Russian Formalism and New Criticism

Formalism is a branch of literary theory and criticism which deal with the
structures of text. It means that external agents of the text are not taken into
consideration. All the things about culture, politics, and the author’s intent or
societal influences are excluded from formalism.
The focus of formalism is only on the text and the content within the text such
as grammar, syntax, signs, literary tropes, etc. Formalism also brings attention to
structural tendency within a text or across texts such as genre and categories.
Formalism is based on an analysis of a text rather than a discussion on issues
more distant to the text.
Formalism is based on the technical purity of a text. It is divided into two branches:
Russian Formalism and New Criticism. Formalism also argued that a text is an
autonomous entity liberated from the intention of the author.

Formalism
Russian formalism emerged as an innovative approach, highlighting some scientific
assumptions to analyze texts. Precisely, referring to the Poetic Language Society
founded by Yurvy Tynyanov, Boris Eichenbaum, Viktor Shyklovs in 1916, Russian
formalists were interested in exploring a new method of text analysis.

Together with 'Moscow Linguistic Circle, which Roman Jackobson established in

1914, Russian formalists aimed to discover a scientific basis for studying literary
theories. The era marked a clear shift from the moral approach developed for
literature to a scientific approach.

Following are some basic assumptions, which Russian formalists formulated

to develop a scientific approach to analyze the texts:
• The focus of the approach must be on 'literariness'. A critic should find them on
the text form level than the content
• Use Art as a defamiliarization device
• Consider the text as a sum of its literary devices, content, form, fabula, and plot.
These are the inseparable items.
• Defamiliarization from the text allows the reader to hold its reading pace and
enable him to accomplish a rewarding engagement with the literary text.
• Literature has a history of innovating formal structures. No reader should
determine it by material and external history.
• The language and theme of a literary work are the significant aspects and you
cannot analyze each one of it in isolation, therefore both structure and form are not
only the decorative wrapping but also an integral of the literary content.

Critical writings of Viktor Shkolvsky are the most influential Russian Formalism
work created in this era. He aimed to explore the art technicalities, which authors
employed to create a special effect in the text. 'Notion of Defamiliarization' is one
of the most famous concepts he presented. He derived 'Defamiliarization from
'ostranenie', which means making strange.

The main concern of the Russian formalists was to make artistic devices
meaningful. Augmenting the significance of these devices, they believed that the
theme of the content is not important. They emphasize on presentation process of
literary devices of the text, which they called 'laying bare'. Shklovsky stated that the
literary devices a writer employs are the most important thing he can use to draw
the attention.

New Criticism
New Criticism is a literary theory and critical approach that emerged in the early to
mid-20th century, particularly in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s. Its
philosophy was taken from John Crowe Ransom’s “The New Criticism”, 1941.
New Criticism talked about the closed-reading approach. The closed-reading
approach was a method developed by I.A Richards’ “Practical Criticism” in which
only words on-page were analyzed very closely in a text. It argued that a text
should be very closely read and analyzed without referring to external
materials and issues such as cultural, political, and economics and others.
New Criticism did not deal with cultural, political or social issues around a text.
It dealt only with the textual world.
Important Scholars
● John Crowe Ransom
● Ivor Armstrong Richards
● William Empson
● T.S. Eliot
● Allen Tate
● Cleanth Brooks
● Robert Penn Warren

Key Principles of New Criticism include:

● Close Reading: New Critics advocate for a close, meticulous examination of
the text itself, paying attention to its language, structure, imagery,
symbolism, and other formal elements. They believe that the meaning of a
literary work resides primarily within the text and can be discerned through
careful analysis of its internal components.
● Intentional Fallacy: New Critics reject the idea of interpreting a text based
on the author's intentions or biography. They argue that the meaning of a
literary work should be derived solely from the words on the page, rather than
from speculation about what the author may have intended to convey.
● Affective Fallacy: Similarly, New Critics caution against interpreting a text
based on the reader's emotional response. They argue that the validity of a
literary interpretation should not depend on the subjective feelings or
reactions of individual readers but rather on the objective analysis of the text
itself.
● Organic Unity: New Critics emphasize the idea of a literary work as a unified
whole, with each element contributing to its overall meaning and effect. They
believe that every aspect of a text, including its form, structure, and content,
should be considered in relation to the work as a whole.

Assumptions
● You can’t know for sure what an author intended, and an individual’s
response is unstable and subjective: The work itself should be your focus.
● The purpose of this focus is to explain the work’s organic unity– how every
 feature, large and small, contributes to its meaning/being.

