GROUND WATER

GEOLOGY (LESSON 9)

Permeability

The ease with which fluid is transmitted through a rock's pore space is
called permeability. Although a rock may be very porous, it is not necessarily very permeable.
Permeability is a measure of how interconnected the individual pore spacesare in a rock or
sediment. A sandstone is typically porous and permeable. Shales are porous but have a lower
permeability because the finer grain size creates smaller pore spaces. Igneous rocks tend to have
low porosity and low permeability unless they are highly fractured by tectonic processes.

The Water Table

Water flows downward through soil and bedrock because of the force of gravity. It continues in
that direction until a depth of about 5 kilometers (3 miles) is reached, whereporosity and
permeability cease. The pore space above this level begins to fill progressively upward with
groundwater.

The saturated zone. The rock and soil in which all the open spaces are filled with wateris called
the saturated (or saturation) zone. As the top of the saturated zone rises toward the surface, it
reaches a level of equilibrium with the overlying unsaturated zone.

The unsaturated zone. The unsaturated zone (or zone of aeration) is the rock and sediment
in which pore spaces contain mostly air and some water and therefore are notsaturated. The
unsaturated zone typically starts at the surface and extends downward to the saturated zone. The
contact between the saturated and unsaturated zones is called the water table (Figure 1).

Figure 1: The Water Table

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GEOLOGY (LESSON 9)
There is “room” for air in the unsaturated zone because the water is held to the sides ofthe soil
particles through the force of surface tension. Surface tension also causes water to rise up into
the unfilled pore spaces from below through a process
called capillary action. The lower part of the unsaturated zone that draws water upward from
the water table is called the capillary fringe, which is usually only a fewfeet thick.

Perched water tables.

A perched water table (Figure 1) is an accumulation of groundwater that is above thewater

table in the unsaturated zone. The groundwater is usually trapped above an impermeable soil
layer, such as clay, and actually forms a lens of saturated material in the unsaturated zone. A
perched water table is generally insufficient to supply domesticgroundwater needs, and often
runs dry after being drilled. If the perched water table intersects a sloping surface, it may be
manifested by springs or seeps along the line of intersection.

Migration of groundwater.

The movement of groundwater is generally slow and ranges from 1 inch to a 1,000 feetper day. In
addition to moving vertically downward for hundreds of feet, it also flows laterally, roughly
parallel to the slope of the surface of the water table.

The slope of the water table is generally proportional to the slope of the overlying land surface:
the steeper the topography, the steeper the slope of the water table. The steeper the slope of the
water table, the faster the groundwater flows. The groundwateralso moves more quickly in those
sedimentary or rock formations that have a higher permeability relative to other formations.

Streams and Springs

The dynamics of groundwater movement have an important effect on stream flow.

Groundwater that migrates into the stream channel increases stream flow; water in astream
can also enter the unsaturated zone, reducing stream flow.

Gaining streams.

A gaining stream (Figure 1) is one into which groundwater flows from the saturatedzone. The
channels of gaining streams are usually at or below the level of the watertable. Bodies of water
and marshes form when the water table intersects the land surface over a broad, fairly flat area.
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GEOLOGY (LESSON 9)

Figure 1: A Gaining Stream

Losing streams. The channel of a losing stream (Figure 2) lies above the water tableand loses
water into the unsaturated zone through which it is flowing This water then migrates down
toward the water table. A losing stream can induce the local water tableto rise. In drier climates
a losing stream may actually disappear underground as its water content becomes progressively
diminished downstream.

Figure 2: A Losing Stream

Springs.

A spring is a natural flow of groundwater from a rock opening that results when the water table
intersects a sloping land surface. Springs can be seasonal—for example, during the wet season
the saturated zone is closer to the surface because of increasedrainfall, often resulting in more
springs.
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GEOLOGY (LESSON 9)
Aquifers.

Aquifers are porous, permeable, saturated formations of rock or soil that transmit groundwater
easily. The best aquifers are coarse‐grained sediments such as sand andgravel. A confined
aquifer is overlain by a less permeable bed that keeps the water inthe aquifer under pressure;
an unconfined aquifer does not have a confining bed thatseparates the zone of saturation from
the unsaturated units above it. Impermeable formations such as shale, clay, or unfractured
igneous rocks that retard water flow are called aquitards or aquicludes.

