characterized by extremely low pressure with calm conditions.
 This is because of the absence of Surface winds since winds approaching this
belt begin to rise near its margin. Thus, only vertical currents are found.
 As the larger part of the low pressure belt passes along the oceans, the winds
obtain huge amount of moisture.
 Vertical winds (convection) carrying moisture form cumulonimbus clouds and
lead to thunderstorms (convectional rainfall).
 Inspite of high temperatures, cyclones are not formed at the equator because
of ‘zero’ coriolis force. (we will see more later)

Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes

 The sub-tropical highs extend from near the tropics to about 35°N and S.

Formation
 After saturation (complete loss of moisture) at the ITCZ, the air moving away from
equatorial low pressure belt in the upper troposphere becomes dry and cold.
 This dry and cold wind subsides at 30°N and S.
  So the high pressure along this belt is due to subsidence of air coming from the
equatorial region which descends after becoming heavy.
 The high pressure is also due to the blocking effect of air at upper levels because
of the Coriolis force.

Climate
 The subsiding air is warm and dry, therefore, most of the deserts are present
along this belt, in both hemispheres.
 A calm condition (anticyclonic) with feeble winds is created in this high pressure
belt.
 The descending air currents feed the winds blowing towards adjoining low
pressure belts.
 This belt is frequently invaded by tropical and extra-tropical disturbances.

Horse Latitudes
 The corresponding latitudes of sub-tropical high pressure belt are called horse
latitudes.
 In early days, the sailing vessels with cargo of horses found it difficult to sail under
calm conditions of this high pressure belt.
 They used to throw horses into the sea when fodder ran out. Hence the name
horse latitudes.
Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and on the western
side of the continents
Why

Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt

 Located between 45°N and S latitudes and the Arctic and the Antarctic circles
(66.5° N and S latitudes).
 Owning to low temperatures in these latitudes the sub polar low pressure belts are
not very well pronounced year long.
 On long-term mean climatic maps, the sub polar low-pressure belts of the
northern hemisphere are grouped into two centers of atmospheric activity:
the Iceland low and the Aleutian depression (Aleutian low).
 Such belts in the southern hemisphere surround the periphery of Antarctica and
are not as well differentiated.

Formation
  These are dynamically produced due to
1. Coriolis Force produced by rotation of the earth on its axis, and.
2. Ascent of air as a result of convergence of westerlies and polar easterlies (we
will more about these in next topic – wind systems).
 Sub polar low-pressure belts are mainly encountered above

Seasonal behavior
 During winter, because of a high contrast between land and sea, this belt is broken
into two distinct low centers – one in the vicinity of the Aleutian Islands and the
other between Iceland and Greenland.
 During summer, a lesser contrast results in a more developed and regular belt.

Climate
 The area of contrast between cold and warm air masses produces polar jet
streams which encircles the earth at 60 degrees latitudes and is focused in these
low pressure areas.
Due to a great contrast between the temperatures of the winds from sub-
tropical and polar source regions, extra tropical cyclonic storms or lows’
(temperate cyclones or frontal cyclones) are produced in this region.

Polar High Pressure Belt

 The polar highs are small in area and extend around the poles.
 They lie around poles between 80 – 90° N and S latitudes.

Formation
 The air from sub-polar low pressure belts after saturation becomes dry. This dry air
becomes cold while moving towards poles through upper troposphere.
 The cold air (heavy) on reaching poles subsides creating a high pressure belt at
the surface of earth.

Climate
 The lowest temperatures are found over the poles.

Pressure belts in July

 In the northern hemisphere, during summer, with the apparent northward shift of
the sun, the thermal equator (belt of highest temperature) is located north of the
geographical equator.
 The pressure belts shift slightly north of their annual average locations.
Pressure belts in January
 During winter, these conditions are completely reversed and the pressure belts
shift south of their annual mean locations. Opposite conditions prevail in the
southern hemisphere. The amount of shift is, however, less in the southern
hemisphere due to predominance of water.
 Similarly, distribution of continents and oceans have a marked influence over the
distribution of pressure. In winter, the continents are cooler than the oceans and
tend to develop high pressure centres, whereas in summer, they are relatively
warmer and develop low pressure. It is just the reverse with the oceans.
Factors Controlling Pressure Systems
 There are two main causes, thermal and dynamic, for the pressure differences
resulting in high and low pressure systems.