Practices
● The critic searches for any patterns developed through individual words,
phrases, sentences, figures of speech, and allusions.
● Other elements for analysis include point of view, tone, and any other poetic
device that will help the reader understand the dramatic situation.
● The poem’s overall meaning or form depends solely on the text in front of the
reader.
● A poem can be analyzed to discover its true or correct meaning independent
of its author’s intention or of the emotional state, values or beliefs of either its
author or reader.
● New Criticism provides the reader with a formula for arriving at the correct
interpretation of a text using only the text itself.
● Despite its unpopularity, it is still taught and it is credited for the method of
Close Reading
● Close reading is a close and detailed analysis of the text itself to arrive
at an interpretation without referring to historical, authorial, or cultural
concerns.
● New Critics perform a close reading, concentrating on the relationships
within the text that give it its own distinctive character or form.
 Analysis of Daffodils by William Wordsworth
I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud

I wandered lonely as a cloud The waves beside them danced; but

That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
Continuous as the stars that shine
they
Out-did the sparkling waves in glee:
A poet could not but be gay,
In such a jocund company:
I gazed—and gazed—but little thought
What wealth the show to me had
brought:

And twinkle on the milky way,

They stretched in never-ending line For oft, when on my couch I lie

Along the margin of a bay: In vacant or in pensive mood,

Ten thousand saw I at a glance, They flash upon that inward eye

Tossing their heads in sprightly dance. Which is the bliss of solitude;

And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.

Analyzing William Wordsworth's poem "Daffodils" using Formalism and New

Criticism theories offers insights into the structural and thematic elements of the
poem, focusing on its intrinsic qualities rather than external factors such as historical
context or authorial intent.

Formalism Analysis:

Formalism emphasizes close reading of the text to uncover its internal coherence and
aesthetic features. When applying Formalism to "Daffodils," attention is drawn to the
poem's form, language, imagery, symbolism, and theme.

1. Form: The poem consists of four stanzas, each composed of six lines. The
regularity of the stanza structure contributes to the poem's formal harmony and
rhythm, enhancing its aesthetic appeal.

2. Language: Wordsworth's language is simple and descriptive, evoking vivid

imagery of daffodils dancing in the breeze beside a lake. The use of similes ("I
wandered lonely as a cloud") and personification ("Continuous as the stars that
shine") adds depth to the imagery, enhancing the reader's sensory experience.
 3. Imagery and Symbolism: The central image of the daffodils symbolizes natural
beauty and the sublime. The abundance of daffodils represents the abundance
of nature's wonders, while the poet's emotional response to the scene reflects
the power of nature to uplift and inspire the human spirit.

4. Theme: The theme of the poem revolves around the transformative power of
nature and the capacity of natural beauty to evoke profound emotional
responses. Through the speaker's encounter with the daffodils, the poem
celebrates the restorative and uplifting influence of nature on the human
psyche.

New Criticism Analysis:

New Criticism focuses on the text itself, emphasizing the autonomy of literary works
and the importance of close reading to uncover their multiple layers of meaning.

1. Unity and Coherence: "Daffodils" exhibits unity and coherence in its imagery,
language, and thematic concerns. Each element of the poem contributes to its
overall effect, creating a unified aesthetic experience for the reader.

2. Paradox and Ambiguity: Despite its apparent simplicity, "Daffodils" contains

elements of paradox and ambiguity. The speaker's initial sense of loneliness
contrasts with the overwhelming joy and inspiration he derives from the
daffodils, suggesting the complex interplay between solitude and
companionship, melancholy and elation.

3. Irony: The poem employs irony to underscore the transformative power of

nature. The speaker's solitary wanderings lead him to encounter the daffodils,
resulting in a profound sense of connection and joy that belies his initial
feelings of loneliness.

4. Multiple Interpretations: "Daffodils" lends itself to multiple interpretations,

inviting readers to engage with its imagery and themes in diverse ways. While
the poem celebrates the beauty of nature and its capacity to inspire, it also
raises questions about the relationship between humanity and the natural
world, and the role of memory and imagination in shaping our experiences.

In summary, both Formalism and New Criticism offer valuable perspectives for
analyzing "Daffodils," focusing on its formal qualities, thematic concerns, and
interpretive possibilities. Through close reading and attention to detail, these
approaches illuminate the richness and complexity of Wordsworth's timeless ode to
the power of nature.
 Analysis of The Tell Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe
TRUE! -- nervous -- very, very dreadfully nervous I had been and am; but why will
you say that I am mad? The disease had sharpened my senses -- not destroyed --
not dulled them. Above all was the sense of hearing acute. I heard all things in the
heaven and in the earth. I heard many things in hell. How, then, am I mad? Hearken!
and observe how healthily -- how calmly I can tell you the whole story.

