RBI FFS Training

QAF011b Rev.
08 February 08, 2009
Haward Technology Middle East
API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-
Inspection (RBI), Fitness-for-Service
(FFS) and Repair Practices of
Pipelines, Piping, Vessels and Tanks
in Refineries, Gas, Oil and
Petrochemical Facilities
December 13 - 17, 2009

Abu Dhabi, UAE
Seminar Director
Mr. Jim Gilad
©2009 Haward Technology Middle East

This document is the property of the course instructor and/or Haward Technology Middle East. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
the prior written permission of Haward Technology Middle East.
P.O. Box 26070, Abu Dhabi, UAE Tel: +971-2-44 88 301 Fax: +971-2-44 88 302 Email: info@haward.org http://www.haward.org
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Table of Contents
Section 1 Introduction
Section 2 Procedure
Section 3 Prevention of Brittle Fracture
Section 4 General Metal Loss
Section 5 Local Thin Area
Section 6 Pitting
Section 7 Blisters and Laminations
Section 8 Distortions and Mechanical

Damage
Section 9 Crack-Like Flaws

Table of Contents
Section 10 Creep Effects
Section 11 Post-Fire Assessment
Section 12 Overload
Section 13 Case Studies
Section 14 Inspection Techniques and

Repairs
Section 15 Risk-Based Inspection
Section 16 Solutions
Section 17 Accident Investigation

Section 1
Introduction
PIONEERS IN TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-Inspection
(RBI), Fitness-for-Service (FFS) and Repair
Practices of Pipelines, Piping, Vessels and
Mr. Jim Gilad
Tanks in Refineries, Gas, Oil and
Petrochemical Facilities
©2009 Haward Technology Middle East. This document is the property of the course instructor and/or Haward Technology Middle East. No
part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electro nic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of Haward Technology Middle East
API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-Inspection (RBI),

Fitness-for-Service (FFS) and Repair Practices of
Pipelines, Piping, Vessels and Tanks in Refineries,
Gas, Oil and Petrochemical Facilities
Section 1
Introduction
Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 2


Fitness-for-Service and Risk-Based Insp.
 Can degraded equipment still be operated?

 How much longer?
 When should we repair?
 What is the margin to failure?
 How will it fail?
 When, where and how should we inspect next?

Does Not …
 It does not predict future damage

Scope
 Tanks
 Vessels
 Piping Systems
 Pipelines

Scope
 Metallic

API 579 / ASME FFS-1

API 580 - 581 RBI

Contents API 579
1. Introduction
2. Procedure
3. Brittle Fracture
4. General Metal Loss
5. Local Thin Area
6. Pitting
7. Blisters and Laminations
8. Distortions (+ dent and gouge)

Contents
9. Crack-Like Flaws
10. Creep Damage
11. Fire Damage

Contents
12. Overload
13. Case Studies
14. Inspection and Repairs
15. Risk-Based Inspection
16. Solutions to Exercises

Contents
A. Code Equations
B. Stress Analysis
C. Stress Intensity Factors
D. Reference Stress
E. Residual Stress
F. Material Properties
G. Deterioration and Failure Modes
H. Validation
I. Glossary of Terms

Multi-Discipline
Materials
Corrosion Design
FFS
Inspect. Fab.
System Ops.

Section 2
Procedure
Section 2
Procedure

Method
 Quantitative
 Qualitative

Three Assessment Levels
 Level 1 = simplest and most bounding

 Level 2 = intermediate
 Level 3 = most complex and less bounding

Future Damage
 Inspection provides current condition

 Project future damage as a function of time
• FCA = future corrosion allowance
• Future crack growth
• Future creep damage
 Chose a margin to failure
• % of original margin

ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code

ASME B&PV
 Section I Power Boilers

 Section II Materials
 Section III Nuclear Components
 Section IV Heating Boilers
 Section V Non-Destructive Examinations
 Section VI Care of Heating Boilers (IV)
 Section VII Care of Power Boilers (I)

ASME B&PV
 Section VIII Pressure Vessels

 Section IX Welding and Brazing Qualification
 Section X Fiber Reinforced Pressure Vessel
 Section XI Inspection of Nuclear Plants
 Section XII Transport Tanks

ASME B31 Pressure Piping Code

ASME B31
 Power Piping B31.1

 Process Piping B31.3
 Liquid Petroleum Transport. Piping B31.4
 Refrigeration piping B31.5
 Gas Transm. and Distr. Piping B31.8
 Building Services Piping B31.9
 Slurry Transp. Piping B31.11

API Storage Tanks

 650
• P < 2.5 psig
 620
• P < 15 psig
 653
• Inspection, Repairs, Alter.

Section 3
Prevention of Brittle Fracture
Section 3
Prevention of Brittle Fracture

Classic Ductile Burst by Overpressure
TEST TEMP DWTT CRACK SPEED

+56oF +48oF 279 fps

Strength Stress (F/A) vs. Strain (Elongation)

Ductile Fracture


What is Brittle Fracture?

 Ductile  Brittle
 Plasticity then failure  Fracture can be elastic
 Large deformation  No deformation
 Cone and cup fracture  Flat fracture
 Short fracture  Long running fracture
 Dull fracture surface  Shiny fracture surface
 Can predict based on  Difficult to predict
stress  Chevron marks >>><<< in
fracture surface


“Rock Candy” Fracture Surface


ASTM E 604 Standard Test Method for Dynamic Tear

Testing of Metallic Materials


Cast Iron

Fracture of Thick-Wall Drum

Ferritic Steels (Table 3-3)

Ferritic Steels (Table 3-3)

(1) Curve ► (2) tmax ► (3) Tmin

Example
 SA-516 Grade 70 normalized

 Wall thickness t = 0.5 in (12 mm)
 What is the minimum safe operating temperature?
1. Material is Curve D
2. Enter t = 0.5 in
3. Go up and intersect curve D at Tmin = -55o+F

Exercise 3-1
 SA 533 Grade B
 Wall thickness = 1 in (25 mm)
 Can it be hydrotested at T = 35oF?

Storage Tank

Exercise 3-2
 Carbon steel storage tank

 Wall thickness tmax = 0.6 in
 Can it be filled safely above 40oF?

Austenitic Materials (B31.3 Table A-1)

Pre-Requisite to FFS
 The FFS assessment methods for wall thinning do not

apply if the material behaves in a brittle manner.

Section 4
General Metal Loss
Section 4
General Metal Loss

General Corrosion Carbon Steel

Example
 Water storage tank

 D = diameter 150 ft
 H = fill height = 60 ft
 ASTM A 573 Gr. 70
 20 years in service
 Failure: costly but no safety
implications

API 650 Storage Tanks Min. Shell

Minimum Design Wall Thickness API 650
tmin = 2.6 D (H – 1) / St
D = diameter = 150 ft
H = 60 ft

Hydrostatic Test Stress St

Minimum Design Wall Thickness
tmin = 2.6 * 150 ft * (60 ft – 1) / 30,000 psi
tmin = 0.78 in = 0.8 in = 20.3 mm > 8 mm OK
tmin + CA = 1 in plate = 25 mm

Wall Thickness Readings (Even Profile)

Grid 4 in x 4 in, UT Readings (inch)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B 1 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.9 1 1
C 1 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.7 0.8 1 1
D 1 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.9 1
E 1.2 1.2 1.2 1 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
F 1 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 1 1 1 1 1
G 1 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 1 1 1 1 1
H 1 1 0.9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Two Failure Modes: Leak or Burst

Corrosion Leak

One More Failure Mode: Buckling

Rule 1 Leak
 Rule 1 - Prevent pinhole leak
tmm – FCA > 0.1 in (2.5 mm)
tmm = minimum measured wall (worst spot), in

tmm = 0.5 in
FCA = future corrosion allowance, in

FCA … a Difficult Decision
 If corrosion rate was constant

• New tnominal = 1in
• After 20 years tmm = 0.5 in
• If we re-inspect in one year
FCA = 1 year * (1 in – 0.5 in) / 20 years

FCA = 0.025 in ~ 0.03 in (0.8 mm)

Rule 1 Leak
 Rule 1 - Prevent pinhole leak
tmm – FCA > 0.1 in (2.5 mm)
0.5 in – 0.03 in = 0.47 in > 0.1 in
OK

Rule 2 Margin
 Rule 2 - Do not operate below ½ of tmin
tmm – FCA > tmin / 2
0.5 in – 0.03 in = 0.47 in > 0.8 in / 2 = 0.4 in
OK

Rule 3 Burst
 Rule 3 - Prevent Burst
tam – FCA > RSFa * tmin
tam = average minimum wall, in

tam = minimum wall averaged over a length L
RSFa = remaining strength (safety) factor

Length Averaging
L = Q (D * tmin)
D = 150 ft = 150 * 12 in
tmin = 0.8 in

RSFa
 Remaining safety factor allowable RSFa

 … if we pass this condition, the corroded section will
have a margin against burst failure equal to
Corr. margin to burst = RSFa * Original margin

RSFa
 For ASTM A 573 Gr.70

The original safety margin against burst is:
Su / St = 70 ksi / 30 ksi = 2.3
If we chose RSFa = 0.9 and pass


Corroded margin to burst = 0.9 * 2.3 = 2.1

Choice of RSFa Company Decision
 Burst has safety implications or very costly

RSFa = 0.9
 Burst is to be prevented but is acceptable risk

RSFa = 0.7
For this example RSFa = 0.8

Rt Thickness Ratio
Rt = (tmm – FCA) / tmin
Rt = (0.5 – 0.03) / 0.8 = 0.46
 In summary, for this example:

• Rt = 0.46
• RSFa = 0.8


Length Averaging
L = Q (D * tmin)
Q = 0.86
D = 150 ft = 150 * 12 in
tmin = 0.8 in
L = 0.86 * (150 * 12 * 0.8) = 33 in

L = 33 in = 9 Readings @ 4 in = A to I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B 1 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.9 1 1
C 1 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.7 0.8 1 1
D 1 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.9 1
E 1.2 1.2 1.2 1 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
F 1 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.7 1 1 1 1 1
G 1 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 1 1 1 1 1
H 1 1 0.9 0.9 1 1 1 1 1 1
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Average Thickness to Prevent Burst
tam = (1 + 0.7 + 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.9 + 0.6 + 0.6 + 0.9 + 1) / 9
tam = 0.74 in
tam – FCA > RSFa * tmin
0.74 – 0.03 > 0.8 * 0.8 in = 0.64
OK

Summary: 3 Rules
 No pinhole leak tmm - FCA > 0.1 in

 Margin tmm – FCA > tmin / 2
 No burst tam – FCA > RSFa * tmin

Limitation 1
 Corroded area must be (D * tnom) away from structural
discontinuity



Limitation 2
 Loads other than internal pressure

Example with Bending Load
 Steam Line
 ASTM A 106 Grade B carbon steel
 4 in sch.40 = 4.5 in dia. x 0.237 in nom. wall
 Z = 3.2 in3 section modulus
 T = 430oF
 P = 350 psi


Longitudinal Stresses
 The internal pressure P causes a longitudinal stress

PD/(4t) = 350 psi * 4.5 in / (4 * 0.237 in) = 1661 psi
 The weight causes a moment stress M/Z with a fitting

penalty factor 0.75i (stress intensification factor).
 The thermal expansion causes a bending moment stress

M/Z with a fitting penalty factor I (stress intensification
factor).