Thermal Factors
 When air is heated, it expands and, hence, its density decreases. This naturally
leads to low pressure. On the contrary, cooling results in contraction. This
increases the density and thus leads to high pressure.
 Formation of equatorial low and polar highs are examples of thermal lows and
thermal highs, respectively.

Dynamic Factors
 Apart from variations of temperature, the formation of pressure belts may be
explained by dynamic controls arising out of pressure gradient forces and
rotation of the earth (Coriolis force).
Example
 After saturation (complete loss of mosture) at the ITCZ, the air moving away from
equatorial low pressure belt in the upper troposphere becomes dry and cold. This
dry and cold wind subsides at 30°N and S.
 So the high pressure along this belt is due to subsidence of air coming from the
equatorial region which descends after becoming heavy.
  The rate of deflection increases with the distance from the equator (Coriolis
force). As a result, by the time the poleward directed winds reach 25° latitude,
they are deflected into a nearly west-to-east flow. It produces a blocking
effect and the air piles up. This causes a general subsidence in the areas between
the tropics and 35°N and S, and they develop into high pressure belts.
 The location of pressure belts is further affected by differences in
net radiation resulting from apparent movement of the sun and from variations in
heating of land and water surfaces.
 Thus formation of sub-tropical high and sub-polar low pressure belts are due
to dynamic factors like pressure gradient forces, apparent movement of
sun and rotation of the earth (Coriolis force)
Insolation (or Incoming Solar Radiation)
 Insolation is the amount of solar radiation that is received by a
planet. The energy received by the earth’s surface in the form of
short waves is termed as Incoming Solar Radiation or Insolation.
 The insolation is not constant over the surface of the Earth — it is
concentrated near the equator because of the curvature of the Earth.
 Some of the insolation is reflected off the atmosphere back out into
space, where it is lost. The remaining insolation may pass through
the atmosphere, where it can be transformed either before or after
reaching Earth’s surface.
 This reception of solar energy and the resulting energy cascade that
ultimately warms Earth’s surface and the atmosphere.

Variability of insolation at the surface of the earth

The amount and intensity of solar radiation received by the earth
(insolation) vary during a day, in a season and in a year. The following are
the factors that cause these variations:

1. The rotation of the earth on its axis.

2. The angle of inclination of the rays of the sun
3. The length of the day.
4. The transparency of the atmosphere, and
5. The configuration of the land in terms of its aspect.
(The insolation depends more on the first three factors)

The tilted position of the earth’s axis is known as the inclination of the
earth’s axis. The earth’s rotation axis makes an angle of about 66.5° with
the plane of its orbit around the sun and this greatly influences the amount
of insolation received at different places.
The amount of insolation also depends on the angle of inclination of the
sun’s rays. The higher the latitude the less is the angle they make with the
surface of the earth which results in slant sun rays. The slant rays cover
more area than the vertical rays. When more area is covered, the energy
gets distributed and the net energy received per area decreases. Also, the
slant rays have to pass through a greater depth of the atmosphere which
results in more absorption, diffusion and scattering.

Before striking the earth’s surface, the incoming solar radiation passes
through the atmosphere. The atmosphere is largely transparent to
shortwave solar radiation. Water vapours, ozone and other gases present
in the atmosphere absorb most of the near-infrared radiations. Small
suspended particles in the troposphere scatter the visible spectrum both to
space and towards the surface of the earth. The blue colour of the sky and
the red colour of the rising and setting sun are the results of the scattering
of light within the atmosphere.

Duration of the day varies from place to place and season to season. It
decides the amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface.

The amount of solar radiation received at the surface of the earth is more in
the tropics (about 320 watts/m²) and least in the poles (70 watts/m²). The
subtropical deserts receive maximum insolation as the atmosphere is more
transparent (least cloudiness). At the same latitude, the insolation is more
over the continents than over the oceans.

