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Internship report
Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Science Bahawalpur
Near DHA Bahawalpur
https://cuvas.edu.pk

AL-HILALA INDUSTRIES Pvt.Ltd

SULTAN NAGAR, VEHARI ROAD, MULTAN

Email: info@al-hilal.com.pk

Report submitted by
NATASHA YASEEN
20-CUVAS-0337
CONTEXT
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INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................1

FATS & OILS..................................................................................................................................2

EXPELLER 7 SOLVENT EXTRACTION.….................................. ........................................................3

GHEE PROCESSING

1. Neutralization
2. Pre-bleaching
3. Hydrogenation (Auto-clave)
4. Post-neutralizer
5. Post bleacher
6. Deodorizer
7. Vitamin A & D addition
8. Final Filters
9. Filling
10. Packaging
11. Labelling & Storage

OIL PROCESSIG

1. Seperator
2. Neutralizer
3. Dewaxing
4. Filters
5. Bleacher
6. Deodorizer
7. Final filters
8. Filling
9. Packaging
10. Labelling & Storage

LAUNDRY SOAP PROCESSING.........................................................................................4

SPICES & BANSPATI RICE................................................................................................5
R522PN OIL REFINING PLANT.....................................................................................................6

1. Chemical plant
2. Physical plant

LABORTOARY TESTS....................................................................................................................7

1. Free Fatty Acid (FFA) Test

2. Peroxide Value (PV) Test
3. Acid Value (AV) Test
4. Moisture Content Analysis
5. Iodine Value (IV) Test
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6. Saponification Value (SV) Test

7. Melting Point Determination
8. Halphen's test
9. Volatile Compounds Analysis
10. Residual Solvents Analysis
11. Nickel test
12. Determination of color
13. Determination of cloud point
14. Bleachability
15. Kries test
BEVERAGES....................................................................................................................8
FRESHER PROCESSING
1. Fruit Selection
2. Washing and Sorting
3. Extraction
4. Filtration
5. Pasteurization
6. Deaeration
7. Mixing and Blending
8. Packaging
9. Labeling and Storage
BLU WATER PROCESSING
1. Filtration
2. Disinfection
3. Mineral Adjustment
4. Carbonation
5. Bottling
6. Cap Sealing
7. Quality Control
8. Packaging and Labeling
OZONATION.................................................................................................................9
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Introduction of AL-HILAL INDUTRIES PVT.Ltd

Al-Hilal was established in 1960.
1. They launch their 1st product Sultan banaspatti cooking oil & ghee in 1962
2. Then in 2007 they launched beverages like
 FRESHER fruit juice
 BLU Water
 Washing soap
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AL-HILAL

FATS & OILS BEVERAGES

Sultan oil and banaspati ghee Fresher, Blu, carbonated Drinks

Soap, spices & banspati rice

FATS & OILS

Expeller & Solvent extraction

Expeller Extraction: Expeller extraction, is a method of extracting oil from seeds or nuts
using mechanical pressure. In this process, the seeds or nuts are fed into an expeller press
machine, which applies mechanical force to extract the oil. The seeds are crushed and pressed
to release the oil, which is then separated from the solid residue.

Processing

Firstly, seed is moved vertically through warm into the bin where the foreign matters are
removed. From first bin seed moved to the second bin where 98% seed is cleaned. From second
bin the seeds are moved to Flexer or size reducer which runs at the speed of 250rpm. Here the
size is reduced as desired and moved to the pressure vessel or cooker where the seed is heated
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at 95°C on 100bar pressure. Then the seed moved to the expeller machines where the oil is
extracted at the speed of 20-22rpm. After extraction oil is moved to the shutter tanks and then
to storage tanks. After that oil will be filtered through the plate and frame press filters. The
seed cake is removed and moved to solvent for further oil extraction.

Expeller

Expeller extraction is typically used for producing oils that have a natural and pure flavor,
as the process does not involve the use of any solvents or chemicals. It is commonly employed
for oils like olive oil and certain seed oils,

Solvent extraction

Solvent extraction is a method of extracting oil from various oilseeds using organic
solvents. In this process, the oilseeds are first crushed or flaked to increase their surface area.
Then, they are mixed with a solvent (such as hexane) that selectively dissolves the oil, leaving
behind the solid residue.

Processing

The seed cake (9-12% oil) obtained after the oil extraction is moved to the hopper where
the cake is crushed to small pieces and moved to the bed where hexane is showered. The
throughout temperature will be 45-50°C. Hexane and oil entered to the heater where
temperature will be 130°C. Here the extracted oil is removed to below final column at 110°C
and hexane pass to the condensers where it is liquidized and moved to the evaporator. Ater
evaporation hexane moved to hexane tanks. This is a circulatory system where gas is used again
and again. The remaining material of cake after oil extraction is called feed which is moved to
DT (Drying Time) where the moisture is removed and moved to DDT (Die Dissolve Troster) here
the amount of protein is increased.
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Graphic diagram of solvent extraction plant

Solvent extraction is widely used in the production of vegetable oils, such as soybean
oil, canola oil, sunflower oil, and others. The extracted oil undergoes further refining processes
to remove impurities and improve its quality. Furter feed is obtained by extracting 9-12% oil
from cake of seed after extracting oil. After oil extraction it passes to final filters and filters
them and store in storage tanks. From these storage tanks oil is moved to oil & ghee refinery
for further processing.