Stress Analysis Output

The Effect of Corrosion
 Assume that the corrosion is uniform all around the

pipe.
 The nominal wall was 0.237 in
 Assume that the corroded wall is down to 0.150 in
 During operation, the stress in the corroded pipe is
Scorroded = Snominal * (tnominal / tcorroded)

Corroded Longitudinal Stress
Scorroded = Snominal * (tnominal / tcorroded)
Scorroded sustained = 13,381 psi (0.237 / 0.150)

= 21,142 psi > 16,700 psi Not OK
Scorroded expansion. = 37,318 psi (0.237 / 0.150)

= 58,962 > 40,723 psi Not OK

Exercise 5-1
 Oil pipeline
 D = 30 in (760 mm)
 tnom = 0.4 in (10 mm)
 API 5L-X60, ERW
 Pmax = 500 psi
 New coating and CP reset FCA = 0
for next 5 years
 Only load is pressure
 RSFa = 0.9

UT Readings Along Axis, Every ½ in
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4

tmin ASME B31.4 Liquid Pipelines
tmin = P * D / (0.72 * SMYS * E)
tmin minimum wall required by Code, in

P = MAOP design pressure, psi
D = diameter, in
SMYS = specified minimum yield stress, psi
E = weld joint factor (pipe mill penalty)

Origin of 72% SMYS?

 0.72 Sy goes back to the early days of fabrication of
steel line pipe. In the mill, the pipe was tested to a
hydrostatic pressure causing a hoop stress PD/(2t) of
90% Sy. In service, the pressure was limited to 80% of
the mill hydrotest pressure, or 80% x 90% Sy = 72% Sy.
 The 90% Sy hydrostatic test was reduced by 12.5% for

fabrication tolerance on under-thickness, then further
divided by 1.1 to compensate for the 110% overpressure
transient allowance (as was the common practice for
water pipelines), which leads to 90% Sy x 0.875 / 1.1 =
0.72 Sy.

ASME B31.4 Values for E

What Factors Affect E?
 Weld quality
 Heat treatment
 NDE of weld
 Hydrostatic test of pipe


PWHT of Field Repair Welding

Controlled Deposition (Temper Bead)

Temper Bead Repair

Temper Bead Parameters

 Preheat and interpass 400oF
 Electrode E8018 B2L (AWS A5.5)
 Bead overlap First 3 layers 50% bead overlap
 Cavity Welding Start center of cavity going out
to edge
 Electrode angle 90o to bottom of repair cavity
 Welding 1st layer 3/32” electrode, 80 A,
10 in/min.
 Welding 2nd and 3rd 1/8” electrode, 130 A,
10 in/min
 Remaining layers 1/8” and 5/32”
 Final Temper layer Overfill and grind final layer

Welding on-line

Welding in-service

Prevent Flammable and Explosive

Environments
 Explosive range of vapor-air mixtures

 Oxygen
 Compressed air unless free of lubricants
 Hydrogen
 Peroxides, chlorines
 Ethylene

Ductility Reduction vs H in GMAW (MIG) Weld

Prevent H Cracking
 Cooling between 800oC and 500oC
• Microstructure martensitic 
• Hardness > 350 Vickers C 
1950-1960s steel C > 0.15% (vs. C < 0.05%)
Carbon equivalent
 Low hydrogen process
• EXX18 and EXX15 rods

Numerical Simulation of Weld Process

branch pipe
main pipe
weld bead

Second Pass
in-service vs no flow ToC

Test-Based Weld Susceptibility Models

Weld Susceptibility Models

 Weld process
 Heat input
 Base metal mechanical properties
 Weld metal mechanical properties
 Base metal composition
 Weld metal composition
 Hydrogen environment
 Pre-heat

Weld Susceptibility Models

 PWHT
 Residual and applied stresses
 Stress concentrations (weld profile)
 Thickness
 Joint type
 Weld pass and sequence
 Time between passes

Critical thickness above which water backing has

no effect on cooling rate (Cracking)

Procedure Qualification
Fillet Weld with Flow Loop

Procedure Qualification
Attachment Weld with Flow Loop

Prevent Burn-Through
 Weld procedure specification: Welding procedure
specification based on worst field conditions, test flow
loop.
 Small welding electrode:

TID < 1800oF
 Typically limit to t > 3/16”

If t < 1/4”  welding electrode D  3/32”
If t < 1/2”  subsequent passes with D = 1/8”
Above 1/2” - 3/4” flow effect not significant

Prevent Burn-Through
 Welding current, voltage, travel speed
 Keep as low as practical (limit heat input)
 Consider SMAW with low hydrogen electrode (EXX18)
 Overheating trapped liquid: Flow in line will avoid fluid
thermal expansion and pressure rise.
 Computer model to predict TID for live line welding.

Hydro of Tie-in (Closure) Joints
 If not possible
• 100% NDE welded tie-ins
• 100% QC mechanical tie-ins
• In-service leak test

Seamless Fabrication

Evaluate the FFS of the Pipe


Margin 75 ksi / (0.72 * 60 ksi) = 1.7

Exercise Vessel

Exercise Vessel
 Vessel ASME VIII Div.1, 1994

 10 ft diameter x 20 ft height x 0.75 in wall
 ASTM A 515 Grade 70 (SA 515 Gr.70)
 MAWP = 150 psi at 400oF
 Operation 1996
 Inspection in 2006 UT (straight beam wall thickness)

Exercise Vessel
 We will lose 0.04” more till next inspection or repair

(based on corrosion engineer’s analysis)
• FCA = 0.040” = 40 mils
 Failure has moderate financial consequence, no safety
consequence
• RSFa = 0.70

ASME VIII Div.1 Minimum wall
PR 150psi  60"
t min    0.6"
SE  0.6P 17500 psi  0.85  0.6  150 psi

Wall Thickness Readings

Wall Thickness Profile

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
in 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

Evaluate the FFS of the Pipe


Buckling of Subsea Pipeline

 Subsea pipeline 650 ft ~ 200 m deep
 Hydrostatic pressure = 285 psi
 API 5L X52
 24 in dia. x 0.5 in wall

 Buckling pressure (without bending)
Pbuckling = 2.2 E (t/D)3
Pbuckling = 2.2 * 30 106 psi * (0.5 in / 24 in)3
= 596 psi


 What is the corrosion wall thickness that would cause
buckling?
Pbuckling = 2.2 E (tcorroded/D)3
2.2 * 30 106 psi * (tcorroded / 24 in)3 = 285 psi
tcorroded = 0.4 in

Level 3

Vessels with Internals

Level 3 Vessel Analysis

End of This
Section

Section 5
Local Thin Area
Section 5
Local Thin Area

ASME B31G
 L = length of defect
 d = depth of defect
 t = initial thickness


Exercise 5-1
 10” x 0.365”
 Carbon steel
 L = 6” long loss
 d = 0.10” deep loss
 Acceptable per B31G?


Basis of ASME B31G (Folias)

1  A / Ao Sp = Hoop Stress
SP  Sflow
A / Ao
1 Sflow = Flow Stress
M

Basis of ASME B31G
 Sflow = 1.1 Sy
0.8L2 Folias Bulging
 Sp = Sy M  1 Factor
Dt
 A = 2/3 d t
 Ao = d t
2
 d/t 
L  1.12 Dt    1
 1 .1( d / t )  0 .15 

ASME B31G Acceptance Curve
d/t
L2/Dt

Corrosion Groove
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Example
 Design pressure/Temperature = 300 psi/650oF

 Inside diameter/wall thickness = 96 in/1.25”
 Future corrosion allowance = 0.125 in
 Material = SA 516 Grade 70
 Weld joint efficiency = 0.85
PR 300psi  48.125"
t min    0.835"
SE  0.6P 17500psi  1.0  0.6  300psi

Confirmatory Tests

Example
 Groove
• tmm = 0.50”
- groove depth = 1.25” – 0.50” = 0.75”
• gl = 6”
• gw = 2”
• gr = 1”
• FCA = 0” (cause eliminated)
• Lmsd = 48”

Calculate Rt and 
t  FCA 0.50  0"

R t  mm   0.6
t min 0.835"
1.285 g l 1.285 6"
λ   0.86
D  t min 96"0.835

Check 3 Conditions
 Condition # 1 (enough wall left for the pressure)
Rt  0.2  0.6 > 0.2 
 Condition # 2 (prevent pin hole leak)
tmm – FCA  0.1 in
 0.50” - 0.125” = 0.375” > 0.10” 
 Condition # 3 (no stress risers)
1.8  D  t no min al  1.8  96  1.25  19.7"  L msd  48"

Groove is not a Crack-Like Flaw

gr > max (0.25 tmin ; 0.25”)
1” > max (0.25 x 0.835 ; 0.25) = 0.25” OK
and
gr > (1 – Rt) tmin
1” > (1 – 0.6) 0.835” = 0.335” OK

LTA Assessment Diagram

Exercise 5-2 Gas Pipeline

Exercise 5-2
 10.75” x 0.365” gas pipeline
 Carbon steel API 5L X52 ERW
 MAWP = 2000 psi
 L = 6” long loss = gl
 d = 0.10” deep loss  tmm = 0.265”
 Acceptable per API 579 Chapter 5 (LTA)?
 gw = 2”
 Not a crack (large gr)
 FCA = 0” (cause eliminated)
 Lmsd = very long
 Pipeline is in remote area Class 1 Div.2
5-2
Gas Pipeline Pressure Design
P D / (2 * tmin) = SMYS * F * E * T
P = design pressure, psi

D = diameter, in
t = wall thickness, in
SMYS = specified minimum yield strength, psi
F = design factor
E = weld joint factor
T = temperature derating factor

