s & SPECT

& S

S S -
1 S

1 Situation= Any event, process, activity, state

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2 Situation types =
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Dynamic Stative
Events, Static,
activities are forms of
happening I being /
going on having

2.1 a
Stative - dynamic situations = verbs that are used to represent both situations.

3 Situation, time, and tense =

Tense= time relation between the time at which the speaker utters a
sentence and the time of the situation the speaker is referring to.

Two primary tenses: present + preterite

4 Situation and aspect=

Aspect = reflects the way the speaker looks at a situation in relation to the time!
In progress → progressive aspect
All other cases → simple aspect

4.1 Aspect and stative situations = Static & unchanging → simple aspect

4.2. Inherently bounded dynamic situations= end-point.

Complete at the time to which the reader refers to → simple aspect
In progress at the time...→ progressive aspect

4.3 Temporally bounded & unbounded dynamic situations =

Unbounded = no end is envisaged = obtaining indefinitely → simple aspect
Temp. Unbounded= inclusive time reference-no end envisaged → inclusive present/past
Temp-bounded= end is envisaged
→ in progress towards the envisaged end or as occurring in their entirely at the time referred to

5. Recurrence and series of situations =

→ inherently bounded → temporally bounded → unbounded= simple aspect

5.1 Aspect with ALWAYS and certain synonyms =

Always = simple-when complete on every occasion
Always = progressive= each occurrence is viewed individually as already in progress - frequently but sporadically.
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S S -
1 S

6. Aspect and identity of reference =

Identity of reference= two sentences can be used to refer to the same reality. "When x occurs, what is actually going on is y"
→ progressive = aspect of the interpretive

7. Aspect and tense=

Same rule for passive & active.
Dynamic passive-representations of a state

8. Situations, verb meaning and aspect. =

be and have = most for state but also for dynamic
Verbs denoting a mental/ emotional state.
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Te Present Tense

1. Tense= time of speaking is now

2. Stative situations → simple aspect l dynamic situations → progressive

2.2 Inherently and temporally bounded situations =

→ progressive aspect. : seen in progress in relation to now

2.3. Inherently and temporally bounded situations= simple aspect

-> occurring complete at the time of speaking.
→ performatives, live commentary, sudden events.

2.4. Temporally bounded situations=

→ simple a spect = the same at any time.

2.5. Series of situations=

→ cannot be seen as occurring complete now. At the time of speaking an inherently or temporally bounded series can only be seen as in
progress

2.5.1 Individual instances in a series. =

→ unbounded series = progressive = when each is aspect seen as occurring complete
→ bounded series = simple a spect when each instance is seen as occuring complete on the indicated occasions.

2.5.2. Identity of reference =

→ when x occurs, what is actually going on is y → interpretive representation I progressive aspect

3. The present tense and past time =

Cases where present tense is used to refer to situations that are in the real or fictitius past

3.1. Past utterances with present relevance=

The content and its relevance at the present time of speaking

3.2. Summaries; The historic present. =

Summaries of literary works

4 The present tense and future time=

. → progressive = when the speaker knows his personal arrangements for the future → indicates that the situation is in progress
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e Preterre

1. Tense: the preferite and past time =

→> a situation identifiable as hast in relation to the present time of speaking

1.1. The means of past identification=

1) The speaker presupposes that the nearer has enough information to be able to identify the situation as past.
2)The speaker supplies the nearer with the means of past identification by using an adverbial that can only be used to refer to a past time.
→ some adverbials can only be used in referring to past-time and others can be used in referring to either the future or past.

1.2. Used to =
→ habit. Past situations that are serial or state.

1.3. Contrastive stress=

When the situation is given constrastive stress may combine with the preterite of a verb to provide past identification.

2. The preterite and aspect in (stative) dynamic situations =

Present tense. Preterite

2.1. Past point of time =

→ in progress = progressive aspect
→ complete = simple aspect

2.2. Past period of time =

2.2.1. Simple aspect=

a) inherently bounded situations: if the completion of the situation is relevant
b) temporally bounded situations= when what is contextually relevant is: the fact that the situation occurred or the state of affairs at the end point.

2.2.2. Progressive aspect =

Focus on what activity was going on at any relevant points. No distinction between inherently and temporally bounded situations

2.3. The preterite and background description=

Choice of aspect in case of individual temporally bounded situations seen as background situations.
→ progressive = temporary nature of the situation
→ simple = achieve certain stylistic effects

2.4. Future in the past =

→ progressive: for personal arrangements for future situations
→ simple: timetable events and other non-personally fixed dates, but any when it is clear that we are talking about the future
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Tecresent Perfect

Have/has +
A. Basic meaning =
Orients a situation to the present moment of utterance
Locates the situation as occurring at some unspecified time within or as occurring during the pre-present. May begin at any time before the present
moment and continues up to the present moment.
Focuses on the situation itself, or an experience of it, as an element in a present situation.

A.1. Since= a situation in the past continuing up to the present moment of speaking.

B. Pragmatic meaning =
1. Occurrence within the pre-present= simple aspect
→ a situation has occurred onatleast one occasion so-far, possibly more than once
→ the situation was occurred on a number of isolated individual occasions so far

2. Complete inherently/ (temporally) bounded situations= simple aspect

→ has now been completed
→ a stative passive paraphrase
→ an activity intended to result in some contribution to a present situation is now terminated

3. Activity during the pre-present = progressive aspect

→ has been going on during the pre-present
→ to indicate how the time leading up to the present moment has been spent
→ to explain some present situation as the result of the pre-present activity

3.1. Single vs. Serial activities =

→ progressive = single activity or a serial activity

4. Continuative situations =
Refer to the pre-present part of a situation that has not yet been completed or terminated
Aspect choice =
→ progressive = serial and single dynamic situations
→ simple= for states

4.1 if the speaker's intention concerning a dynamic situation that has been going throughout the pre-present period is to indicate
→ that no termination is envisaged → simple aspect
→ that termination is imminent so that it can be seen as complete → both

The Past Perfect

Had +
1. A situation that is to be presented as past. A situation that is located in the pre-past.
2. Continuative past situations
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T e Future

1. Plans/arrangements= present progressive

2. Intentions= going to

3. Indications/signs = going to

4. Scheduled/official events = simple present

5. Pure prediction = will

6. spontaneous decisions/ offers/ threats/promises = will