GHEE PROCESSING

Sultan ghee

Vegetable ghee, also known as vegetable shortening, is a plant-based alternative to

traditional ghee made from animal-based fats. It is commonly used in baking, cooking, and
frying and provides a similar function to ghee but is entirely plant-based. The most common
vegetable fat used for making vegetable ghee is palm oil or hydrogenated vegetable oils.

Following are some steps for vegetable ghee processing:

Vegetable oil selection:

Choose vegetable oil suitable for ghee production. Palm oil is a popular choice due to its
stability and high melting point, which gives vegetable ghee a solid consistency at room
temperature.

Pre-neutralization
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 Degumming: In this step, the crude ghee or oil is treated with water or a dilute acid
(citric acid) to remove gums, phospholipids, and other non-glyceride impurities. These
impurities can contribute to cloudiness and foaming during heating, affecting the quality
of the product.
 Neutralization: After degumming, the oil is further processed by adding an alkaline
solution, commonly sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). The
alkaline solution reacts with free fatty acids present in the oil to form soap, which can be
easily separated from the oil. This process is called saponification. It helps reduce the
acidity of the oil and removes any residual impurities.
 Water Washing: Water washing is performed to remove any residual soap, alkali, or
other impurities. Water is mixed with the oil and agitated, allowing the impurities to
dissolve into the water phase. The water and oil are then separated, often using
centrifugation or decantation, leaving behind a cleaner oil.

The temperature during the neutralization process may vary, but it is generally maintained in
the range of 60°C to 85°C (140°F to 185°F). During the subsequent steps of bleaching and
deodorization, the temperature may be further adjusted based on the specific requirements
and characteristics of the oil or ghee being processed.
For the neutralization step, the quantity of base (alkaline solution) added depends on the
acidity of the oil or ghee. It is necessary to add enough base to react with and neutralize the
free fatty acids present in the oil. Typically, the range is around 0.05% to 0.3% of the oil weight.

Pre-neutralizers

Pre-bleaching

Bleacher is a close pressure vessel. In this step, the oil is treated with bleaching earth or clay,
such as activated bentonite or activated carbon. First moisture is removed, and vacuum is
created as a result the fuller earth is sucked into the vessel. These adsorbents have a high
surface area and adsorptive properties, allowing them to trap and remove pigments, trace
metals, and other impurities from the oil. The oil is mixed with the bleaching agent and
agitated, facilitating the adsorption process. The mixture is then filtered to separate the oil
from the spent bleaching earth and impurities.
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The specific conditions and duration of pre-bleaching can vary based on the type of oil, desired
quality standards, and manufacturer's processes. The temperature for pre-bleaching oil
typically ranges between 80°C and 100°C (176°F and 212°F). However, it's important to note
that the specific temperature may vary depending on factors such as the type of oil, the quality
standards. Higher temperatures can help enhance the adsorption process, but care must be
taken to avoid excessive heat that could negatively impact the quality and stability of the oil.

Generally, the quantity of bleaching earth added is expressed as a percentage of the oil weight,
referred to as the "bleaching earth dosage". The typical bleaching earth dosage for pre-
bleaching ranges from 0.5% to 3% of the oil weight.

Pre-bleacher

The specific dosage may be determined through extensive testing and optimization to achieve
the desired purification and color improvement while maintaining the quality and stability of
the oil.

Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation of oil is a chemical process in which hydrogen gas is added to unsaturated
fatty acids present in oils. This process converts liquid oils into more solid or semi-solid fats,
altering their physical properties and increasing their stability.

The hydrogenation process generally involves the following steps:

 Preparation: The oil from the pre-bleacher is first filtered and purified to remove any
impurities or particles that could affect the hydrogenation process.
 Catalyst Addition: A hydrogenation catalyst, such as nickel, palladium, or platinum, is
added to the oil. The catalyst helps facilitate the hydrogenation reaction by providing a
surface for the hydrogen gas to interact with the oil molecules.
 Hydrogenation Reaction: The oil and catalyst are placed in a hydrogenation reactor,
which is a high-pressure vessel. Hydrogen gas is introduced into the reactor under
controlled conditions. The mixture of oil, catalyst, and hydrogen is heated to an elevated
temperature, typically between 120°C and 200°C (248°F and 392°F).
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 Hydrogen Absorption: The unsaturated fatty acids in the oil molecules react with the
hydrogen gas in the presence of the catalyst. The double bonds in the fatty acids are
saturated, and hydrogen atoms are added, converting the unsaturated fatty acids into
saturated fatty acids.
 Cooling and Filtering: After the desired level of hydrogenation is achieved, the mixture is
cooled, and the catalyst is removed through filtration or other separation techniques.
This ensures that no traces of the catalyst remain in the final product.