Exercise 5-2
 Calculate Rt
 Calculate 
 Check 3 conditions
 Enter Rt  diagram

Material Pipe Class E

ASTM A 53, A106 Seamless 1.0
ASTM A 53 ERW 1.0
ASTM A53 Furnace Butt Welded 0.6
ASTM A 134 Electric Fusion Arc 0.8
Welded
ASTM A 135 Electric Resistance 1.0
Welded (ERW)
API 5L Seamless 1.0
API 5L Submerged Arc Welded or 1.0
ERW
API 5L Furnace Butt Welded 0.6

Temperature T
(oF)
250 or less 1.0
300 0.967
350 0.933
400 0.9
450 0.867


End of This
Section

Section 6
Pitting
Section 6
Pitting

Very Common ~ General Metal Loss

Chapter 4

Often General Pitting = Chapter 4

Pitting Level 1
t  FCA
R wt  mm
t min

Example
 tmm = 0.30”
 tmin = 0.50”
 FCA = 0.10”
 RSFa = 0.90
Rwt = (0.30 – 0.10) / 0.50 = 0.4

RSF = 0.91 > 0.90  acceptable

End of This
Section

Section 7
Blisters and Laminations
Section 7
Blisters and Laminations

Hydrogen Charging

The Mechanism of H Cracking

HIC and SOHIC

Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC), Hydrogen Blistering, and
Stress-Oriented Hydrogen-induced Cracking (SOHIC) are
failure mechanisms which are commonly found in oil and
gas production, refining, and gas processing where steel
equipment is exposed to H2S-containing (sour) service
environments.
In low-strength plate and pipe steels, the primary cracking
processes are hydrogen blistering and hydrogen-induced
cracking. These processes are characterized by the
recombination of atomic hydrogen to form molecular
hydrogen at internal sites; such as laminations, non-metallic
inclusions, regions of anomalous microstructures, and other
weak interfaces.
HIC and SOHIC

The internal hydrogen pressure at these internal sites
causes the propagation and growth of cracks through the
material. Under conditions of applied or residual tensile
stress, these cracks can become aligned in the through
thickness direction (commonly referred to as stress-oriented
hydrogen-induced cracking - SOHIC) potentially resulting in
loss of load or pressure-containing ability of steel
equipment.
These types of wet H2S cracking generally are contrasted
from sulfide stress cracking (SSC), a form of hydrogen
embrittlement cracking in High Strength Steels or high
hardness weldments resulting from the presence of atomic
hydrogen in the metal lattice (i.e., solid state).

HIC and SOHIC

HIC and SOHIC

1. Characterize the Blister

2. The blister is acceptable as-is if …

 One of these 2 conditions is met
• The blister diameter ≤ 2”, or
• The blister diameter ≤ 0.6(D*tnom), where D is the
shell ID.
 The blister projection above the surface BP is less than
10% of the blister diameter.
 tmm is 1/2 the plate thickness or more.
 There are no cracks in and around the bulge.
 Distance to welds is more than the max {1” ; 2*t}.
 Distance to structural discontinuity > 1.8(Dxtnom)

End of this
Section

Section 8
Distortions and Mechanical Damage
Section 8
Distortions and Mechanical Damage

Prevention of Buckling by Bending

  = 4 *  * D / L2 D = Diameter
 buckling = 2.4 (t/D)1.6 L = Span
 = Deflection
 = Tensile Strain

Exercise 8-1
 A 10.75 in diameter x 0.5” wall pipe is deformed  = 12
in maximum over a span of L = 120 in.

Accidental Movement

Snaking

Example
 API 5L X60 (yield stress = 60 ksi) 6” sch 40 (6.625 in dia
x 0.28 in wall) gathering lines have deformed  = 50 cm
(19.7 in) over L = 10 m (396 in). What is the tensile
strain and stress in the outer fiber?
 = 4 * 19.7 in * 6.625 in / (396 in)2 = 0.003 = 0.3%
Elastic limit = 0.2%
 The pipe has deformed plastically (a little)

Exercise 8-2: What to do?

Exercise 8-2

Field Bending

Cold Bending of Gas Pipelines
Nominal Pipe Bend Angle Min. Bend

Size (D) (deg) Radius
< 12 841.231(d) 18 D
12 3.2 18 D
14 2.7 21 D
16 2.4 24 D
18 2.1 27 D
 20 1.9 30 D

Wripples in Bends

Wripples Criteria (PRCI)

Spanning

Spanning in Subsea Pipelines

Spanning Example
 6” sch.40 liquid pipeline

 Carbon steel Sy = 40 ksi
 Operating pressure = 450 psi
 60 ft span unsupported
 Sag estimated at ~ 1 diameter
 OK to operate in this condition?

Spanning Example
 Pipe = 6.625” OD x 0.280” wall, w = 32 lb/ft
 Esteel ~ 30 106 psi modulus of elasticity
 I = 28 in4 moment of inertia
 Z = 8.5 in3 section modulus
 Sag at mid-span =  = 2.5 * w * L4 / (384 * E * I) = 5.6 in
 Cable Tension = w * (L2 – 4 2) / (8 * A * ) = 5,300 psi
 Bending (beam-like) = w * L2 / (10 * Z) = 16,260 psi
 Axial pressure stress = P * D / (4 * t) = 2,660 psi
 Total longitudinal stress = 5.3 + 16.3 + 2.7 = 24.3 ksi

Study of Dents in Pipelines


Initial Dent

Pressure Re-Rounding


Fabrication Tolerance ASME VIII
 Shell: 1% out-of-roundness internal pressure

• Heads: 1.25% of outside shape, 0.625% inside shape.
• Weld offset misalignment, longitudinal weld:
- t < 1/2”  e = t/4
- t = 1/2 to 3/4  e = 3/16
• Weld offset misalignment, circ. Weld
- t < 3/4”  e = t/4
- t = 3/4” to 1-1/2”  e = 3/16”

Fabrication Tolerance API 650 and 620

• Out-of-plumb 1/200 total height
• Out-of-Round 1%
• Out-of-Round 1 ft from bottom
- D < 40 ft  radius 1/2” tolerance
- D = 40 to 150 ft  radius 3/4” tolerance
• Weld offset misalignment - Butt joint
- t < 1/4”  e = 1/16”
- t > 1/4”  e = min {t/4 ; 1/8”}

Example: Peaking

Section 9
Crack-Like Flaws
Section 9
Crack-Like Flaws

Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

2 Conditions to Prevent Fracture

2 Conditions to Prevent Fracture

Condition 1 - Prevent Ductile Fracture
 Stress in the ligament behind the crack ligament is below

yield Sy (matl., temp.)

Condition 2 - Prevent Brittle Fracture
 Stress intensity at the crack tip K is below fracture

toughness KIC (matl., temp.)
K I  σ( πa )F
KI stress intenisty, ksi.in
 = stress at crack, as if there is no crack, ksi
a = crack size, in
F = shape factor of crack-component


Approximation for KIC

KIC = Sy * ((5 * CVN / Sy) – 0.25)
KIC = fracture toughness, ksiin
Sy = yield stress, ksi
CVN = Charpy V-notch toughness at Tmin, ft-lb
Example:
Sy = 35 ksi and CVN = 30 ft-lb
KIC = 35 * ((5 * 30 / 35) – 0.25) = 70 ksiin

Example

Example

Example
 A pipeline has a long OD crack along its length

 Carbon steel grade B (yield stress = 35 ksi)
 KIC = 75 ksiin
 D = 20”, t = 0.375”
 Crack depth = 0.10”
 Is it safe to operate at 500 psi and 100oF max?

Four Formulas
PD 500psi  20"

σ ligament    18,182
2  t ligament 2  (0.375  0.10)"
PD
K  σ nom. π  a  F   πa F
2  t nom.
500psi  20"
  π  0.10"  2  14,947psi in
2  0.375"

Ratios
Sratio = ligament / Sy = 18.2 / 35 = 0.52
Kratio = K / KIC = 15.0 / 75 = 0.20
Plug in the values of Sr and Kr into the FAD

Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD)

Complications
 Discontinuities
 Loads other than pressure
 Residual stresses at welds and HAZ

Welding: SMAW (stick)

Stick Welding

Welding: Flux Core

TIG (heli-arc)

Welding: MIG

Welding: Submerged Arc

Residual Stresses

Hydrotest Mechanical Stress Relief

Exercise 9-1

Exercise 9-1
 Instrument air system
 2” sch.40 = 2.375 in dia. X 0.154 in (4 mm) wall
 Stainless steel with Sy = 25 ksi
 Design pressure = 250 psi
 Weld are single pass with 50% lack of penetration
 Does not comply with Code
 Weld = 360o crack 50% * 0.154 = 0.08 in deep = a
 Loads other than pressure are negligible
 Is it OK as-is from FFS standpoint?

Exercise 9-1
 Calculate  = Pdesign * D / (4 * tligament)

 Calculate Sr =  / Sy
 Calculate K = [Pdesign * D / (4 * t)] ( a) *F, where F = 3
 Calculate Kr = K / KIC
 Enter the FAD diagram

Crack
propagation

Leak or Break?


Onset of Failure = Pressure (Load)

Failure Mode = Contents

Tank Roof

Flashing to Steam

Steam Line Failure

5000 psi Hydrotest

Pneumatic Test

Failure Modes

Failure Modes

Failure Modes

Failure Modes

Leak-Before-Break (1987)
 NRC RG 0800 Section 3.6.3 Leak Before Break
Evaluation Process
• To eliminate from the design basis the dynamic
effects of pipe ruptures
• Approval of these leak-before-break analyses by the
staff permits the case-by-case removal of protective
hardware such as pipe whip restraints and jet
impingement barriers
• Class 1 and 2 - other piping will be considered

NRC LBB Conditions

1. As-built
2. Erosion-corrosion
3. A margin of 10 on the leakage prediction will be
required for determining the leakage size flaw.
4. Waterhammer potential
5. Creep above 700oF ferritic and 800oF austenitic
6. Corrosion
7. Indirect sources of rupture
8. No risk of brittle fracture
9. Fatigue cracking
10. Prescribed method

NRC LBB Prescribed Method

 Fracture mechanics
 Through-wall flaw postulation
 Margin of 2 between leakage and critical crack size
 Load combination
• 1.4 x normal operating loads + SSE
• 1.0 x absolute sum normal loads + SSE
 Material and weld properties
• Archival material
• Industry generic lower bound
Where: SSE = Safe Shutdown Earthquake load

Section 10
Creep Effects
Section 10
Creep Effects

Mohave Power Plant, 1985

Onset of Creep
Metal Onset of Creep (deg.F)

Carbon Steel with SU  60 ksi 650
High Strength Carbon Steel SU > 700
60 ksi
C – ½ Mo 750
1 ¼ Cr – ½ Mo 800
2 ¼ Cr – 1 Mo to 9 Cr – 1 Mo 800
Stainless Steel 304 950
Stainless Steel 316, 321, 347 1000
Alloy 800 and 800HT 1050

Creep Damage = Three Effects

 A continuous increase of strain (deformation) under
constant operating load.
 A deterioration of the microstructure, with formation
of voids along the grain boundaries, leading to fissuring
as the voids grow and connect with each other.
Particularly prevalent at heat affected zone of of
carbon steel or low alloy (Cr-Mo) welds.
 A gradual precipitation of carbides at the grain
boundaries in ferritic-pearlitic steels.