It is impossible to say how first the idea entered my brain; but once conceived, it
haunted me day and night. Object there was none. Passion there was none. I loved
the old man. He had never wronged me. He had never given me insult. For his gold I
had no desire. I think it was his eye! yes, it was this! He had the eye of a vulture --a
pale blue eye, with a film over it. Whenever it fell upon me, my blood ran cold; and
so by degrees -- very gradually --I made up my mind to take the life of the old man,
and thus rid myself of the eye forever.

Now this is the point. You fancy me mad. Madmen know nothing. But you should
have seen me. You should have seen how wisely I proceeded --with what caution
--with what foresight --with what dissimulation I went to work! I was never kinder to
the old man than during the whole week before I killed him. And every night, about
midnight, I turned the latch of his door and opened it --oh so gently! And then,
when I had made an opening sufficient for my head, I put in a dark lantern, all
closed, closed, so that no light shone out, and then I thrust in my head. Oh, you
would have laughed to see how cunningly I thrust it in! I moved it slowly --very, very
slowly, so that I might not disturb the old man's sleep. It took me an hour to place
my whole head within the opening so far that I could see him as he lay upon his
bed. Ha! --would a madman have been so wise as this? And then, when my head
was well in the room, I undid the lantern cautiously --oh, so cautiously --cautiously
(for the hinges creaked) --I undid it just so much that a single thin ray fell upon the
vulture eye. And this I did for seven long nights --every night just at midnight --but I
found the eye always closed; and so it was impossible to do the work; for it was not
the old man who vexed me, but his Evil Eye. And every morning, when the day
broke, I went boldly into the chamber, and spoke courageously to him, calling him
by name in a hearty tone, and inquiring how he has passed the night. So you see he
would have been a very profound old man, indeed, to suspect that every night, just
at twelve, I looked in upon him while he slept.

Upon the eighth night I was more than usually cautious in opening the door. A
watch's minute hand moves more quickly than did mine. Never before that night
had I felt the extent of my own powers --of my sagacity. I could scarcely contain my
feelings of triumph. To think that there I was, opening the door, little by little, and he
not even to dream of my secret deeds or thoughts. I fairly chuckled at the idea; and
perhaps he heard me; for he moved on the bed suddenly, as if startled. Now you
may think that I drew back --but no. His room was as black as pitch with the thick
darkness, (for the shutters were close fastened, through fear of robbers,) and so I
knew that he could not see the opening of the door, and I kept pushing it on
steadily, steadily.
I had my head in, and was about to open the lantern, when my thumb slipped
upon the tin fastening, and the old man sprang up in bed, crying out --"Who's
there?"
I kept quite still and said nothing. For a whole hour I did not move a muscle, and
in the meantime I did not hear him lie down. He was still sitting up in the bed
listening; --just as I have done, night after night, hearkening to the death watches in
the wall.
Presently I heard a slight groan, and I knew it was the groan of mortal terror. It
was not a groan of pain or of grief --oh, no! --it was the low stifled sound that arises
from the bottom of the soul when overcharged with awe. I knew the sound well.
Many a night, just at midnight, when all the world slept, it has welled up from my
own bosom, deepening, with its dreadful echo, the terrors that distracted me. I say I
knew it well. I knew what the old man felt, and pitied him, although I chuckled at
heart. I knew that he had been lying awake ever since the first slight noise, when he
had turned in the bed. His fears had been ever since growing upon him. He had
been trying to fancy them causeless, but could not. He had been saying to himself
--"It is nothing but the wind in the chimney --it is only a mouse crossing the floor,"
or "It is merely a cricket which has made a single chirp." Yes, he had been trying to
comfort himself with these suppositions: but he had found all in vain. All in vain;
because Death, in approaching him had stalked with his black shadow before him,
and enveloped the victim. And it was the mournful influence of the unperceived
shadow that caused him to feel --although he neither saw nor heard --to feel the
presence of my head within the room.

When I had waited a long time, very patiently, without hearing him lie down, I
resolved to open a little --a very, very little crevice in the lantern. So I opened it
--you cannot imagine how stealthily, stealthily --until, at length a single dim ray, like
the thread of the spider, shot from out the crevice and fell full upon the vulture eye.

It was open --wide, wide open --and I grew furious as I gazed upon it. I saw it
with perfect distinctness --all a dull blue, with a hideous veil over it that chilled the
very marrow in my bones; but I could see nothing else of the old man's face or
person: for I had directed the ray as if by instinct, precisely upon the damned spot.