Auto-clave (hydrogenation)

After hydrogenation oil filtered and passed through filters and then added
to post-neutralizers and post-bleachers. After the oil is post-bleached, it is added
to deodorizer.

Deodorization
Deodorization of oil is a common step that can follow the hydrogenation process.
Hydrogenation alters the properties of the oil by adding hydrogen, but it does not address the
issue of unwanted odors or flavors that may be present in the oil. Deodorization helps remove
these unwanted odors and flavors, resulting in a more neutral and desirable final product.

The deodorization process typically involves the following steps:

 Steam Stripping: The oil is subjected to high temperature and low-pressure steam in a
deodorization vessel. Steam helps carry volatile compounds responsible for undesirable
odors and flavors out of the oil.
 Distillation and Separation: The steam and volatile compounds are separated from the
oil through a distillation process. This separation allows the removal of the volatile
compounds, while the oil remains in the deodorization vessel.
 Vacuum System: The deodorization vessel is operated under vacuum conditions to
reduce the boiling points of the volatile compounds, making it easier to remove them
from the oil.
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 Cooling and Condensation: The steam and volatile compounds are cooled and
condensed, resulting in a distillate that contains unwanted odors and flavors. This
distillate is typically treated separately or discarded.
 Final Cooling and Filtration: The deodorized oil is then cooled and filtered to remove any
remaining impurities or particles before it is ready for further processing or packaging.

The deodorization process helps improve the sensory characteristics of the oil, making it more
appealing for various applications, such as cooking, baking, or food production. It removes
unwanted odors, flavors, and volatile compounds, resulting in a neutral and stable oil with a
longer shelf life.

Deodorizer

Cooling tanks

After the deodorization process, the oil is typically transferred to cooling tanks to allow it to
cool down to a suitable temperature before further processing or packaging. Cooling tanks
provide a controlled environment for the oil to gradually reduce its temperature. The cooling
tanks may have insulation to minimize heat exchange with the surrounding environment and
prevent temperature fluctuations. Agitation or stirring mechanisms may also be employed
within the tanks to promote uniform cooling and prevent the formation of temperature
gradients within the oil.

Addition of vitamin A and D

The addition of these vitamins can be achieved through various methods, including:

 Blending: Vitamins A and D can be blended with the hydrogenated oil using mixing or
blending equipment to ensure even distribution.
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 Dissolution: The vitamins can be dissolved in a suitable solvent or carrier before being
added to the oil. The resulting solution is then mixed thoroughly with the hydrogenated
oil.
 Emulsification: The vitamins can be emulsified in a water-soluble form before
incorporating them into the oil. Emulsification helps to disperse the vitamins evenly
throughout the oil.

The specific dosage of vitamins A and D added to the hydrogenated oil depends on regulatory
guidelines and the desired nutritional fortification levels. These guidelines typically specify the
recommended fortification levels to ensure that the fortified oil provides adequate amounts of
these vitamins when consumed.

Final filters
The final filtration of edible oil is a crucial step in the refining process that helps remove any
remaining impurities or particles to achieve a clear and high-quality final product. This filtration
step typically occurs after the oil has undergone various refining processes, such as degumming,
neutralization, bleaching, and deodorization.
For filtration plate and press plate filters are used. A filtration system is set up, which includes
filter media, such as filter cloths, filter papers, or filter cartridges, designed to trap and remove
impurities from the oil. The choice of filter media depends on the specific requirements of the
oil and the desired level of filtration. The temperature of ghee will be about 90°C. The final
filtration of edible oil helps achieve a visually appealing, clear, and stable product. It not only
improves the overall quality and appearance of the oil but also enhances its shelf life and
stability by removing potential contaminants that could negatively impact its flavor, aroma, or
oxidative stability.

Storage tanks and filling

Filling and labeling of edible oil is the process of transferring the refined oil into appropriate
containers and applying the necessary labeling information to comply with regulatory
requirements and provide consumers with accurate product information.
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 Container Preparation: Suitable containers, such as bottles, jars, or cans, are selected
based on the desired packaging format and size. The containers should be clean,
sterilized, and compatible with storing edible oil.
 Filling the Containers: The refined oil is carefully transferred into the selected containers
using filling equipment. This equipment may include automated filling machines or
manual filling stations. The oil is dispensed into the containers, ensuring accurate
volume measurement and minimizing any spillage or contamination.
 Capping or Sealing: After filling, the containers are sealed with caps, lids, or closures to
maintain product integrity and prevent leakage. The sealing process can be automated
using capping machines or done manually, depending on the scale of production.
 Labeling: Labels containing important product information are applied to the containers.
The labels typically include the product name, brand name, nutritional information,
ingredients, manufacturing date, expiry date, batch or lot number, storage instructions,
and any regulatory or certification logos. The labels should be securely affixed to the
containers and legible for consumers.

Quality Control Checks

Random samples of the filled and labeled containers may undergo quality control checks
to verify accurate filling volumes, seal integrity, and label accuracy. This ensures that the
product meets the required quality standards and regulatory guidelines.