Creep Life Very Dependent on Temp

Creep – Graphitization – Short Term

Overheating


LMP = (ToF + 460)(C + log thours) 10-3
LMP = Larson-Miller Parameter

Example

Data
 Furnace exhaust tube has operated for four years at

390 psi and 1650oF.
 After four years of service, the insulation was removed,
revealing that the tube had visibly bulged in its top
section.
 Is it safe to place the tube back into service for another
four years?

Data
 The tube is 1.66” outside diameter, 0.25” wall, ASTM
B407 UNS 08811, Incolloy Alloy 800HT.
 This is an alloy with 30-35% nickel, 19-23% chromium,
39.5% minimum iron, 0.06-0.10% carbon, 0.25-0.60%
aluminum, 0.25-0.60% titanium, and an ASTM grain size
5 or coarser. The alloy has a melting range of 2475oF to
2525oF.
 The bulged section is 1.81” in diameter (a 9% increase
in diameter compared to the original nominal diameter
of 1.66”), and has a 0.22” thickness (a 14% decrease in
thickness compared to the original nominal 0.25” wall).

Data
 Note: Some operators replace tubes when diameter

bulging has reached 1% to 2% for ASTM A297 Grade HK-
40 (Fe-25Cr-20Ni-0.4C) and 5% to 7% for HP modified
alloy (Fe-25Cr-35Ni-0.45C-1.5Nb).
 In this case, the API 530 procedure will be applied to
assess the fitness-for-service of the tube.

Calculation of Spent Life
Yr. P T t OD h LMP LMP Life Life Use Use

min avg min avg max min
1 1 390 1650 0.25 1.66 1295 42.0 42.8 9.1 22.8 0.11 0.04
2 1 390 1650 0.24 1.70 1380 41.4 42.4 4.5 14.4 0.22 0.07
3 1 390 1650 0.23 1.75 1480 41.2 42.2 3.6 9.1 0.28 0.11
4 1 390 1650 0.22 1.81 1600 41.0 42.0 2.9 8.1 0.34 0.12
4 0.95 0.34


Metallographic Life Assessment

 Replica can be examined by scanning electron
microscopy to characterize the density of creep voids,
which is an indication of the degree of creep damage.
 Models based on experimental results have been
developed to correlate creep voids, determined by
replication and metallography, to remaining life.
 For example, in the case of 2¼ Cr-1Mo steel welds, the
% grains with cavitation can correlated to the remaining
life.

Example
 1 
trem = remaining life, hrs t rem  t exp   1
 1  (1  A)
9
texp = expended life, hrs 
A = number fraction of cavitated boundaries
For example, if after 50,000 hours (5.7 years) of creep
service, 10% of grain boundaries show creep void
cavitation, then A = 0.10, and the remaining life is
31,500 hrs = 3.6 years
 1 
t rem  50,000    1
 1  (1  0.10)
9


Reference
 Viswanathan, R., Damage Mechanisms and Life

Assessment of High Temperature Components, ASM
International, Metals Park, OH.

Section 11
Post-Fire Assessment
Section 11
Post-Fire Assessment

Fire Damage

Fire Damage

Fire Damage

Fire Damage

Application
 Vessel, piping and tank condition following a fire:

should it be used-as-is? Repaired? Replaced?
 Degradation from fire is

• Visible structural
• Invisible mechanical, corrosion resistance
 Pressure vessels, tanks and piping systems

Application
 For floating tank roofs and tank bottom, also refer to

API 653
 Does not address non-pressure retaining structures

(ladders, platforms, etc.)
 Does not address electrical distribution and control

system

Data Collection
 Type of fuel (estimate of fire temperature)
 Location of ignition source
 Plot plan of affected areas
 Wind direction
 Time at temperature
 Cooling rate
 Fire fighting agent (sea/water/river/tank water)
 Estimate of cooling rate
Heat Exposure

Heat Exposure

Heat Exposure

Heat Exposure Zone

H.E.Z. Description Table
I Ambient -
Amb. to 150oF
II Smoke and Water -
III 150oF to 400oF 2

Light Heat
IV 400oF to 800oF 3
Moderate Heat
V 800oF to 1350oF 4
Heavy Heat
VI Above 1350oF 5
Severe Heat

Zone III
T (oF) Materials Damage
Vinyl Coating
200 Melt, Flow, Bubble
Paint
Alkyd Coating
300 Color Changing, Surface Crazing
Paint
Epoxies
400 Color Change, Blistering, Charring
Polyurethanes, Paint
375 PE Pipe Softening, Melting
Elastomer, Neoprene Softening, Melting, Burning,

350
Trims, Gaskets, Hose, Diaphragms Charring
Lead, Tin, Solder
360 Melts
Electrical, Tubing
Baked Phenolic, Fiberglass Binder
500 Discoloration, Blistering
Tank Linings
Acrylic Mastic
400 Cracking, Charring
Weatherproof Coating

Zone IV
400 Aluminum Alloys Reduced Strength
450 Wood Burns
Steel
500 Blue Temper Color
Machinery, Instruments
Copper
540 Softens, Sags, Coarse Grain
Instrument, Condenser Tubing
Lead
623 Melts
Lining
Zinc/Al Casting
730 Melts
Valve, Instruments
Zinc
790 Melts
Galvanized Coating

Zone V
Steel
900 Distortion, Creep, Scale
Vessels, Piping
Glass Distortion
950
Light Bulbs Melt.
SS
1000 Sensitized
Vessels, Piping
Steel Oxidation
1200
Vessels, Piping Thick Black Scale
Aluminum
1215 Melts
Tanks, Piping
Glass
1285 Melts
Windows
Copper
1300 Oxidation, Melt
Tubing, Piping, Vessels
Silver Solder
1350 Melts
Brazed Joints

Zone VI
Steel
1400 Iron Carbide Spheres
Vessels, Piping
Steel
1500 Austenizes
Vessels, Piping
Zinc White Powder Oxide,
1660
Galvanized Steel Vaporizes
1800 Cellular Glass Melts
2000 Copper Melts
2385 Alloy C 276 Melts
2600 SS Melts
2760 Steel Melts

Repairs - Replacements
 Zone I
• No damage
 Zone II
• Insulation, insulation jackets
• Electronics
• Plastics, PVC

 Zone III
• Gaskets (non-metallic)
• Valve trims
• Belts
• Non-metallics
• Electrical, electronic

 Zone IV
• Motors
• Valve springs
• Rupture disks
• Roll joints (HX)
• Sag tubing
• Aluminum equipment

 Zone V
• All small equipment replaced
• All copper replaced
• All non-metallic goods replaced
• Clean, inspect and pressure test major equipment
• Replace B7 bolts
• Replace sensitized SS
• Replaced distorted supports
 Zone V
• Replace all
• Some fire protected equipment may be inspected,
pressure tested, and still used
• Areas exposed to molten metal experience cracking
• Change in grain size, hardness, mechanical and
corrosion resistance properties

End of This
Section

Section 12
Overload
Section 12
Overload

Overload

Overloads
 Fatigue
 Vibration in service
 Pressure transients (hammer)
 Explosions

Cycles to Failure (Markl Tests)
Estimate cycles to failure if (Markl ASME B31)
Ncycles to failure = (245,000 / Samplitude)5

ASME B31 Form of Markl’s Equation
i Srange < f (1.25 Scold + 0.25 Shot)
i = stress intensification factor (fitting penalty)

f = cycle penalty factor = 1 below 7,000 cycles
Srange = stress applied to pipe, psi (max-to-min)
Scold = ASME B31 allowable stress cold condition,psi
Shot = ASME B31 allowable stress hot condition, psi




Example SIF Unreinforced Fab. Branch

 4” sch.40 (4.5 in dia.x 0.237 in wall)
 4” x 4” unreinforced fabricated tee (branch)
 h = T/r = 0.237 / 2.25 = 0.1
 io = 0/9 / h2/3 = 0.9 / 0.12/3 = 4.2
 ii = ¾ io + ¼ = ¾ * 4.2 + ¼ = 3.4

Example SIF B16.9 Welding Tee

 4” sch.40 (4.5 in dia.x 0.237 in wall)
 4” x 4” B16.9 welding tee
 h = 3.1 * T/r = 3.1 * 0.237 / 2.25 = 0.33
 io = 0/9 / h2/3 = 0.9 / 0.332/3 = 1.9
 ii = ¾ io + ¼ = ¾ * 1.8 + ¼ = 1.7

Example
 Nickel-Cu alloy tube ASTM B 165 annealed, operates

between ambient and 300oF.
 At 300oF the bending stress in the tube is calculated to

be iSrange = 10 ksi
 Cyclic duty is 1 cycle/week for 10 years
 Is this acceptable per ASME B31.3?

Solution
1 cycle/week * 52 weeks/year * 10 year

= 520 cycles < 7000 cycles  f = 1
Scold = S70 F = 18.7 ksi

Shot = S300 F = 15.4 ksi
i Srange < f (1.25 Scold + 0.25 Shot)

10 ksi < 1 * (1.25 * 18.7 + 0.25 * 15.4) = 27.2 ksi
OK

Allowable Stresses

ASME B&PV
Design Fatigue Curves (CS in air)

API 579 Fatigue Curves

CS Weld in Air

API 579 Class 80 Weld Fatigue Failure

Exercise 12-1
 A tower is subject to wind-induced cyclic bending.