If more water is removed from an aquifer through pumping than is introduced through recharge,
the water table drops. This often results in wells that go dry or a surface that sinks because the
ground surface is no longer as supported. This subsidence inflicts expensive damage on
buildings, roads, and pipelines. Heavy use of an aquifer can be balanced through artificial
recharge, a process by which treated industrial wastewateror floodwaters are stored in
infiltration ponds. The water soaks into the ground to replenish the groundwater or is pumped
back into the aquifer.

Wells.

Wells are drilled into the water table to tap aquifers for domestic, industrial, and agricultural use.
The level of the water table fluctuates with changing climatic conditions.During a dry period, the
water table drops to a deeper level because water has drained out of the saturated zone into the
rivers. During wet periods the water table rises because of the additional water percolating down
from the surface into the zone of saturation.

The water table tends to be closer to the surface in valleys than on

hillsides. Recharge occurs in those areas where new water is added to the saturatedzone and
replenishes water that has been lost.

The best wells are drilled deeply enough to supply a continuous flow of water during all the
seasonal changes in the water table—thus they draw water from below the lowest level of the
water table. In artesian wells, which tap water from confined aquifers, eitherthe water level in
the well simply rises above the aquifer (nonflowing artesian wells) orit spouts at the surface
(flowing artesian wells). Whether a well is flowing or nonflowing depends on the amount of
pressure that is exerted on the groundwater in the confined aquifer.

When water is pumped from a well, the water table is generally lowered around the well.This
local lowering of the water table is called drawdown. Centered on the stem of the well, it has
the shape of an inverted cone called the cone of depression. The drawdown decreases with
increasing distance from the well.
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GEOLOGY (LESSON
(LESSON 9) 9)
Effects of Groundwater Flow

The dissolution of calcite from limestone by slightly acidic ground‐water results in the gradual
widening of cracks and joints that may ultimately develop into a series of openings, or caves.
Most caves develop below the water table. After the caves are elevated above the water table or
when the water table drops, the water drains out andthe caves become filled with air.

The groundwater that percolates through the cracks in the cave contains calcium and bicarbonate
from the dissolution of limestone. As the water drips from the cave's ceiling,CO2 gas is released
and a small amount of calcite crystallizes where the drop is attached to the ceiling. More CO2 is
lost from the water when the drop hits the floor, causing more calcite to precipitate. By this
process, stalactites and stalagmites
form. Stalactites look like icicles that hang from cave ceilings; stalagmites are cone‐ shaped
masses that build up on cave floors underneath dripping stalactites.
A column results when stalactites and stalagmites grow long enough to join into one
structure. A more general term for a deposit of calcite precipitated by dripping water is
dripstone, and as a group, the varieties of dripstone found in caverns are
called speleothems. Ribbony, sheetlike calcite deposits that are deposited by a thinfilm of
water running over cave surfaces are called flowstone.

Caves become less structurally stable as greater amounts of limestone are eroded away. When a
portion of a cave system collapses, it may create a sinkhole, or basinlikedepression, at the
surface. Sinkholes, which can develop suddenly and be large enoughto “swallow” buildings and
homes, are prevalent in states such as Florida, Missouri,
Indiana, and Kentucky, which are underlain by abundant limestone. Karst
topography is an irregular land surface dotted with numerous sinkholes and
depressions related to underlying cave systems.

Groundwater that has a high concentration of silica is the primary agent in forming
petrified wood. The groundwater soaks through the buried wood and
precipitates silica in the porous organic structure, preserving the finest details. When silica or
calcite layers precipitate from groundwater in a spherical cavity (usually in limestone), the often
intricately layered mass that results is called a geode. A concretion is a mass of silica or calcite
that precipitates around an organic nucleus, such as a leaf or fossil, in sedimentary rocks.
Usually geodes and concretions are moreresistant to weathering than the enclosing rock and
stand out in weathered rock faces.
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GEOLOGY (LESSON 9)
Groundwater Pollution

Sources of groundwater pollution.