OIL PROCESSING
In oil processing the first step will be the removal of free fatty acids by using a
continuous separation system. The raw oil is added to the cylinders where they are neutralized
using citric acid and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). After the FFA are
reduced, the oil is entered to the Seperators. There is batch of 3tonn is passed through per
Separator.

An appropriate centrifuge is selected based on the specific requirements of the cooking oil
processing. Factors such as oil viscosity, capacity, and the desired level of separation determine
the type and size of the centrifuge.
 Loading the Centrifuge: The refined oil, which has undergone previous refining steps, is
carefully loaded into the centrifuge. It may be preheated to a specific temperature to
optimize separation efficiency.
 Centrifugation: The centrifuge spins rapidly, generating centrifugal force. The force
pushes the heavier components, such as water, sediment, and solid particles, towards
the outer edges of the centrifuge while the oil remains in the center.
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 Separation: As the centrifuge continues to spin, the heavier components are forced into
a separate compartment or collection area, away from the oil. The separated impurities
can be periodically discharged or removed from the centrifuge.
 Oil Collection: The clarified oil is collected from the central portion of the centrifuge,
where it accumulates as the lighter component. It is typically transferred to storage
tanks or further processing steps, such as packaging or fortification.

Neutralizer

Here neutralizer works as a storage tank. There will be no neutralization of oil will be done. The
oil from separator is collected in it until it reaches its limit. After that the oil passed for further
processing.

Dewaxing (sunflower oil)

 Cooling: The sunflower oil is first cooled to a specific temperature, typically below its
cloud point(4-5°C). This temperature is chosen to induce the crystallization of waxes
present in the oil.
 Special filtrate is added that fill speeds up the filtration process.
 Crystallization: As the oil is cooled, the waxes start to crystallize and solidify. The cooled
oil is held at this temperature for a sufficient duration to allow the waxes to form well-
defined crystals.

 Filtration: The oil, now containing solid wax crystals, undergoes filtration to separate the
crystallized waxes from the liquid oil. Filtration methods such as plate and frame filters
or pressure leaf filters are commonly used. The filter media effectively traps the wax
crystals while allowing the clarified oil to pass through.
Refined Oil Recovery
The dewaxed oil is further processed to remove any traces of solvent used during the
washing step, if applicable. This can be done through methods such as steam stripping or
vacuum drying.
The dewaxing process is typically integrated into the overall refining process of sunflower oil,
which may include other steps such as degumming, neutralization, bleaching, and
deodorization. Each step contributes to enhancing the quality, stability, and shelf life of the oil.
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Chemical process for dewaxing

Bleaching
Bleaching is a crucial step in the refining process of cooking oils to remove impurities, color
pigments, and undesirable substances. It helps improve the appearance, flavor, and stability of
the oil. Here is an overview of the bleaching process for sunflower oil:

 Mixing: The refined oil is mixed with bleaching earth or activated clay. Bleaching earth is
a highly adsorbent material that helps remove impurities and color pigments from the
oil.
 Contact Time: The oil and bleaching earth mixture is thoroughly mixed to ensure
uniform distribution and contact between the oil and the clay particles. The mixture is
then allowed to sit for a specific duration, known as the contact time, during which the
adsorption of impurities takes place.
 Filtration: After contact time, the oil and bleaching earth mixture is passed through a
filtration system to separate the bleaching earth and the purified oil. The filtration
system may consist of filter presses, pressure leaf filters, or other suitable filtration
equipment. The filter media retains the bleaching earth particles while allowing the
clarified oil to pass through.
Deodorization
Deodorization is a critical step in the refining process of all cooking oils to remove odor
compounds, volatile substances, and unwanted flavors. It helps enhance the taste, aroma, and
shelf life of the oil.

 Steam Stripping: The refined oil is heated and subjected to steam stripping in a
deodorizer vessel. Steam is injected into the oil, creating a turbulent environment that
facilitates the removal of volatile compounds and odor-causing substances.
 High Temperature and Vacuum: The deodorizer vessel is maintained at a high
temperature, typically ranging from 180°C to 260°C (356°F to 500°F), under a vacuum.
The high temperature promotes the breakdown of unwanted compounds, while the
vacuum lowers the boiling point of these substances, reducing the risk of thermal
damage to the oil.
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 Distillation and Separation: As the oil is heated and subjected to vacuum, the volatile
compounds, including odor-causing substances, are vaporized.

Cooling and Collection: The deodorized sunflower oil is cooled to a suitable temperature to
prevent further oxidation or degradation. It is then collected in storage tanks for further
processing or packaging.

Final filters
Same plate and frame press filters are used for filtration of cooking oils.

Filling and labelling

 The oil is transferred from storage tanks to filling machines.
 Filling machines dispense the predetermined volume of oil into containers.
 The filling process ensures consistency and accuracy in the fill volume.
 Containers are sealed with caps, lids, or closures to prevent leakage.
Labeling:

 Essential information is applied to each container's label.

 Labels include product name, brand, net weight or volume, nutritional information,
manufacturing or expiry date, batch/lot number, and regulatory markings.
 Labels provide important information for consumers and regulatory compliance.
 Labels are applied to containers using labeling machines or manual application.
 Proper labeling ensures accurate product identification and safety information.