 The tower is cylindrical 10 ft dia. X 1 in thick.
 The tower is 100 ft tall.
 The movement at the top is 0.2 in.
 Calculate the fatigue life using
• ASME B&PV
• API 579
• Markl B31

Fixed-Free Bending
 The bending stress at the base is
Samplitude = 2 *  * E * D / L2
 = amplitude of movement at top, in (0-to-max)

E = modulus of elasticity
D = pipe diameter, in
L = span length, in

Exercise 12-2

Exercise 12-2
Subsea Pipeline
 Uncovered free span

 22 ft long span
 6 in pipeline (6.625 in dia. X 0.280 in wall)
 Vortex shedding due to cross-current flow
 The recorded oscillation amplitude is

 = 0.2 in.

Exercise 12-2 Fixed-Fixed Bending
 Calculate the bending stress range due to vortex

shedding oscillation, when the pipe span is fixed-fixed
 = amplitude of movement at mid-span (0-to-max)

L = span length, in

Safe Endurance Limit
 Infinite cycles if stress amplitude is below

• 5 ksi carbon steel
• 10 ksi stainless steel

Vibration In-Service

Time-Domain to Frequency-Domain

Cause
 Mechanical-induced
• Rotating equipment vibrates
• Causes pipe to follow and amplify

Cause
 Flow-induced
• Pressure pulses
• Flow turbulence

Pressure or Sound Frequency

Turbulence and Vortex Shedding

Frequencies
 Vortex shedding frequency

• Internal flow
• Through orifice
• Passed opening
f=S*v/D
f = hydraulic forcing frequency, Hz

S = Strouhal number (0.2 to 0.5)
v = flow velocity, ft/sec
D = opening diameter, ft

Forcing frequency
 Example
• v = 50 ft/sec
• D = 4 in = 1/3 ft
• S = 0.2 to 0.5
f = (0.2 to 0.5) * 50 / (1/3) = 30 Hz to 75 Hz

Natural Acoustic Frequency

Open-Closed
f = a / (4 * L)
agas = sonic velocity in gas = 1400 ft/sec
1400 / (4 * L) = 30 Hz to 75 Hz
Lresonant = 12 ft to 5 ft

Cross-Flow Around Subsea Pipeline
 Vortex shedding frequency

• Around pipe
f=S*v/D
f = hydraulic forcing frequency, Hz

S = Strouhal number (0.2 to 0.5)
v = current velocity, ft/sec
D = pipe diameter, ft

Forcing Frequency
 Example
• S = 0.2 to 0.5
• v = 1 ft/sec
• D = 36 in = 3 ft
F = (0.2 to 0.5) * 1 / 3 ~ 0.1 Hz to 0.2 Hz

Natural Mechanical Frequency

fnatural =  * (E * I / m) / (2 * L2)
E = 30 106 psi modulus of elasticity of steel

I = 2550 in4 moment of inertia of 24 in x 0.5 in pipeline
m = (125 lb/ft + 180 lb/ft) / 32.2 ft/sec2 = 9.5 lb-ft2-sec2
L = 20 ft span = 240 in
fnatural =  * (30 106 * 2550 / 9.5) / (2 * 2402) = 2.5 Hz

fnatural = 2.5 Hz > fvortex = 0.1 Hz to 0.2 Hz
 No mechanical resonance

Pressure Transients (Hammer)
Impact Noise
Violent Movement
Sudden Rupture
Liquid Vapor-Liquid Gas-Liquid Gas

Liquid System
 A rapid change in velocity causes a rapid change in

pressure.
 A rapid stoppage causes a pressure rise upstream and a

pressure drop downstream.
 The pressure change is insignificant if the change in

velocity is slower than
tcritical = 2 L / a

tcritical
 L = length of pipe from the pressure source (pump,
header, tank, vessel) to the closing element (valve,
pump), ft
 a = sonic velocity in the liquid (4800 ft/sec for water
with no piping elasticity effect), ft/sec
 Example: valve is 100 ft away from pump
• L = 100 ft
• a = 4800 ft/sec
• The valve has to close slower than
2 x 100 / 4800 = 0.042 sec = 42 msec


Slow (normal) closure

 In case of slow closure (slower than tcritical) the
pressure rise is
1 ρ  Δv2
ΔP  
 Example 2 g
•  = 62.4 lb/ft3
• v = 5 ft/sec
• g = 32.2 ft/sec2
P = 24.2 lb/ft2 = 0.17 psi

Fast closure
 In case of fast closure (faster than tcritical) the pressure
rise is ρ  Δv  a
ΔP 
g
 Example
•  = 62.4 lb/ft3
• v = 5 ft/sec
• a = 4800 ft/sec [with no piping elasticity effect]
• g = 32.2 ft/sec2
P = 46,509 lb/ft2 = 323 psi ~ (65 x v ft/sec) psi



Pipeline Burst at River Crossing

Reversal at Closed Valve

SOME FLOW VELOCITIES
2" pipe, liquid flow 5 gpm (4 ft/sec) to 120 gpm (10 ft/sec)
3" 120 (5) to 250 (10)
4" 250 (5) to 500 (11)
6" 500 (5) to 1020 (12)
8" 1020 (7) to 2000 (12)
10" 2000 (7) to 4000 (15)
12" 4000 (10) to 6000 (16)
Boiler feedwater 8 to 12 ft/sec

Pump suction 4 to 7 ft/sec
Service water 4 to 10 ft/sec
waterworks 0 to 7 ft/sec
Gas Less than 400 ft/sec
Cryogenic liquid 5 ft/sec
Saturated Steam 0 to 25 psi 60 to 100 ft/sec

Saturated Steam above 25 psi 100 to 150 ft/sec
Superheated above 200 psi 110 to 300 ft/sec
Notes:
ft/sec x 0.7 ~ mph
steam "lb/hr", for example 25,600 lbm/hr in 8" sch.40 pipe (d = 7.98 in), saturated
at 366 oF (specific volume v = 2.76 ft3/lbm) is W = 3.06 W v / d2 = 3.06 x 25600 x
2.76 x (122) / [(7.98/12)2 x 3600 sec] = 136 ft/sec

Why Does the Pipe Jump?

Steam bubble collapse

Steam Bubble Collapse

Cast Iron Valve Body Failure

Bubble Collapse

Steam Bubble Collapse Hammer
Ceiling mounted
Ceiling mounted lateral
lateral guideguide
angles angles
One side
One side bent
bentopen,
open,the the
other guide guide
other angle sheared
angle off
shared off Looking up up
Looking atatwhat
what was
was aastraight
straight expansion
expansion joint. joint.
Expansion joint
Expansion bellows
joint bellows bulged and
bulged and de-formed
deformed in d-shape
in S -shape
(previously straight pipe jumped sideways)
(previously straight pipe jumped sideways)

Liquid-Gas flow

Flow Regime

Severe Slugging

Solutions

Explosions Inside Equipment


Shock Loading

End of This
Section

Section 13
Case Studies
Section 13
Case Studies

Six Disciplines
 System Design
 Materials Compatibility
 Detailed Design
 Fabrication and Construction
 Operations
 Inspection-FFS-Repairs  This course

Mixing vessel

Example: Dye Mixing Vessel
 2000 gallon vessel is

carbon steel, glass lined
OD 6.5 ft x 9 ft tall
 1” thick shell
 Vessel (kettle) has a MAWP
of 100 psig
 Two rupture disks set at 10
psig on 6” outlet pipe

Dye Mixing Vessel

Dye Mixing Vessel

BP Texas City refinery, November 2005

Lining

SS and CS Heat Exchanger

Propylene Cylinder Valves

Five-Supplier Chain

Flixborough, 1974

“Temporary” 20” Pipe

Flixborough Aftermath

Refinery Weld Crack

Expansion Stresses Exceed ASME Code

Tubing joints

Tubing joints

Tubing workmanship

Tubing workmanship

Hydrotest Fracture of Valve Body

Steam Generator

Incomplete penetration: field weld

Incomplete Penetration: Mill Weld

External Pressure

Vacuum Breaker

External Pressure

Steam Cleaning

Bhopal, December, 1984

Scrubber

The Disagreement

The Disagreement


Nitrogen Atmosphere

Phillips 66, October, 1989

Phillips 66

Phillips 66

Piper Alpha, 1988


Piper Alpha

Piper Alpha

BP-Amoco

Catch tank

The Accident

The Accident

The Accident

Section 14
Inspection Techniques and Repairs
Section 14
Inspection Techniques and Repairs

14a
Inspection

Inspection Decisions

Visual

Magnetic Particles (yoke)

Yoke and Fluorescent MT

PT

RT

UT

Standard
or Time of Flight Diffraction

Through-Transmission
Shear Waves (Angle Beam)

Remote Communications

Eddy Current Testing

Digital Radiography

Long Range Guided Wave

Pulsed Eddy Currents

Magnetic Flux Leakage [MFL]

Infrared Thermography

Acoustic Emission

Laser Mapping

Laser Mapping

Leak Detection: Visual

Leak Detection by Fiber Optic Cable

Wetted Cable Resistance

Vapor Sensing

Acoustic Emission from Leak Site

Close Interval Survey [CIS] & Direct Current

Voltage Gradient [DCVG]

14b
Repairs

Repair plan
 System
 Materials
 Details
 Fabrication, Erection, NDE and Testing
 Operation
 Inspection or Replacement

Temporary?


Refinery
 Repeated leaks were patched as they happened,

ignoring the possibility of a worst leak.
 415,000 gallon “spent” sulfuric acid H2SO4 (contains

light hydrocarbons). Carbon Steel, built 1979.
 Leaks since 1998
 Repaired with fillet welded patches

Patch repairs

Follow-Up on Inspections

Investigation Report
 Despite the imminent hazard presented by this

particular tank, XYZ repeatedly postponed its
inspection, originally scheduled for 1996.
 Management did not consider the leaks in tank 393 to
constitute an imminent hazard to safety or the
environment.
 They stated in interviews their belief that patching the
leaks allowed the tank to operate safely.

Investigation Report
 A crew of contractors was repairing grating on a
catwalk in a sulfuric acid H2SO4 storage tank farm
when a spark from their hot work ignited flammable
vapors in one of the storage tanks. The tank separated
from its floor, instantaneously releasing its contents.
Other tanks in the tank farm also released their
contents. A fire burned for approximately one-half
hour; and H2SO4 reached the Delaware River, resulting
in significant damage to aquatic life.
 An explosion in the vapor space of tank 393 generated
sufficient pressure to separate the tank’s floor-to-shell
joint.
Investigation report
 The explosion most likely occurred when a spark from

the maintenance work either fell through one of the
holes into the tank–or contacted the flammable vapors
near one of the holes in the tank roof and shell, and
flashed back into the tank.