Because it is mixed and circulated over a large area, groundwater is relatively clean, butthe
increased population and industrialization of the twentieth century has led to seriousgroundwater
contamination problems in many parts of the country. Farming contaminants include pesticides,
herbicides, animal waste, and manure. A variety of contaminants from city and county dumps
such as heavy metals (mercury, lead, chromium, copper, cadmium, arsenic) and other industrial
compounds enter the groundwater from rainwater that has percolated through the landfill. Wastes
from septic tanks, sewage plants, and slaughterhouses may also contribute dangerous bacteria
andparasites to the groundwater. Industries frequently use radioactive compounds, cyanide,
polychlorinated biphenyls, and a degreaser called trichloroethylene that are being foundin
increasingly greater amounts in groundwater. Gasoline and other fuel derivatives such as xylene
and benzene are carcinogens that frequently enter the groundwater from leaking storage tanks.
Old mining sites contribute mercury, cyanide, and heavy metals to the groundwater; smoke from
old smelters contaminated soils for hundreds of square kilometers with metals such as lead,
arsenic, and cadmium, which also migratedinto the groundwater.

Contamination identification and cleanup.

Most compounds form a contamination plume in the groundwater that grows wider asit
spreads outward from the point of contamination, called the point source. If the plume is
flowing through sand, a portion of the contaminants are naturally filtered from the groundwater.
Even though the plume widens downgradient, the concentration of thecontaminants tends to
decrease through filtering, dilution, or the natural breakdown of substances over time and
distance called natural attenuation.

A contamination plume is identified by drilling monitoring wells and routinely sampling the
waterfor contaminants. A series of monitoring wells studied over time reveals details about the
direction of groundwater flow and the level of contamination. Once the point source is identified,
cleanup work includes removing contaminated material and soil at the surface and treating the
groundwater. Groundwater is typically pumped out of the ground through a system of wells,
cleansed, and pumped back into the aquifer. This procedure can last for thirty years or longer.

Geothermal Energy

Groundwater can be heated by a body of cooling magma or by penetrating deeply intothe earth's
crust along faults and being heated by the increased geothermal gradien
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Hot springs and geysers.

Heated groundwater rises to the surface as hot springs and geysers. A hot
spring consists of water 6 to 9 degrees centigrade warmer than the mean annual airtemperature
for the locality where it occurs. Hot‐spring pools are often steaming andactively forming new
minerals. The hot springs in Yellowstone National Park and Nevada are good examples of
groundwater heated by igneous activity.

A geyser is a more explosive hot spring that periodically erupts scalding water and steam.
Fumaroles are vents from which steam and other gases escape. Geyser eruptions result from
newly formed mineral deposits that clog the throat of the vent or from accumulations of vapor
bubbles that increase the internal pressure. Water temperatures are generally near boiling. The hot
water rapidly cools at the surface andprecipitates new minerals around the geyser vents.

Typically composed of calcite or silica, the build‐up of these ledge‐like layers is called a sinter
around a hot spring and geyserite around a geyser. A mudpot is a vent that produces thick,
boiling mud and sulfurous gases. Rich precious‐metal deposits such asgold and silver are often
associated with hot spring activity.

The use of geothermal energy.

Geothermal energy is the energy produced when heated groundwater is tapped by wells and
used to generate electricity. Although geothermal energy is one of the cleanest forms of energy,
hydrogen sulfide gases and other toxic compounds may be associated with it. Compared to that
of other sources of energy, the use of geothermalenergy is not widespread; it can, however, be
locally important, as it is in Iceland.

Groundwater and Infiltration

Groundwater is extremely important to our way of life. Most drinking water supplies and often
irrigation water for agricultural needs are drawn from underground sources. More than 90
percent of the liquid fresh water available on or near the earth's surface is groundwater. Hot
groundwater can also be a source of energy. Groundwater is derivedfrom rain and melting
snow that percolate downward from the surface; it collects in the open pore spaces between soil
particles or in cracks and fissures in bedrock. The process of percolation is called infiltration.

Porosity

The percentage of a rock or sedimentary deposit that consists of voids and open spaceis its
porosity—the greater its porosity, the greater its ability to hold water. Sediments are usually
more porous than rocks. Sedimentary rocks tend to be more porous than igneous rocks because
there is more open space between the individual sediment grains than between the minerals in a
crystallized rock. The porosity of loose sand i
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about 40 percent; compacting and dewatering the sand reduces the porosity to about 15percent;
the lithification of the sand into a sandstone rock by formation of cement between the sand grains
reduces the porosity to about 5 percent or less.

Open space in fractures is also considered part of a rock's porosity. An igneous rockthat is
jointed, fractured, or shattered can hold as much water in its cracks as sedimentary rocks can
hold between their grains.