Laundry soap making

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The FFA obtained by refining oil are collected after saponification. The process of making
laundry soap typically involves a combination of fats or oils, alkali, and other additives.
Fats/Oils: Select and measure the desired fats or oils for soap making, such as coconut oil, palm
oil, or vegetable oils. These oils contain fatty acids that contribute to the cleansing properties of
the soap.
Heating chamber

 Melt the fats or oils in a heat-resistant container or pot over low heat until they are
completely liquefied.
 In a separate container, carefully add the measured alkali to a specific amount of water,
stirring until it dissolves completely. Be cautious as the mixture will produce heat and
fumes.

Crutcher

 Allow both the oil and alkali mixture to cool to around 38-43°C (100-110°F), ensuring
they are roughly the same temperature
 Slowly pour the alkali solution into the melted fats or oils while stirring continuously. Stir
until the mixture reaches a thick, pudding-like consistency, known as "trace." This
indicates that the saponification process has begun.

Cooling chamber \and Duplex chamber

 At this stage, additional additives, such as fragrance oils or colorants, can be

incorporated. Stir well to ensure even distribution.
Sodium silicate (silicate) is commonly added to laundry soap or laundry detergents.
Sodium silicate is a compound composed of sodium oxide (Na2O) and silica (SiO2). Sodium
silicate acts as a surfactant, which helps to loosen and remove dirt, grease, and stains from
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fabrics during the washing process. It enhances the detergent's ability to penetrate and lift soil
from the fabric.
Molding:
 Pour the soap mixture into soap molds or a lined baking dish, depending on the desired
shape of the soap.
 Tap the molds gently to remove any air bubbles and ensure an even distribution of the
soap mixture.
 Allow the soap to cool and harden for 24-48 hours. During this time, saponification
continues, converting the oils and alkali into soap.

Packaging and Storage:

 Once fully cured, package the laundry soap bars in suitable wrapping materials, such as
paper or plastic, to protect them from moisture and extend their shelf life.
 Store the packaged soap bars in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight until ready
for use.

Laundry soap manufacturing (Neel Pari)

SPICES & BANSPATI RICE

Spices are typically derived from various parts of plants, such as leaves, seeds, bark, or
roots. They are harvested at the appropriate stage of maturity to ensure maximum flavor and
quality.
 Cleaning: Upon harvest, spices may contain impurities, such as dirt, dust, or plant debris.
They undergo a cleaning process that involves removing foreign matter, stones, and
other contaminants to ensure purity.
 Drying: Moisture content in spices needs to be reduced to prevent spoilage and
maintain their quality during storage. Spices are dried using methods like sun drying, air
drying, or mechanical drying, depending on the specific spice and environmental
conditions.
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 Grinding: Dried spices are typically ground to a fine powder to enhance flavor, aroma,
and ease of use. Grinding can be done using various equipment, such as hammer mills,
pin mills, or spice grinders, to achieve the desired particle size.
 Sorting and Grading: Ground spices may undergo sorting and grading to separate
particles of different sizes and ensure uniformity. This step helps maintain consistency in
flavor and appearance across batches.

Packaging:
Processed spices are packaged in suitable containers, such as jars, sachets, or bulk bags,
to protect them from moisture, light, and air. Packaging materials should be food-grade and
provide proper sealing to maintain freshness and prevent contamination.

Laboratory tests for fats & oils

1- FFA test in fats & oils

The Free Fatty Acid (FFA) test is a common method used to determine the acidity level or free
fatty acid content in fats and oils. It measures the amount of free fatty acids present, which can
indicate the quality and freshness of the fat or oil.
Sample Preparation:
 A representative sample of the fat or oil is taken. It is important to ensure the sample is
well-mixed and homogeneous.
Reagents and Equipment:
 Ethanol or isopropanol as a solvent.
 Phenolphthalein indicator solution or a pH indicator paper.
 0.1 N sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution as a titrant.
 Erlenmeyer flask, burette, pipette, and pipette bulb.
 Magnetic stirrer or a glass rod for mixing.
Titration Process:
 A known volume of the fat or oil sample (typically around 5 grams) is weighed
accurately into an Erlenmeyer flask.
 Ethanol or isopropanol is added to the flask to dissolve the fat or oil sample.
 A few drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution or pH indicator paper are added to
the flask to visualize the endpoint of the titration.
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 A burette is filled with the 0.1 N sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution.

 The NaOH solution is slowly added drop by drop to the flask while stirring or swirling the
mixture.
 The volume of NaOH solution used is recorded.

Results
 The addition of NaOH neutralizes the free fatty acids present in the sample, and the
appearance of a faint pink color indicates the endpoint of the titration.

Calculation of Free Fatty Acid Content:

Biuret reading ×0.282 = % of FFA

2- Peroxide value

The Peroxide Value (PV) test is a common method used to determine the extent of oxidation or
rancidity in oils and fats. It measures the concentration of peroxides, which are primary
oxidation products formed when oils are exposed to air, light, or heat. The Peroxide Value is
expressed as the milliequivalents of active oxygen per kilogram of oil.