And have I not told you that what you mistake for madness is but over acuteness
of the senses? --now, I say, there came to my ears a low, dull, quick sound, such as
a watch makes when enveloped in cotton. I knew that sound well, too. It was the
beating of the old man's heart. It increased my fury, as the beating of a drum
stimulates the soldier into courage.

But even yet I refrained and kept still. I scarcely breathed. I held the lantern
motionless. I tried how steadily I could maintain the ray upon the eye. Meantime the
hellish tattoo of the heart increased. It grew quicker and quicker, and louder and
louder every instant. The old man's terror must have been extreme! It grew louder, I
say, louder every moment! --do you mark me well? I have told you that I am
nervous: so I am. And now at the dead hour of the night, amid the dreadful silence
of that old house, so strange a noise as this excited me to uncontrollable terror. Yet,
for some minutes longer I refrained and stood still. But the beating grew louder,
louder! I thought the heart must burst. And now a new anxiety seized me --the
sound would be heard by a neighbor! The old man's hour had come! With a loud
yell, I threw open the lantern and leaped into the room. He shrieked once --once
only. In an instant I dragged him to the floor, and pulled the heavy bed over him. I
then smiled gaily, to find the deed so far done. But, for many minutes, the heart
beat on with a muffled sound. This, however, did not vex me; it would not be heard
through the wall. At length it ceased. The old man was dead. I removed the bed and
examined the corpse. Yes, he was stone, stone dead. I placed my hand upon the
heart and held it there many minutes. There was no pulsation. He was stone dead.
His eye would trouble me no more.

If still you think me mad, you will think so no longer when I describe the wise
precautions I took for the concealment of the body. The night waned, and I worked
hastily, but in silence. First of all I dismembered the corpse. I cut off the head and
the arms and the legs.

I then took up three planks from the flooring of the chamber, and deposited all
between the scantlings. I then replaced the boards so cleverly, so cunningly, that no
human eye -- not even his --could have detected any thing wrong. There was
nothing to wash out --no stain of any kind --no blood-spot whatever. I had been too
wary for that. A tub had caught all --ha! ha!

When I had made an end of these labors, it was four o'clock --still dark as
midnight. As the bell sounded the hour, there came a knocking at the street door. I
went down to open it with a light heart, --for what had I now to fear? There entered
three men, who introduced themselves, with perfect suavity, as officers of the
police. A shriek had been heard by a neighbor during the night; suspicion of foul
play had been aroused; information had been lodged at the police office, and they
(the officers) had been deputed to search the premises.

I smiled, --for what had I to fear? I bade the gentlemen welcome. The shriek, I
said, was my own in a dream. The old man, I mentioned, was absent in the country.
I took my visitors all over the house. I bade them search --search well. I led them, at
length, to his chamber. I showed them his treasures, secure, undisturbed. In the
enthusiasm of my confidence, I brought chairs into the room, and desired them here
to rest from their fatigues, while I myself, in the wild audacity of my perfect triumph,
placed my own seat upon the very spot beneath which reposed the corpse of the
victim.
The officers were satisfied. My manner had convinced them. I was singularly at
ease. They sat, and while I answered cheerily, they chatted of familiar things. But,
ere long, I felt myself getting pale and wished them gone. My head ached, and I
fancied a ringing in my ears: but still they sat and still chatted. The ringing became
more distinct: --it continued and became more distinct: I talked more freely to get
rid of the feeling: but it continued and gained definiteness --until, at length, I found
that the noise was not within my ears.
No doubt I now grew very pale; --but I talked more fluently, and with a
heightened voice. Yet the sound increased --and what could I do? It was a low, dull,
quick sound --much such a sound as a watch makes when enveloped in cotton. I
gasped for breath -- and yet the officers heard it not. I talked more quickly --more
vehemently; but the noise steadily increased. I arose and argued about trifles, in a
high key and with violent gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased. Why
would they not be gone? I paced the floor to and fro with heavy strides, as if excited
to fury by the observations of the men -- but the noise steadily increased. Oh God!
what could I do? I foamed --I raved --I swore! I swung the chair upon which I had
been sitting, and grated it upon the boards, but the noise arose over all and
continually increased. It grew louder --louder --louder! And still the men chatted
pleasantly, and smiled. Was it possible they heard not? Almighty God! --no, no!
They heard! --they suspected! --they knew! --they were making a mockery of my
horror! --this I thought, and this I think. But anything was better than this agony!
Anything was more tolerable than this derision! I could bear those hypocritical
smiles no longer! I felt that I must scream or die! --and now --again! --hark! louder!
louder! louder! louder! --