Permanent or Temporary Repairs?
 No such thing
• Every repair has a “design” life
• Inspect at half life

Field Repair Techniques

1. Replace
2. Flush patch
3. Fillet welded patch
4. Leak box
5. Sleeve
6. Grind out and weld deposit
7. Weld overlay
8. Mechanical clamp
9. Non-metallic clamp
10. Insertion liners
11. Lining and coating

1. Replace

2. Flush Patch (Window Repair)

3. Fillet Welded Patch

Common in Low Pressure Pipes

Fillet Welded Patch

Stop the Leak

4. Leak Box

5. Welded Sleeve

6. Grind-Out and Weld Deposit

Weld Deposition Repair

Crack at Fillet Weld

7. Weld overlay

8. Mechanical Clamps

Mechanical Clamps

9. Non-metallic Wrap

Resin Impregnated Fiberglass

10. Insertion Techniques

11. Lining and Coating

End of This
Section

Section 15
Risk-Based Inspection
Section 15
Risk-Based Inspection


 Why?
 What?
 When?
 Where?
 How?
 Cost?

RBI = Risk Based Inspection

RBI Process
 Select equipment
 Failure cause
• Corrosion (wall thinning)
• Corrosion (cracking)
• Mechanical damage (fatigue, overload, vibration)
• High temperature damage (creep, graphitization,
etc.)

RBI Process
 Failure mode
• Leak
• Burst
• Break
• Flow upset
• Process upset

RBI Process
 Consequence from failure modes
• Explosion
• Fire
• Toxicity
• Public
• Workers
• Environment
• Production loss
• Repair Costs
• Other costs
 Risk ranking

Vapor Cloud Explosion
 Significant release of flammable material (100 kg or

more).
 Flammable material mixed with the surrounding air.
 Ignition source.
 Confinement, congestion, or turbulence in the
released area.
 Speed of the flame front can reach over 2,000 m/sec.

Pressure Wave (Not Shrapnel)
 Overpressure hazard 0.2 bar (3.0 psi).

• Fatalities > 29.0 psi or higher
• Destruction of concrete block bldgs 3.0 to 4.0 psi
• Industrial facility damage 5.0 psi
• Complete destruction of buildings 5.0 to 7.0 psi

Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Cloud

Explosion (BLEVE)
 Reduction in ultimate stress of a vessel or pipe wall to
the point that it cannot contain the imposed stresses.
 Risk is with containers that are less than 1/2 to 1/3 full
of liquids.
 The liquid vaporization expansion energy is such that
container pieces have been thrown as far as 0.8 km
(1/2 mile) from the rupture and fatalities from such
incidents have occurred up to 244 meters (800 ft)
away.

Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Cloud

Explosion (BLEVE)
 Fireballs may occur at the time of rupture, that are

several meters in diameter, resulting in intense heat
exposure to nearby personnel .
 Fatalities due to burns from such incidents have
occurred to personnel as much as 76 meters (250 ft)
away from the point of rupture.

Pool and Jet Fire

 Pool Fire
• Stagnant liquid fire. 30 to 50 kw/sq.m.
 Jet Fire
• Pressurized stream of combustible gas or atomized
liquid (such as a high pressure release from a gas
pipe or wellhead blowout event) that is burning.
200 kw/sq.m.
 Flash Fire
• Delayed rapid combustion of drifting vapor plume.

Consequence
Explosion Pool Jet Smoke
Methane X X
LNG X X X
Ethane X X
Propane X X
Butane X X
LPG X X X X
Crude X X X
Gasoline X X X
Diesel X X

Risk = Likelihood x Consequence

Qualitative Approach
 Likelihood
 5= Happens with some regularity in the facility

 4= Has happened once in the facility
 3= Has happened in similar system in industry
 2= Has not happened in industry, but possible
 1= Has not happened, and unlikely to happen

 Pipeline Company Likelihood
 5= Frequently or repeatedly (30%/year)

 4= Several times or probable (3%/year)
 3= Occasional or likely (0.3%/year)
 2= Not likely or remote (0.03%/year)
 1= Improbable or practically impossible (0.003%/year)

 Consequence
 E = Public or worker fatality

 D = Worker injury
 C = Significant repair and shutdown costs
 B = Repair and shutdown costs
 A = Repair costs

 E [Slide 17]
• Major company-wide emergency
• Major cleanup, months
• Widespread long term effects on environment
• Significant effect on community
• Fatality or long-term public health impact

 D [Slide 17]
• Division emergency response
• Significant cleanup, weeks
• Local long term effects on environment
• Small effect on the community
• Disabling injury or serious illness

 C [Slide 17]
• Field level emergency response
• Cleanup, weeks
• Moderate effects on environment
• Very small effect on community
• Minor lost time injury

 B [Slide 17]
• Local emergency response
• Cleanup, days
• Minor effects on environment
• First aid care
 A [Slide 17]
• Inconsequential

Corrosion Under Insulation [CUI] Likelihood

 Operating Temperature
• 120 F to 212 F (boiling)
• Operation (metal temperature) below dew point
(accumulation of condensate from ambient
humidity).
• Cool dead-legs not heated by process stream
(condensation).
 Insulation
• Water absorbency
• Chemistry (exact)
• Damaged or missing insulation
• Separated caulking

CUI Likelihood
 Coating
• Poorly applied or deteriorated coating or painting of
OD (an effective protection if good condition)
• Coating less than 15-years old
 Jacket
• Openings of insulation lagging (jacket) = hangers,
etc.
• Open jacket seam, oriented upward
• Missing bands on jackets
• Inspection ports or plugs, openings
• Signs of rust

CUI Likelihood
 Location
• 6 o’clock horizontal, low point vertical runs.
• Nozzles, external attachments
 Ambient
• Areas exposed to mist (cooling towers, process
vapors, etc.)
• Steam tracing leaks at tubing fittings
• Tropical or marine (40+ inch/year rainfall)
 Inspection history
• Earlier inspection results

RBI Team
 Full time
• Lead
• System (process) engineer
• Inspector
• Mechanical engineer
 Part time
• Corrosion & Materials engineer
• Safety & Health specialist
• Planner
• Others as needed

Likelihood = Corrosion Loops

Consequence = Contents + Environment

Equipment Screen

Fluid Screen

History Screen

Scenarios Screen

Actions Screen

Mitigation Plan

Likelihood = A (Low) to E (High)

Consequence = I (Low) to IV (High)

Example of Result
COF low B C D COF high TOTALS

A E
LOF high 1 5 4 2  21
5 9
4 24 59 38 37 51 209
3 4 14 30 19 14 81
2 15 51 57 74 31 228
1 49 118 119 110 88 484
LOF low 
93 247 248 242 183 1023

Published Results
 http://www.tischuk.com/pdf/tp1_economics.pdf
 http://www.equityeng.com/pdf/tenfold.pdf
 http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/hsl_pdf/2002/hsl02-20.pdf
 http://aptechtexas.com/rbi/resources/RBI_case_study.pdf
 http://www.aptechtexas.com/rbi/resources/rbi_oil_gas.htm
 http://www.aptechtexas.com/rbi/resources/rbi_slaughter.pdf
 http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/crr_pdf/2001/crr01363.pdf
 http://www.hghouston.com/POF%20Procedure.pdf
 http://www.credosoft.com/rbi.htm
 http://www.structint.com/tekbrefs/sib96176/
 http://www.twi.co.uk/j32k/unprotected/band_1/riskwise5.html#ref6
 http://www.twi.co.uk/j32k/unprotected/band_1/riskwise5.html#ref3

API 570 intervals

 6.3 INSPECTION INTERVALS
 The interval between piping inspections shall be
established and maintained using the following criteria:
• a. Corrosion rate and remaining life calculations
• b. Piping service classification
• c. Applicable jurisdictional requirements
• d. Judgment of the inspector, the piping engineer, the
piping engineer supervisor, or a corrosion specialist,
based on operating conditions, previous inspection
history, current inspection results, and conditions that
may warrant supplemental inspections covered in
5.4.5.



Inspection API 570

6.2.1 Class 1
Services with the highest potential of resulting in an
immediate emergency if a leak were to occur are in Class
1. Such an emergency may be safety or environmental in
nature. Examples of Class 1 piping include, but are not
necessarily limited to, those containing the following:
a. Flammable services that may auto-refrigerate and lead
to brittle fracture.
b. Pressurized services that may rapidly vaporize during
release, creating vapors that may collect and form an
explosive mixture, such as C2, C3, and C4 streams. Fluids
that will rapidly vaporize are those with atmospheric
boiling temperatures below 50°F (10°C).
Inspection API 570
 c. Hydrogen sulfide (greater than 3 percent weight) in

a gaseous stream
 d. Anhydrous hydrogen chloride
 e. Hydrofluoric acid
 f. Piping over or adjacent to water and piping over
public throughways. (Refer to Department of
Transportation and
 U.S. Coast Guard regulations for inspection of
overwater piping.)

Inspection
 6.2.2 Class 2
 Services not included in other classes are in Class 2.
This classification includes the majority of unit process
piping and selected off-site piping. Typical examples of
these services include those containing the following:
 a. On-site hydrocarbons that will slowly vaporize
during release such as those operating below the flash
point.
 b. Hydrogen, fuel gas, and natural gas
 c. On-site strong acids and caustics

Inspection
 6.2.3 Class 3
 Services that are flammable but do not significantly
vaporize when they leak and are not located in high-
activity areas are in Class 3. Services that are
potentially harmful to human tissue but are located in
remote areas may be included in this class. Examples of
Class 3 service are as follows:
 a. On-site hydrocarbons that will not significantly
vaporize during release such as those operating below
the flash point
 b. Distillate and product lines to and from storage and
loading
 c. Off-site acids and caustics

End of This
Section

Section 16
Solutions
Section 16
Solutions

Exercise 3-1
 SA 533 Grade B
 Wall thickness = 1 in (25 mm)
 Can it be hydrotested at T = 35oF?
1. Curve C
2. Enter t = 1in
3. Read Tmin = - 5oF  Thydro = 35oF is OK

Exercise 3-2
 Carbon steel storage tank

 Wall thickness tmax = 0.6 in
 Can it be filled safely above 40oF?
 tmax = 0.6 in  Tmin = 40oF

 Risk of brittle fracture if filled at 40oF.