Method description for peroxide value PV test

 The fat or oil sample is dissolved and an excess amount of potassium iodide
 is added. Peroxides presents oxidize a portion of the iodide forming iodine.
 The iodine is titrated with sodium thiosulfate and the peroxide value is

calculated

3- Acid value test for oil

The Acid Value (AV) test is a common method used to determine the amount of free fatty acids
present in oils and fats. It is an important parameter to assess the quality, freshness, and
degradation of oils. The Acid Value is expressed as the amount of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in
milligrams required to neutralize the free fatty acids in one gram of the oil.
Sample Preparation:
 A representative sample of the oil is taken. It is important to ensure the sample is well-
mixed and homogeneous.
Reagents and Equipment:
 The Acid Value test requires the following reagents and equipment:
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 Ethanol or isopropanol as a solvent.

 Phenolphthalein indicator solution or a pH indicator paper.
 Potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution of known concentration (typically 0.1 N).
 Erlenmeyer flask, burette, pipette, and pipette bulb.
 Magnetic stirrer or a glass rod for mixing.
Titration Process:
 A known weight of the oil sample (typically around 5 grams) is accurately weighed into
an Erlenmeyer flask.
 Ethanol or isopropanol is added to the flask to dissolve the oil sample.
 A few drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution or pH indicator paper are added to
the flask to visualize the endpoint of the titration.
 A burette is filled with the potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution of known concentration.
 The KOH solution is slowly added drop by drop to the flask while stirring or swirling the
mixture.
 The addition of KOH neutralizes the free fatty acids present in the sample, and the
appearance of a permanent pink color indicates the endpoint of the titration.
 The volume of KOH solution used is recorded.

Calculation of Acid Value:

 The Acid Value is calculated using the volume of KOH solution used and the known
concentration of the KOH solution.
 The calculation is typically expressed as milligrams of KOH per gram of oil.

4-Moisture content analysis

The simplest technique to determine moisture in oils is the Crackle Test. A couple
of drops of oil are placed on a 160ºC hot plate. Free or emulsified water will form
bubbles of various sizes and quantities depending on the concentration.

5-Iodine value test for oil

iodine value can be used to measure the degree of unsaturation of oils and
fats. The results are normally expressed as the number of grams of iodine
absorbed by 100 g (about 3.53 oz) of oil or fat, considering the conditions of the test.

6-Saponification value test for oil

Saponification Value = (A - B) x N x 56.1 W This method is used to determine
the total acid content, both free and combined, of tall oil. (Acid number only
measures the free acid). The combined acids are primarily esters formed by
reaction with the neutral components present in the original tall oil.
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7-Melting point determination for oil

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) is used to determine transition
temperatures and enthalpy changes of solid and liquid samples under controlled
temperature changes.
The analysis can be used to determine the melting, crystallization, and glass
transition temperatures and their enthalpies, the material amorphic and
crystalline behavior, hardening and specific heat, material compatibility, and the
effect of additives.
The temperature range for the measurement is -170 °C to 600 °C, available
atmospheres are N₂ and O₂.

8-Halphen ‘s test
The development of red color on heating the oil with a solution of sulfur in
carbon disulphide indicates the presence of cottonseed oil.

9-Volatile compound analysis

Analysis of volatiles is dominated using purge-and-trap followed by gas
chromatography (GC) or gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS),
although static headspace is also used frequently.

10-Residual Solvents Analysis Test

Residual solvent analysis is a common test performed to ensure the
safety and quality of oils and ghee products. It is particularly important in the food industry to
ensure that any residual solvents from the manufacturing process are within acceptable limits
and do not pose a health risk to consumers.

Sample Preparation:
· A representative sample of the oil or ghee product is collected for analysis. The sample
should be carefully handled to avoid contamination.

Extraction:
· The residual solvents are extracted from the sample using an appropriate solvent, such
as ethanol or a mixture of solvents. This extraction step helps to concentrate any
residual solvents present in the sample.
Instrumental Analysis:
23

· Various analytical techniques can be employed to detect and quantify residual solvents.
Gas chromatography (GC) is commonly used for this purpose. In GC, the extracted
sample is vaporized and injected into a gas chromatograph, which separates the
different components based on their volatilities. The separated compounds are then
detected and quantified using a suitable detector, such as a flame ionization detector
(FID) or a mass spectrometer (MS).
Comparison with Standards:
· The results obtained from the instrumental analysis are compared to established
standards or regulatory limits. These standards define the acceptable levels of residual
solvents in oils and ghee products.
Interpretation and Reporting:
· The test results are interpreted, and a report is generated indicating whether the levels
of residual solvents are within acceptable limits. If the levels exceed the specified limits,
it may indicate inadequate manufacturing practices or potential contamination issues.