Terrestrial Radiation, Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere

 Terrestrial Radiation – The solar radiation received by the earth is in

short wave forms and it heats up its surface. The earth acts as a
radiating body and radiates energy in the form of long waves to the
atmosphere. This process is called terrestrial radiation and these
long wave radiations heat up the atmosphere from below. The
atmosphere in turn radiates and transmits heat to space. This
maintains the constant temperature at the earth’s surface, as the
amount of heat received from the sun is transmitted to space.
 Heating and cooling of the atmosphere (conduction, convection and
advection):

 The terrestrial radiation heats up the lower atmosphere which

is directly in contact with the surface of the earth. This process
is called conduction in which there is a flow of energy from the
warmer to the cooler body and the transfer continues till both
the bodies attain the same temperature.
  As the lower layer of the atmosphere heats up, it rises vertically
in the form of currents and transmits the heat of the
atmosphere. This vertical heating of the atmosphere is called
convection and is restricted only to the troposphere.

 The transfer of heat through the horizontal movement of air is

called advection. During summer in India, the local winds called
loo is the outcome of the advection process. Advection is
relatively more important than convection. In middle latitude,
most of the diurnal (day and night) changes are the result of
advection alone.

Heat Budget of the Earth

The surface of the earth maintains its temperature, this is because the
amount of heat received by the earth in the form of insolation equals
the amount of heat lost by the earth through terrestrial radiation.

When 100% of solar radiation reaches the earth’s atmosphere, about 35%
is reflected back to space even before reaching the surface of the earth.
The reflected amount is called the albedo of the earth. This amount of
energy does not heat either the earth or the atmosphere.

 Out of the remaining 65% of the energy, 14% are absorbed by the
atmosphere and the rest, 51% by the surface of the earth (34%
through direct solar radiation and 17% from scattered radiation).
 51% of the energy received by the earth is radiated back as
terrestrial radiation.
 17% is radiated back to space directly and the remaining 34% is
absorbed by the atmosphere (6% is absorbed directly by the
atmosphere, 9% through convection and 19% through latent heat of
condensation).
 The total 48% absorbed by the atmosphere (14% from insolation and
34% from terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back to space.
 Thus, the total radiation returning back from the atmosphere and the
earth is respectively 48+17=65% which balances the total of 65%
received from the sun.
 This is termed the heat balance or heat budget of the earth, and
explains how the earth maintains its temperature despite the huge
transfer of heat.
Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the Surface of the Earth
  The insolation received at the surface varies from place to place,
some part of the earth has surplus radiation balance while the other
part is deficit.
 There is a surplus of net radiation balance between 40°N and 40°S
and the regions near the poles are in deficit. The extra heat energy
from the tropics gets redistributed towards the poles, and as a result,
the tropics don’t get progressively heated up due to the accumulation
of excess heat nor do the high altitudes get permanently frozen due
to excess deficit.
Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution

The temperature at any place is influenced by the following factors:

1. Latitude of the place – The temperature of a place depends upon

the solar radiation received. The insolation varies according to the
latitude, so the temperature also varies accordingly. The solar
radiations pass vertically along the equator. The angle of incidence
decreases from the equator towards the poles. The area heated by
the solar radiation increases towards the poles, therefore
temperature decreases from the equator to the poles.
2. Altitude of the place – The terrestrial radiation heats up the
atmosphere from below. Hence, the places near the sea level have a
higher temperature than the places at higher altitudes. Generally,
temperature decreases with the increase in height. The vertical
decrease in temperature of the troposphere is called the “normal
lapse rate” or “vertical temperature gradient”. The temperature
reduces at the rate of 6.5°C per km of ascent.
3. Distance from the sea – The location of a place with respect to the
sea also influences the temperature of a place. The variation of
temperature over the sea is less compared to the land because the
land heats up and cools down quickly, while the sea gets heated up
slowly and also loses heat slowly. The places near the sea come
under the moderating influence of the sea and land breezes which
moderate the temperature.
4. Air mass and ocean currents – The places which come under the
influence of warm air masses experience higher temperatures and
the places that come under the influence of cold air masses
experience low temperatures. The places located on the coast where
the warm ocean currents flow experience higher temperatures than
the places located on the coast where the cold currents flow.
AIR MASSES AND FONTS

Air Mass

Air Mass - It is an extensive portion of an atmosphere whose

physical properties such as temperature, moisture, lapse rate
and humidity are homogeneous for both horizontal and
vertical direction.