Exercise 4-1
 Oil pipeline
 D = 30 in (760 mm)
 tnom = 0.4 in (10 mm)
 API 5L X 60, ERW
 Pmax = 500 psi
 New coating and CP reset FCA = 0
for next 5 years
 Only load is pressure
 RSFa = 0.9

4-1
UT Readings Along Axis, every ½ in
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4

4-1
tmin ASME B31.4 Liquid Pipelines
tmin = P * D / (0.72 * SMYS * E)
tmin minimum wall required by Code, in

P = MAOP design pressure, psi
D = diameter, in
SMYS = specified minimum yield stress, psi
E = weld joint factor (pipe mill penalty)

4-1
ASME B31.4 Values for E

4-1
Evaluate the FFS of the pipe


4-1
1. No Leak
 tmm – FCA > 0.1 in

 0.2 in – 0 > 0.1 in OK

4-1
2. Margin
 tmm – FCA > tmin / 2

 tmin = P * D / (0.72 * SMYS * E)
 tmin = 500 psi * 30 in / (0.72 * 60,000 psi * 1)
 tmin = 0.35 in
 tmm – FCA > tmin / 2

 0.2 in – 0 > 0.35 in / 2 OK

4-1
3. No Burst
 Rt = (tmm – FCA) / tmin

 Rt = (0.2 in – 0) / 0.35 = 0.57
 RSFa = 0.9
 Q = 0.70
 L = Q (D * tmin) = 0.70 (30” * 0.35”) = 2.3 in

4-1
Readings within 2.3 in
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4

4-1
3. Burst Prevention
 tam = (0.3 + 0.2 + 0.2 + 0.2 + 0.3)/5 = 0.24 in

 tam – FAC > RSFa * tmin
 0.24 – 0 > 0.9 * 0.35 in
 not OK

4-2
Exercise Vessel

4-2
Exercise Vessel
 Horizontal Vessel
 Vessel ASME VIII Div.1, 1994
 10 ft diameter x 20 ft height x 0.75 in wall
 ASTM A 515 Grade 70 (SA 515 Gr.70)
 MAWP = 150 psi at 400oF
 Operation 1996
 Inspection in 2006 UT (straight beam wall thickness)

4-2
Exercise Vessel
 We will lose 0.04” more till next inspection or repair
(based on corrosion engineer’s analysis)
• FCA = 0.040” = 40 mils
 Failure has moderate financial consequence, no safety

consequence
• RSFa = 0.70

4-2
ASME VIII Div.1 minimum wall
PR 150psi  60"
t min    0.6"
SE  0.6P 17500psi  0.85  0.6  150psi

4-2
Wall Thickness Readings 2 in x 2 in Grid

4-2
Wall Thickness Profile
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
in 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

4-2
Evaluate the FFS of Vessel
 tmm - FCA = 0.36 – 0.04 = 0.32 > 0.1 OK

 tmm – FCA = 0.36 – 0.04 = 0.32 > 0.6 / 2 OK

4-2
Evaluate the FFS of the Vessel
 tam – FCA > RSFa * tmin

Rt = (tmm – FCA) / tmin = (0.36 – 0.04) / 0.60 = 0.53
RSFa = 0.70 and Rt = 0.53  Q = 1.81
L = Q (D tmin) = 1.81 (120 x 0.60) = 15 in
tam = (0.75 + 0.48 + 0.47 + 0.55 + 0.36 + 0.48 + 0.49 + 0.75) / 8

= 0.54
tam – FCA = 0.54 – 0.04 = 0.50 > 0.7 * 0.6 OK

Exercise 5-1
 10” x 0.365”
 Carbon steel
 L = 6” long loss
 d = 0.10” deep loss
 Acceptable per B31G?
With t = 0.365” and d = 0.10”

L = 3-3/8 in permitted < 6 in actual not OK


Exercise 5-2 Gas Pipeline

Exercise 5-2
 10.75” x 0.365” gas pipeline
 Carbon steel API 5L X52 ERW
 MAWP = 2000 psi
 L = 6” long loss = gl
 d = 0.10” deep loss  tmm = 0.265”
 Acceptable per API 579 Chapter 5 (LTA)?
 gw = 2”
 Not a crack (large gr)
 FCA = 0” (cause eliminated)
 Lmsd = very long
 Pipeline is in remote area Class 1 Div.2

5-2
Gas Pipeline Pressure Design
P D / (2 * tmin) = SMYS * F * E * T
P = design pressure, psi

D = diameter, in
t = wall thickness, in
SMYS = specified minimum yield strength, psi
F = design factor
E = weld joint factor
Exercise 5-2
 Calculate Rt
 Calculate 
 Check 3 conditions
 Enter Rt  diagram

Material Pipe Class E

ASTM A 53, A106 Seamless 1.0
ASTM A 53 ERW 1.0
ASTM A53 Furnace Butt Welded 0.6
ASTM A 134 Electric Fusion Arc 0.8
Welded
ASTM A 135 Electric Resistance 1.0
Welded (ERW)
API 5L Seamless 1.0
API 5L Submerged Arc Welded 1.0
or ERW
API 5L Furnace Butt Welded 0.6
Temperature (oF) T
250 or less 1.0

300 0.967
350 0.933
400 0.9
450 0.867


5-2 Gas Pipeline

tmin = P * D / (2* SMYS * F * E * T)
tmin = 2000 psi * 10.75 in / (2 * 52,000 psi * 0.72 * 1 * 1)
tmin = 0.3 in
Rt = (tmm – FCA) / tmin = (0.265 – 0) / 0.3 = 0.88

 = 1.285 * gl / (D tmin) = 1.285 * 6 in / (10.75 in * 0.3
in)
 = 4.3
Condition 1 = Rt > 0.2 OK
Condition 2 = tmm – FCA > 0.1 in = 0.265 – 0 > 0.1 OK
Condition 3 = away from structural discontinuity OK

5-2
LTA Assessment Diagram

Exercise 8-1
 A 10.75 in diameter x 0.5” wall pipe is deformed  =
12 in maximum over a span of L = 120 in.

Exercise 8-1
 The maximum strain the pipe wall is

 = 4 * 12 in * 10.75 in / (120 in)2 = 0.03 = 3%
 The buckling strain is

buckling = 2.4 * (0.5 / 10.75)1.6 = 0.018 = 1.8%
 Since  > buckling there is a good chance that the pipe

buckled

Exercise 8-2: What to do?

Exercise 8-2

8-2
Treat as Cold Bending
 Wall thinning below tmin

 Wrinkle
 Gouge
 Strain in circumferential welds
 If strain is above 0.2% volumetric NDE of welds
 Ovality within code (3% to 8%)

Exercise 9-1

Exercise 9-1
 Instrument air system

 2” sch.40 = 2.375 in dia. X 0.154 in (4 mm) wall
 Stainless steel with Sy = 25 ksi
 Design pressure = 250 psi
 Weld are single pass with 50% lack of penetration
 Does not comply with Code
 Weld = 360o crack 50% * 0.154 = 0.08 in deep = a
 Loads other than pressure are negligible
 Is it OK as-is from FFS standpoint?

Exercise 9-1
  = Pdesign * D / (4 * tligament)
250 * 2.375 / (4 * 0.08) = 1.9 ksi
 Calculate Sr =  / Sy
1.9 ksi / 25 ksi = 0.08
 Calculate K = [Pdesign * D / (4 * t)] ( * a) * (F = 3)
250 * 2.375 / (4 * 0.154) ( * 0.08) * 3 = 1.5 ksiin
 Calculate Kr = K / KIC
1.5 ksi in / 100 ksi in = 0.015
 Enter the FAD diagram

Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD)

Exercise 12-1
 A carbon steel tower is subject to wind-induced cyclic

bending.
 The tower is cylindrical 10 ft dia. X 1 in thick.
 The tower is 100 ft tall.
 The movement at the top is 0.2 in.
 Calculate the fatigue life using
• ASME B&PV
• API 579, Class 80 weld
• Markl B31

12-1
Fixed-Free Bending
 The bending stress at the base is
 = amplitude of mov’t. at top, in (0-to-max)

L = span length, in
Samplitude = 2 * 0.2 * 30 106 * 120 in / (100 * 12)2
Samplitude = 1000 psi = 1 ksi

12-1 ASME B&PV

1 ksi = infinite life (N = infinite)

12-1 API 579, Class 80 weld

2 * 1 ksi = infinite life (N = infinite)

12-1
Cycles to Failure (Markl Tests)
Estimate cycles to failure if (Markl ASME B31)
Ncycles to failure = (245,000 / Samplitude)5
Ncycles to failure = (245,000 / 1,000 psi)5

= 8.8 1011 cycles ~ infinite

Exercise 12-2

12-2
Subsea Pipeline
 A 22 ft long span of 6 in pipeline (6.625 in dia. X 0.280

in wall) is subject to vortex shedding due to cross-
current flow.
 The recorded oscillation amplitude is

 = 0.2 in.

12-2
Bending Stress
 Bending stress with pipe span fixed-fixed
Samplitude =  * 16 * E * D / L2
= 0.2 in * 16 * 30 106 psi * 6.625 in / (22 * 12 in)2
Samplitude = 9,125 psi
Ncycles to failure = (245,000 / 9,125)5 = 14 million cycles
Note: if 0.5 Hz = ½ cycle/sec  28 million seconds

~ 324 days

End of This
Section

Section 17
Accident Investigation
Section 17
Accident Investigation

Nine steps
1. Initial response
2. Operation and maintenance data
3. Design and fabrication records
4. Non-destructive examination in-situ
5. Metallography
6. Chemical analysis and corrosion testing
7. Mechanical testing
8. Stress and fracture analyses
9. Documentation

Initial Response
 Purpose
• Place the system and unit in a safe and stable

condition following the failure.

Initial inspections
 Purpose
• Assess the type and extent of failure

• Record the failure scene

Off-Normal Operating Conditions

 Purpose
• Determine the condition of the system and
equipment immediately prior and at the time of
failure.
• Asses whether there were any off-normal
conditions prior to or at the time of failure (such as
pressures, temperatures or flow rates outside the
design envelope).

Off-Normal Condition

Inspection and Maintenance Records
 Purpose
• Understand the reliability of the system and its
components based on its performance and
maintenance history.
• Determine if there are reasons to suspect
malfunctions of components, instruments, controls,
or alarms.

Design and Fabrication Records
 Purpose
• Verify that the installed components and materials

correspond to the design.

Wrong Pressure Class

Design Adequacy
 Purpose
• Understand the general design, process parameters,
materials and dimensions of the system or
component.
• Understand the design details related to the failure
(welds, joints, shapes, dimensions, layout, etc.).
• Determine the adequacy of the original design.
• Determine the loads considered in the original
design and compare them to the actual loads in
operation.

Steam Hammer

Flow Accelerated Corrosion

Fatigue Movements at Vessel Nozzle

Fabrication Records
 Purpose
• Through review of the fabrication records, identify

evidence of initial fabrication flaws, if any.