11-Nickel Test

The nickel test is a specific test used to determine the presence of nickel in oils and ghee
products. Nickel is a common metal that can be found in trace amounts in various food
products, including oils and fats.
Sample Preparation:
· A representative sample of the oil or ghee product is collected for analysis. The sample
should be handled carefully to prevent contamination.
Acid Digestion:
· The sample is digested using acid digestion techniques to break down the organic matrix
and release the nickel present in the sample. Nitric acid is commonly used for this
purpose.
· Filtration: After digestion, the sample is filtered to remove any undissolved particles or
insoluble matter.
Instrumental Analysis:
· The concentration of nickel in the sample is determined using an appropriate analytical
technique, such as atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) or inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). These techniques can accurately measure the
concentration of nickel in the sample.

Results:
The test results are interpreted, and a report is generated indicating whether the concentration
of nickel is within acceptable limits. If the nickel concentration exceeds the specified limits, it
may indicate potential contamination or inadequate manufacturing practices.
24

12-Determination of color:
The determination of color in oils and ghee is an essential quality control parameter
that provides information about the appearance and visual quality of the product.
Visual Comparison:

· The simplest method for color determination is visual comparison. A trained analyst
compares the color of the sample to a set of standard color references or a color scale.
This method is subjective and can vary depending on individual perception and lighting
conditions. Therefore, it is often used as a preliminary assessment or in conjunction with
instrumental methods.
Lovibond Tintometer:
· The Lovibond Tintometer is a widely used instrument for color measurement. It employs
a series of color filters and a sample chamber to determine the color of the oil or ghee.
The analyst visually compares the sample's color with a series of standard glass color
discs or liquid color standards until a match is found. The resulting color value is
expressed in Lovibond units.

13-Cloud Point
The cloud point is the temperature at which the appearance of a cloud or haze is
observed in the oil or ghee sample due to the formation of solid particles or crystallization. It
provides information about the low-temperature stability and quality of the product.
Procedure:
· A representative sample of the oil or ghee is taken.
· The sample is gradually cooled while being observed for the appearance of a cloud or
haze.
· The temperature at which the cloud or haze becomes visible is recorded as the cloud
point.
Results:
The cloud point is influenced by factors such as the type of oil or fat, the presence of impurities
or contaminants, and the processing conditions. Lower cloud points are desirable as they
indicate better low-temperature stability.

14-Bleachability:
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The bleachability test is performed to assess the effectiveness of oil or ghee in removing
color pigments or unwanted substances using a bleaching process. It measures the ability of the
sample to undergo decolorization.
Procedure:
· A small amount of oil or ghee sample is mixed with an appropriate bleaching agent, such
as activated clay.
· The mixture is agitated or stirred for a specific period.
· After the specified time, the mixture is filtered, and the color of the filtrate is compared
to the original sample.
· The degree of color removal or decolorization is evaluated visually or using instrumental
color measurement methods, such as spectrophotometry.
The bleachability test helps determine the effectiveness of the bleaching process and the
quality of the oil or ghee in terms of color removal.

15-Kries Test:
· The Kries test is a specific test to detect the presence of cottonseed oil in a sample, as
cottonseed oil naturally contains a high amount of gossypol, a compound that reacts
with sulfuric acid to produce a distinctive red color.
Procedure:
· A small amount of oil or ghee sample is mixed with concentrated sulfuric acid.
· The appearance of a red color indicates the presence of cottonseed oil.
The Kries test is a qualitative test used as a screening method to detect the presence of
cottonseed oil, which is sometimes used fraudulently or in adulteration. However, it is
important to note that the test is specific to cottonseed oil and may not detect other types of
adulterants.

BEVEARAGES PROCESSING
FRESHER PROCESSING
Juice processing involves the conversion of raw fruits or vegetables into juice by
extracting their liquid content while retaining desired flavors, nutrients, and qualities. The
process typically includes several steps to ensure the safety, quality, and stability of the juice
product.
Raw Material Selection:
26

High-quality fruits or vegetables are selected based on factors such as freshness,

ripeness, flavor, and nutritional content. Proper quality control measures are implemented to
ensure that only suitable raw materials are used.
Washing and Sorting:
The raw fruits or vegetables are thoroughly washed to remove dirt, debris, and surface
contaminants. Sorting is done to remove damaged, overripe, or undesirable fruits or
vegetables.
Preparation and Pre-Treatment:
The raw materials may undergo various pre-treatment steps depending on the type of
juice being produced. This may include peeling, coring, and chopping or grinding the fruits or
vegetables to facilitate extraction.
Extraction\ pulping:
The juice is extracted from the prepared fruits or vegetables using different methods
such as mechanical pressing, enzymatic treatment, or centrifugation. The choice of extraction
method depends on the nature of the raw material and the desired characteristics of the juice.
Filtration:
The extracted juice is typically passed through filters to remove solid particles, pulp,
and other undesirable components. Filtration helps improve clarity and texture.
Pasteurization:
To ensure microbiological safety and extend shelf life, most juices undergo
pasteurization. Pasteurization involves heating the juice to a specific temperature for a specific
time to destroy harmful bacteria and enzymes while minimizing the impact on taste and
nutritional quality.
Optional Additions:
Depending on the product and consumer preferences, additional ingredients such as
sweeteners, preservatives, vitamins, or flavors may be added to enhance taste, stability, or
nutritional value. These additions are carefully regulated to meet regulatory standards.
Homogenization:
Homogenization is performed to ensure uniform distribution of fat or oil droplets,
especially in juices that contain emulsions. This process helps prevent creaming or separation of
the liquid phases.
Packaging:
The processed juice is packaged in suitable containers, such as bottles, cartons, or
pouches. Proper packaging materials and techniques are used to maintain freshness, prevent
contamination, and extend shelf life.
Quality Control:
Throughout the juice processing, quality control measures are implemented, including
regular testing for pH, acidity, sugar content, color, and sensory evaluation. Microbiological
testing is also conducted to ensure safety and compliance with regulations.
27