Characteristics of Air Mass

1. The source area should be uniform and homogeneous
stretching over a large surface. For example - An
extensive desert region, an open ocean, a large plain
region like Siberian plain, North American plains, etc.
2. Winds should be light and divergent which exists mainly
across the high pressure belt with anti-cyclonic
circulation which results in stability.
3. The temperature should be uniform in horizontal
direction with gradual change in vertical direction.
4. Humidity should be uniform with very less variability in
moisture content.

Classification of Air Mass

1. On the basis of Source

 Continental Air Mass (c)

 Maritime Air Mass (m)

2. On the basis of Temperature

 Warm Air Mass (w)
  Cold Air Mass (k)
3. On the basis of Pressure/Stability
 Stable Air Mass (s)

 Unstable Air Mass (u)

4. On the basis of Latitude

 Arctic Air Mass

 Antarctic Air Mass

 Polar Air Mass

 Tropical Air Mass

 Equatorial Air Mass

Note - At Equatorial region, Air Mass is formed over the

ocean not on the continent (landmass) because of strong
convection over landmass which prohibits the formation of
Air Mass.
Significance of Air Mass
 Air Mass transport heat from one region to another and

helps in maintaining balance in global temperature.

 Maritime Air Mass bring more moisture towards the

continental regions increasing the humidity level in the

region, which may lead to precipitation.
 The interaction of cold and warm Air Mass in temperate

regions leads to the formation of fronts and temperate

cyclones.
 The Maritime Air Mass of Indian Ocean affects the

amount of rainfall in India and South Asia through

Indian Monsoon as well as leads to the formation of
tropical cyclones.
 The dry Air Mass along the Sub-tropics results in arid

condition.
 The cold Air Mass from Siberia affects the temperature

of regions for a long distance and causes cold conditions

during winters.

Front - Front is a narrow zone of transition dividing two Air

Masses of differing temperature and humidity characteristics.

Temperate region is the zone of interaction of two different

Air Masses and the fronts are commonly developed along
these mid-latitude regions.

The process of formation of fronts is known as Frontogenesis.

Whereas the process of decay of front is known
as Frontolysis.
Types of Fronts

1. Warm Front -
 It is the boundary between warm and cold Air Masses

where the former is advancing and over-riding the cold

air mass.
 The gradient of front is gradually leading to slow

ascending of warm air resulting in the formation of

Stratonimbus clouds and steady rainfall over large area.

2. Cold Front -
 It is the boundary between warm and cold air mass where

the cold air mass is advancing and undercutting the warm

air mass.
 This results in steeper gradient along the front leading to

rapid ascend of warm air and formation of

 cumulonimbus clouds which results in heavy rainfall
over a small region.

3. Occluded Front -
 It is the later stage of the front formation where the air in

the warm sector is no longer at the ground surface.

 It is a compound zone with warm and cold fronts

characteristics.

4. Stationary Front -
  It is the type of front where the two air masses is unable
to push each other and the position of the front does not
change.
 Once it is disturbed, it leads to warm or cold front.

CYCLONE AND ANTI CYCLONE

What is a Cyclone?
Cyclones are the centers of low pressure. They are surrounded by closed isobars
having increasing pressure outward.

The wind circulation is from outside towards the central low pressure. They rotate
anti-clockwise in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere.

The inward flow of air is due to pressure gradient force and the lowest pressure at
the center.

Due to Coriolis force, blowing winds are deflected from their paths- rightwards in
the Northern hemisphere and leftward in the Southern hemisphere.

Types of cyclones
From the location point of view cyclones are classified into two principal types:

1. Extratropical cyclones Temperate cyclones or wave cyclones

2. Tropical cyclones

(1) Temperate Cyclone

Temperate cyclones also called extratropical cyclones or waves cyclones, are low-
pressure centers produced in the mid-latitudes during winters in both hemispheres.

They are formed in regions extending between 35-65 degree latitudes in both
hemispheres due to the convergence of two contrasting air masses.

They are most intensified and frequent during winters as thermal contrast is high
during that time.
The polar front theory discusses and explains the origin of temperate cyclones,
according to this theory frontogenesis is a precondition for the formation of
temperate cyclones.

Hence the conditions necessary for the development of a front are also required for
the development of a temperate cyclone:

1. The presence of two opposing air masses has contrasting properties of

air temperature and pressure density and humidity.
2. The two air masses must move in the face direction.