Defective Valve
Body Repair

Defective Weld Bead

NDE In-Situ
 Purpose
• Confirm the design data (size, markings)
• Identify the extent of failure
• Locate the damaged parts
• Reconstitute trajectory of fragments, if any
• Attempt to determine the origin of the failure
• Determine whether the fracture is brittle (typically a
material toughness issue) or ductile (typically an
overload issue)
• Attempt to determine the types of loads that could
have caused the failure
• Characterize the condition of the failed equipment,
system, facility
• Capture a photographic record of the failure
Visual Inspection

Remote Visual

Replication
 Purpose
• In-situ evaluation of surface microstructure to
detect fabrication or service induced flaws
• The replication standard is ASTM E 1351 Standard
Practice for Production and Evaluation of Field
Metallographic Replicas

Replication

PT and MT
 Purpose
• Determine whether the component exhibits surface
cracks which would point to a fabrication flaw,
corrosion cracking or mechanically-induced
cracking such as fatigue.
• MT = The magnetic particle testing standards are
ASME B&PV Section V article 7, ASTM E 269, ASTM E
709.
• PT = The liquid penetrant testing standards are
ASME B&PV Section V article 6, ASTM E 165, ASTM E
260, ASTM E 433, ASTM E 1417.

RT and UT and EC
 Purpose
• Determine whether the component exhibits wall
thinning or volumetric flaws.
• RT: ASME B&PV Section V article 2, ASTM E 94, ASTM E
142, ASTM E 242, ASTM E 747, ASTM E 999, ASTM E
1025, ASTM E 1030, ASTM E 1079
• UT: ASME B&PV Section V articles 4 and 5, ASTM E 114,
ASTM E 164, ASTM E 213, ASTM E 428, ASTM E 500,
ASTM E 797
• EC: ASME B&PV Section V article 8, ASTM E 243, ASTM E
376, ASTM E 426, ASTM E 566, ASTM E 571, ASTM E 690.
UT-EC-TOFD-Digital RT

Metallographic Specimen
 Purpose
• Remove specimens from failed component for
laboratory examination, without damaging or
altering the sample.
• Record spring-back or movement of the line or
equipment when cutting the sample.
• Open cracks to expose fracture surface.

Boat Sample

Visual Low Power Magnification
 Purpose
• Identify mechanical damage to the failed
component.
• Note the presence or lack of visible corrosion.
• Collect solid and liquid samples for analysis.
• Identify obvious features on the fracture surface.

Optical Microscopy
 Purpose
• Characterize the microstructure for anomalies.
• Identify grain anomalies, such as unusually large
grains, pearlitic or martensitic microstructure of
steel.
• Identify inclusions which could serve as source of
failure and would point to poor base metal or
welds.

Optical Microscopy
• Determine whether the fracture was ductile, brittle

or has a fatigue pattern.
• Differentiate between tension, shear or torsional
failure pattern in ductile fractures.
• Determine the direction of fracture propagation.
Reference: ASTM E 3, “Standard Guide for Preparation
of Metallographic Specimens”

Light Optical Microscope

Scanning Electron Microscope [SEM]

 Purpose
• Determine the mode of failure.
• Identify anomalies such as inclusions or segregation
of second phases at grain boundaries.
• Identify type, quantity and orientation of cracks.
• Compare microstructure at location of failure to
microstructure of specimen away from the fracture.
• Determine failure mode: brittle, ductile, fatigue,
creep, etc.

SEM

Chloride SCC

SEM-EDX [SEM-Energy Dispersive X-Ray

Spectroscopy]

Transmission Electron Microscope

Chemical Analysis
 Purpose
• Determine the chemical composition of the flow
stream to identify corrosive and microbial
constituents.
• Colormetric techniques are used to identify ions
by change in reageant color. Samples are in the
order of 10 to 100 ml.

Chemical Analysis
• Ion exchange chromatography and extraction

systems use ion-exchange resins to separate atomic
or molecular ions based on their interaction with
the resin. It can measure parts-per-million (ppm)
quantities of common anions using conductivity
detectors. Samples are in the order of 10 ml.
• Ion selective electrodes determine the
concentration of ions (and pH) in aqueous
solutions. Samples are in the order of 30 ml.

Corrosion Monitoring
 Corrosion coupons: A specimen of the material is

exposed to the process fluid (caution: flowing worst
than stagnant; stagnant may be worst if crevice) (ASTM
G1 general loss, G46 localized corrosion).

 Electrical resistance (ER): A wire loop of the material

is placed in the process fluid. As the wire corrodes it
gets thinner and its resistance increases and so does
the measured current potential V = RI (ASTM G96).

 Galvanic potential (zero resistance ametry): The
natural galvanic potential between two different
electrodes immersed in the process fluid is a measure
of the corrosion of the metal in-service (ASTM G71).

 Hydrogen penetration: Corrosion rate is correlated to

the amount of hydrogen permeating through steel
(ASTM G148).

 Linear polarization
resistance (LPR): A small
voltage (10 mV) is
applied to an electrode
in the process fluid. The
current needed to
maintain this potential is
a measure of the
corrosion rate (ASTM
G59).

Chemical Analysis of Metal Surface
 Purpose
• Determine the chemical composition of the metal
to verify its compliance with the material
specification.
• Determine the chemical composition of surface
deposits in order to understand the electrochemical
reactions at play.

X-ray Diffraction

Hardness Testing
Purpose
 Infer the ultimate strength of the material.
 Assist in understanding the heat treatment condition
of the component.
 Detect work hardening.

Hardness Testing
 Brinell test = 10-mm hardened steel ball is pressed
onto surface with 100 kg to 3000 kg (ASTM E 10)
 Rockwell test = 1/16 in (Rockwell B) to ½ in steel ball
or a diamond cone (Rockwell C) are pressed onto
surface with a set load (10 kg) followed by a major load
(60 to 100 kg) (AASTM E 18)
 Vickers test = square based diamond pyramid is pressed
onto the surface with a laod from 5 kg to 120 kg (ASTM
E 92)
 Knoop test = microhardness using a diamond-shaped
indentation

Hardness Scales
Brinell Rockwell
Tensile ksi Vickers
3000 kg 150 kg
150 302 C 32.1 319
100 207 B 94 -
70 137 B 75 -

Field and Lab Hardness Testing

Strength
 Purpose
• Verify that the material strength (yield stress,
ultimate strength and elongation at rupture) meet
the minimum requirements of the material
specification, to check whether the material is
abnormally weak.
• Obtain actual mechanical properties for best-
estimate stress analysis.

Toughness
 Purpose
• Determine the Nil-Ductility Transition Temperature
for comparison to the metal temperature at time of
failure.
• Determine whether the toughness is unusually low
for the material, which could explain failure at
relatively low stress and running cracks.
• Obtain the fracture toughness at failure
temperature, for use in fracture analysis.

Toughness
 Charpy V-notch toughness CVN ASTM E 23, Standard
Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of
Metallic Materials. Toughness for sub-size specimen
must be corrected in accordance with ASTM E 23.
 Fracture toughness is measured in accordance with
ASTM E 1820, Standard Test Method for Measurement
of Fracture Toughness.
 Linear elastic fracture toughness KIC is obtained in
accordance with ASTM E 399, Standard Test Method
for Linear-Elastic Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness KIc
of Metallic Materials.

Toughness
 The reference temperature To is obtained in accordance
with ASTM E 1921, Test Method for Determination of
Reference Temperature, To, for Ferritic Steels in the
Transition Range.
 Drop-weight tear tests are conducted in accordance with
ASTM E 208, Standard Test Method for Conducting Drop-
Weight Test to Determine Nil-Ductility Transition
Temperature of Ferritic Steels and ASTM E 436, Standard
Test Method for Drop-Weight Tear Tests of Ferritic Steels,
ASTM E 561, Standard Test Method for K-R Curve
Determination, ASTM E 812, Standard Test Method for
Crack Strength of Slow-Bend Pre-cracked Charpy
Specimens of High-Strength Metallic Materials.

Toughness
 Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) is measured in

accordance with ASTM 1290, Standard Test Method for
Crack-Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) Fracture
Toughness Measurement.

Charpy V-Notch [CVN] and Crack Tip Opening

Displacement [CTOD]

ASTM E 208 and ASTM E 436

Stress and Fracture Analysis
 Purpose
• To estimate the type and magnitude of applied loads

that could have caused the observed failure

Stress and Fracture Analysis

Documentation
 Structured
 Clear
 Complete
 Concise
 Illustrated
 Traceable
 Conclusions
 Recommendations

End of this
Section

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QAF011b Rev.

08 February 08, 2009

Haward Technology Middle East

December 13 - 17, 2009

©2009 Haward Technology Middle East

Haward Technology Middle East

The information contained in these Seminar notes has been compiled

Haward Technology offers no warranty, guarantee or representation

Haward Technology has no responsibility in connection therewith;

Section 3 Prevention of Brittle Fracture

Section 4 General Metal Loss

Section 5 Local Thin Area

Section 7 Blisters and Laminations

Section 8 Distortions and Mechanical

Section 9 Crack-Like Flaws

Section 10 Creep Effects

Section 11 Post-Fire Assessment

Section 13 Case Studies

Section 14 Inspection Techniques and

Section 15 Risk-Based Inspection

Section 17 Accident Investigation

PIONEERS IN TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-Inspection (RBI),

Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 2

Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 3

API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-Inspection (RBI),

Fitness-for-Service and Risk-Based Insp.

 Can degraded equipment still be operated?

Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 4

 It does not predict future damage

Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 5

API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-Inspection (RBI),

Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 6

Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 7

API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-Inspection (RBI),

API 579 / ASME FFS-1

Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 8

Contents API 579

Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 9

API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-Inspection (RBI),

Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 10

Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 11

API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-Inspection (RBI),

Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 12

Section 1 Haward Technology Middle East 13

Section 2 Haward Technology Middle East 1

API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-Inspection (RBI),

Section 2 Haward Technology Middle East 2

Three Assessment Levels

 Level 1 = simplest and most bounding

Section 2 Haward Technology Middle East 3

API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-Inspection (RBI),

 Inspection provides current condition

Section 2 Haward Technology Middle East 4

ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code

Section 2 Haward Technology Middle East 5

API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-Inspection (RBI),

 Section I Power Boilers

Section 2 Haward Technology Middle East 6

 Section VIII Pressure Vessels

Section 2 Haward Technology Middle East 7

API-579/580/581: Risk-Based-Inspection (RBI),

ASME B31 Pressure Piping Code