BLU WATER PROCESSING

Mineral water processing involves the purification and bottling of water to produce safe
and high-quality drinking water with naturally occurring minerals. The process typically includes
various steps to ensure that the water meets regulatory standards and is free from
contaminants.

Source Selection:
The first step in mineral water processing is selecting a clean and reliable water source,
such as underground springs or protected wells. The water source should meet regulatory
requirements and be free from pollutants.

Pre-Treatment:
Depending on the quality of the water source, pre-treatment processes may be required
to remove impurities and improve water quality. Pre-treatment can involve processes like
sedimentation, coagulation, flocculation, and filtration to remove suspended solids, organic
matter, and larger particles.

Reverse Osmosis (RO) Filtration:

Reverse osmosis is commonly used in mineral water processing to remove dissolved salts,
minerals, and other contaminants. RO membranes selectively allow water molecules to pass
through while rejecting impurities, resulting in purified water.
Disinfection:
After the RO filtration, the water is disinfected to eliminate any remaining
microorganisms. Common disinfection methods include chlorination, ultraviolet (UV)
irradiation, or ozonation. Disinfection ensures that the water is safe for consumption.
Ozonation:
Ozonation is a common method used in the processing of mineral water to disinfect and
improve its quality. Ozone (O3) is a powerful oxidizing agent that effectively kills
microorganisms, reduces the presence of organic compounds, and removes unpleasant tastes
and odors from water.
Mineral Enhancement:
Mineral water typically contains naturally occurring minerals that contribute to its taste
and health benefits. In this step, essential minerals may be added back to the purified water to
achieve desired mineral content and taste. The mineral composition is carefully controlled to
meet regulatory standards and label claims.
Filtration and Polishing:
28

After the addition of minerals or carbonation, the water may undergo additional filtration
to remove any remaining impurities or particles. This ensures the clarity and quality of the final
product.
Packaging:
The processed mineral water is bottled in clean and sanitized containers, such as PET
bottles or glass bottles. The packaging is done in a controlled environment to maintain hygiene
and prevent contamination. Proper sealing and labeling are applied to the bottles.
Quality Control:
Throughout the mineral water processing, rigorous quality control measures are
implemented. This includes regular testing for microbiological contaminants, chemical
parameters, mineral content, pH levels, and sensory evaluation. Batch samples are typically
collected and tested to ensure compliance with regulatory standards.
Storage and Distribution:
Bottled mineral water is stored in a controlled environment to maintain its quality and
freshness. It is then distributed to retailers, supermarkets, or directly to consumers, ensuring
proper storage conditions to preserve the product's integrity.

Ozonation
Ozonation is a common method used in the processing of mineral water to disinfect and
improve its quality. Ozone (O3) is a powerful oxidizing agent that effectively kills
microorganisms, reduces the presence of organic compounds, and removes unpleasant tastes
and odors from water. Here's an overview of the ozonation process for mineral water:

· Ozone Generation: Ozone is generated by passing oxygen (O2) through an ozone

generator. The generator applies an electrical discharge or uses ultraviolet light to
convert oxygen molecules into ozone.
· Injection of Ozone: The generated ozone is then injected into the mineral water. This
can be done through various methods, such as using diffusers or venturis, where the
ozone gas is mixed with the water stream.
· Contact Time: The mineral water is allowed to encounter ozone for a specific duration
to ensure effective disinfection and oxidation. The contact time depends on factors such
as water quality, desired level of disinfection, and the concentration of ozone used.
· Microbial Inactivation: Ozone rapidly reacts with microorganisms, including bacteria,
viruses, and fungi. It damages their cell walls and inhibits their metabolic processes,
leading to microbial inactivation. Ozone is particularly effective against chlorine-
resistant pathogens and has a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity.
· Oxidation of Organic Compounds: Ozone also acts as a strong oxidizing agent, breaking
down organic compounds present in the mineral water. It oxidizes various
contaminants, including natural organic matter, pesticides, and taste- and odor-causing
29

compounds. This oxidation process helps improve the overall quality and taste of the
water.
· Ozone Decomposition: After ozonation, any remaining ozone in the water undergoes
natural decomposition. Ozone is unstable and breaks down back into oxygen, leaving no
residual taste or odor in the treated water.

· Quality Control: Throughout the ozonation process, strict quality control measures are
implemented to ensure the effective disinfection and oxidation of mineral water.
Regular testing is conducted to monitor the concentration of ozone, the microbial load,
and the quality parameters of the water.