Temperate cyclones cover a large area as these are formed due to the convergence
of large and contrasting air masses. Sometimes temperate cyclones are so extensive
that they cover an area of about 10 lakh square kilometers.

Temperate cyclones extend up to 10 km from sea level in the upper troposphere.

Moisture present in hot humid and lighter air mass is the source of energy in
temperate cyclones. This moisture later becomes a source of cooling condensation
cloud formation and rainfall. Since the source of energy in temperate cyclones is
moisture present in warm air mass they can occur and develop over both oceanic
and continental surfaces.

Temperate cyclones are cyclones of mid-latitudes and hence are primarily under
the influence of permanent winds of mid-latitude that is the westerlies.

The movement is these cyclones are eastwards of the origin with an average
velocity of 32 km per hour in summers and 48 km per hour in winters.

The formation of temperate cyclones is a quick process but passes through a series
of successive stages:

The period of a cyclone from its inception (cyclogenesis) to its termination

(frontolysis or occlusion) is called the life cycle of a cyclone. It is completed
through 6 successive stages and is described by the polar front theory.

Stage 1: It involves the convergence of two masses of contrasting physical

properties and directions.
Stage 2: It is also called an incipient stage during which the warm and cold air
masses penetrate the territories of each other and a wave-like front is formed under
the influence of Coriolis force.

Stage 3: It is the mature stage when the cyclone is fully developed and isobars
become almost circular. The energy and intensity of the cyclone are greatest in this
stage. Rainfall is generated by nimbostratus clouds along the warm front and
cumulonimbus clouds generate high-intensity rainfall at cold fronts.

Stage 4: The warm sector of the cyclone is narrow due to the more advancement of
the cold front full stop as a warm front declines energy reservoir of the cyclonic
system starts declining.

Stage 5: It starts with the occlusion of the cyclone when the advancing cold front
finally overtakes the warm front and an occluded front is formed. The intensity of
rainfall and winds declines further.

Stage 6: In this warm sector completely disappears occluded front is eliminated

cold air mass covers the surface and ultimately cyclone dies out.

Temperate cyclones are relatively regular and predictable compared to tropical

cyclones and a primarily observed in the winter seasons.

WESTERN DISTURBANCES:

Wave cyclones originating over the Mediterranean sea and Caspian sea flow
eastward under the influence of subtropical westerly jet stream. The cyclones enter
into North-Western parts of India during the winter season to generate snowfall on
the Himalayan mountain ranges of Jammu and Kashmir Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand. They also cause rainfall in the plains of Punjab Haryana Western
Uttar Pradesh Delhi and northern Rajasthan and support Rabi crops.
(2) Tropical cyclone

Tropical cyclones are formed between 5 degrees to 30 degrees in both the Northern
and Southern hemispheres. These are not formed over or near the equator due to a
lack of Coriolis force.

They are low-pressure atmospheric systems of low latitudes.

Cyclones developed in the regions lying between the tropics of Capricorn and
cancer are called tropical cyclones which are not regular and uniform like
extratropical or temperate cyclones.

Numerous forms of cyclones vary considerably in shape size velocity and weather
conditions.
Different names of tropical cyclones in different regions of the world:

 Southeast Asia- typhoons

 Caribbean sea- hurricane
 Indian Ocean- tropical cyclones
 Northeast coast of Australia- Willy Willy
 A tornado is the smallest and most deadly form of cyclone in the
Mississippi valley of the USA. They are funnel-shaped storms that are
small but the most violent and disastrous of all storms. The center of a
tornado is characterized by extremely low pressure.

Because of such steep pressure gradient winds rush hour with great force towards
the center having a high velocity of 600 to 800 km per hour. The approach of
tornadoes is heralded by dark and thick clouds in the sky resulting in complete
darkness and minimum visibility and low air pressure.