"Villains!" I shrieked, "dissemble no more! I admit the deed! --tear up the planks!
--here, here! --it is the beating of his hideous heart!"
Formalism Analysis of ‘The Tell Tale Heart’
● Defamiliarization: Russian Formalists emphasize the concept of
"defamiliarization," which involves making the familiar appear strange or
unfamiliar to the reader. In "The Tell-Tale Heart," Poe achieves this through
the narrator's distorted perception of reality and his descent into madness.
The repetitive use of phrases like "I heard" and "I felt" serves to defamiliarize
the reader from the narrator's mental state, creating a sense of unease and
disorientation.
● Narrative Structure: Russian Formalists focus on the structure and
organization of the narrative. In "The Tell-Tale Heart," Poe employs a
first-person narrative style, drawing the reader into the disturbed mind of the
narrator. The story unfolds chronologically, with the narrator recounting the
events leading up to the murder and its aftermath. This narrative structure
serves to heighten the tension and suspense, keeping the reader engaged
until the climactic revelation of the crime.
● Literariness: Russian Formalists emphasize the literariness of the text,
focusing on its unique linguistic and stylistic features. In "The Tell-Tale Heart,"
Poe's use of vivid imagery, symbolism, and rhythmic language contributes to
the story's overall impact. The recurring motif of the beating heart, for
example, symbolizes the narrator's guilt and psychological torment, while
Poe's precise and evocative descriptions create a vivid sense of atmosphere
and mood.
● Foregrounding: Russian Formalists analyze the ways in which literary texts
foreground certain elements to draw attention to their significance. In "The
Tell-Tale Heart," Poe foregrounds the theme of guilt and conscience through
the narrator's obsessive fixation on the old man's "vulture eye" and his
subsequent confession of the murder. By foregrounding these elements, Poe
invites readers to reflect on the nature of guilt, morality, and the human
psyche.
Overall, a Russian Formalist analysis of "The Tell-Tale Heart" focuses on the text's
formal and structural features, revealing how Poe's masterful use of narrative
techniques and literary devices contributes to its enduring impact and significance.

New Criticism Analysis of ‘The Tell Tale Heart’

1. Close Reading: New Criticism emphasizes close reading of the text to uncover
deeper meanings. In "The Tell-Tale Heart," attention can be paid to the narrator's
meticulous planning of the murder and his descent into madness, as revealed
through his own words.
2. Textual Analysis: The story's structure, language, and symbolism are crucial.
For instance, the repeated mention of the old man's eye symbolizes the
narrator's guilt and paranoia. The use of sound, like the beating heart, creates
tension and contributes to the story's eerie atmosphere.
3. Ambiguity and Paradox: New Criticism often explores ambiguity and paradox in
literature. In this story, the narrator's insistence on his sanity despite his
irrational actions creates a paradox that invites readers to question the
reliability of the narrator's account.
4. Irony and Symbolism: New Criticism looks at how irony and symbolism are
used to convey deeper meanings. The narrator's claim of acute senses, like his
heightened hearing, contrasts with his irrational behavior, adding layers of irony
to the narrative.
5. Unity of the Text: New Criticism emphasizes the unity of the text, focusing on
how all elements work together to create meaning. In "The Tell-Tale Heart," every
detail, from the narrator's obsession with the old man's eye to the sound of the
beating heart, contributes to the overall theme of guilt and madness.

In conclusion, a New Critical analysis of "The Tell-Tale Heart" focuses on the text's
intrinsic elements, revealing how Poe's mastery of language and symbolism
contributes to its enduring power and significance. Through close reading and
careful analysis, readers can uncover the rich complexities and nuances within the
text, gaining deeper insight into its themes and characters.
References:
CourseHero. (2021, March 6). Formalism-and-New-Criticism.docx - Formalism and
New Criticism introduction to formalism. Course Hero.
https://www.coursehero.com/file/83349307/Formalism-and-New-Criticismdocx/
Giordano, R. (n.d.). The tell-tale heart. PoeStories.com.
https://poestories.com/read/telltaleheart
Research Guide. (2023, August 29). What is formalist criticism. A Research Guide for
Students. https://www.aresearchguide.com/formalist-criticism-a-guide.html
Wordsworth, W. (2021). I wandered lonely as a cloud by William Wordsworth. Poetry
Foundation.https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45521/i-wandered-lonely-as-a
-cloud