Conditions required for the origin of tropical cyclones:

1. Presence of a warm Ocean surface with a temperature of 27 degrees

Celsius or more. The warm surface is the source of thermal convection
and strong hot and humid currents. It is because of this factor that
tropical cyclones are characteristically developed over the east coast of
continents under the influence of warm ocean currents.
2. The presence of ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone) supports the
intensification of low pressure and augments the supply of moisture
due to the inflow of trade winds.
3. Coriolis force helps in deflection of strong influence wind to generate
circulatory system. In the absence of Coriolis force tropical cyclones
do not originate near the equator.
4. Presence of high moisture in the atmosphere as it becomes the source
of latent heat of vaporization which is the basic source of energy for a
tropical cyclone.
5. Minimum vertical wind shear to support the unrestricted flow of air
currents upwards.
6. Divergence of air in the upper troposphere.

Tropical cyclones cover relatively smaller areas but are more destructive. On
average their diameters range between 80-300 km but sometimes they become so
small that the diameter is restricted to 50 km or less. But they are relatively taller
and extend up to 15 km from sea level in the upper troposphere.
The basic source of energy is the latent heat of vaporization present in hot and
humid thermal convective currents. This latent heat of vaporization later becomes a
source of cooling condensation cloud formation and rainfall.

Normally they move from east to west under the influence of trade winds hence the
general direction is there for the West word from their origin.

A fully developed tropical cyclone consists of:

1. Eye: the pressure is lowest in the eye. It is a zone of high temperature

and high humidity. It is also a cloudless, windless, and rain-less zone.
2. Inner eyewall: It is the most destructive part of a tropical cyclone. It is
characterized by strong winds and the greatest intensity of rainfall.
Rainfall is generated through cumulonimbus clouds.
3. Outer eyewall: It is the outermost part of a tropical cyclone. In this
zone, wind velocity is relatively low and so is the intensity of rainfall.

Tropical cyclones become very vigorous with high velocity over the oceans but
become weak while moving over land areas and ultimately die out after reaching
the interior portion of the continents. That is why the cyclones affect only the
coastal areas of the continents.

Anticyclones
Anticyclones are centers of high pressure. They are surrounded by closed isobars
having decreasing pressure outward.

The circulation is from central high pressure towards the periphery in such a way
that air blows outwards in a clockwise direction in the Northern
hemisphere and anticlockwise direction in the southern hemisphere.

Due to Coriolis force, blowing winds are deflected from their paths to the right in
the Northern hemisphere and left in the Southern hemisphere, that’s how it gets
circular with a flowing system.

The difference in pressure between the center and periphery of anticyclone ranges
between 10 to 20 mb and sometimes higher.

There are much larger in size and area than temperate cyclones as the diameter is
75% larger than that of temperate cyclones. Temperate anticyclones are very
extensive that a single anticyclone can cover nearly half of the USA.
The track is highly variable and unpredictable. They move very sluggishly and
sometimes they become stationary over a particular place for 4 days. The average
velocity of an anticyclone is 30 to 50 km per hour.

Anticyclones originated due to the descent of either polar cold air mass or warm
tropical air mass.

These anticyclones are high-pressure systems and are more common in subtropical
high-pressure belts and polar high-pressure belts where the air is sinking from the
upper troposphere to the lower troposphere but are practically absent in equatorial
regions.

The formation of anticyclonic conditions at polar high-pressure belts is a thermal

phenomenon as these bills a thermally direct whereas the formation of anticyclonic
conditions at subtropical high-pressure belts is a dynamic phenomenon as these
bills are thermally indirect.

Hence, anticyclones of polar high-pressure belts are termed thermal anticyclones,

and anticyclones of subtropical high-pressure belts are termed dynamic
anticyclones.

Types of anticyclones:

1. Cold anticyclones or thermal anticyclones: They are formed above

the Polar Regions due to the sinking of air. Post subsidence of air
outflows from the polar region in an easterly and southeasterly
direction.
2. Warm anticyclones or dynamic anticyclones: They are formed
above warm subtropical regions due to the sinking of air from the
upper troposphere to the lower troposphere and consequent divergence
of air.
3. Blocking anticyclones: These developed due to obstruction in the air
circulation in the upper troposphere that develops over mid-latitudes
and are called blocking because they obstruct the flow of temperate
cyclones in mid-latitudes.

Anticyclones tend to produce fairly uniform weather. Whence descends from

above at the center and the weather becomes clear and rainless because the
descending wind brings atmospheric stability. The weather of Canada USA and
northern Eurasia is mostly affected by anticyclones.