o m

g .c
uit n
m p
co
ee
.a z
ww
w
What is Automata

o m
• Automata plural of automaton
g .c
uit n
• In simple words we can say that it is “something that works
p
automatically” or self-acting.
o m
e c
z e
• Automatic machine is machine that take input from user then it
w .a
performs all steps itself.
w w
• For example; computer, ATM etc.
What is Theory of Automata
m
• Theory of automata is more theoretical (mathematical) subject as
o
compared to practical subjects.
g .c
u it n
p
• It is much different from other computer science courses such as
m
programing.
co
e
e
a z
• This subject focuses on theoretical
. aspects of computer science that deals
with study of abstract
w w machines (mathematical models) as well as
computational problems.
w
Why we study this subject
• As we all know that computer works in 3 steps.
o m
• How these steps perform?
g .c
• What happens when we give it an input?
u it n
p
• If we go in this detail then this will lead us towards electronics side or
m
hardware side.
co
e e
.a z
Input w
w Computation
output
w (process)
Continue…
• Theory of computation allow us to think systematically about machine
working without going into its hardware details. o m
• How we can do that?
g .c
are easy to understand for machines. u it n
• Our machines works on programing languages, these programming languages

m p
o
• It allows us learning of languages and computational techniques
c
e e
• It allow us to design theoretical (abstract) models of machines to learn
.a z
its working without going into hardware details.
w
• Here theoretical model means we define the machine in form of states,
w
w 1, state 2, state 3 so on , and each state perform specific
• For example; state
operation.
Other different names of Automata
o m
• Theory of automata
g .c
• Automata Theory
uit n
• Theory of computation
m p
• Theory of computer science co
• Computer theory e e
.a z
ww
w
Languages
o m
• How machine works systematically?
g .c
u it n
• To study or understand a machine the basic step is how to gives an
p
input
o m
e c
z e
• Language is first step to interact with machine.
w .a
w w
Cont…
m
• For example we can interact with computer with citsokeyboard and we
can interact with ATM with its keypad. g .
t i n
p u
o m
• If we use computer keyboard for giving input to ATM machine what
happens?
e c
z e
.
• ATM machine has specifica keypad for input it has limitations that it
w
can not understandwthe meaning of all keys of computer keyboard.
w
language
o m
• Language is set of strings with rules
g .c
• L1= {aba, aa, ababa, abba, aabba,…} uit n
• Language of string that start with “a” and end with “a”

m p
co
e e
.a z
ww
w
Type of languages
o m
• There are two main types
g .c
1. Formal languages
uit n
2. Informal languages
m p
co
ee
.a z
ww
w
formal languages
• Formal languages are used as a basic for defining computer languages
• Pre defined set of symbols and strings
o m
• Concerned with just rules/syntax not with meaning.
g .c
• Formal language is syntactic language
uit n
• For example:
m p
• We define language that starts with “a” and end with “e”
➢ We will have diff combinations co
e e
a) Admhe
.a z
b) Amue
c) page ww
w
• According to definition of formal language both (a) and (b) above cases are true.
Although (c) has meaning but it don’t follow the defined rule of language.
 Informal languages
• Concerned with rules and meaning.
• Informal language is semantic language. o m
g .c
For example:
u it n
p
• If we talk about English language and have two words
m
co
a) page
e e
b) aegp
.a z
w w
• Both above w follow
words English language rule that each word contains
alphabets (i.e; a, b, c … x, y, z) but only first word has meaning.
• According to definition of informal language first word is correct.
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
uit n
m
Lecture-3 p
c o
Basic Terminologies in Automata
e e
. a z
w w
w
Some basics of Automata
• First we need to clear basic concepts about: m
.co
• letters
it ng
• alphabet
pu
• string m
• empty string co
• word e e
• string length .a z
• Reverse of stringww
• w
Power of alphabet
• Power of string
Definitions
➢Letters are characters or symbols out of which c o
we
m
build language for
machine. g .
• For example; t i n
• a,b,c…. p u
• 0,1,2,3…..
o m
➢ Alphabets are finite not empty e c
z e set of letters (symbols) that are denoted by
∑ (sigma)
.a
• For example;
• ∑ = {a,b} w w
w
• It means that language with above alphabet contains only a and b characters
 Definitions
➢ String is concatenation of letters
• For example; o m
• If ∑ = {a,b} then we may have g .c
uit n
• ab, aaab, abbaa, babba, ababababb….
m p
co
e e
• For example;
.a z
• If ∑ = {1,0} then we may have
ww
w
• 10, 10010, 1100010, 1111100000 …..
Example
o m
end with “b” from ∑ = {a, b, c} g .c
• Make a language for a machine in which string starts with “b” and

t i n
pu
o m
L1= { bb, bab, baab, baccb, bccbbab…..}
e c
z e
.a
w w
w
 Definitions
➢ Word is string that is permissible in language m
o.c
g
• In previous example we make a languageinfor a machine in which
u
string starts with “b” and end with “b” from
t ∑ = {a, b, c}
L1= { bb, bab, baab, baccb, bccbbab…..} m p
c o
e e
We will have some other a zstrings but that are not permissible in
. ccaabb, accba …..
language. For example; w baaac,
w w
Definitions
m
➢Empty string is a string that has no letter, also known as null string, it is
o
denoted by ^ or λ
g .c
• Length of empty string will always be 0.
it n
u
➢ Length of string is the number of lettersmin p
string denoted by │s│
• Example: s= ababb Then, │s│= 5 co
e e
• Example: ∑ = {B, aB, bab, d}.a
z
s= B aB bab Bw d w
Tokenizing= (B), w
(aB), (bab), (B), (d)
│s│= 5
Definitions

o
➢Reverse of string can be obtained by writing thecelements
m of string in
reverse order. It is denoted by Rev(s). g .
• For example; if string is; s= ababb then t i n
Rev(s)= bbaba p u
o m
c
• Example: ∑ = {a, aba, ca, d} ee
S= aabacad.a
z
If we tokenize w w
above string: s= a aba ca d
w Rev (s)= d ca aba a
Definitions

➢Power of Alphabet
o m
.c
• The length of string that made from alphabet should be equal to power of
g
alphabet.
uit n
Example:
m p
∑ 2 = { a, b} 2
co
∑ 2 = {aa, ab, ba, bb} ee
Example: .a z
∑3 = { a, b, c} 3 ww
w
∑3 = {aaa, abc, ccc, bbc, cca,….}
Definitions
➢Power of String
o m
• Determine the length of string
g .c
Example:
uit n
S= (aba)2
m p
S= abaaba
co
Example: e e
S= ab2a .a z
S= abba ww
w
Palindrome
m
• It is language whose reverse is same as string i.e; S= Rev(s)
o
g .c
• Example:
u it n
• We have string s= { abcba} m p
Rev(s)= {abcba} co
ee
.a z
ww
w
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
uit n
Lecture-5m p
c o
Descriptive definition of language
e e
. a z
ww
w
Defining Languages
➢ How do automata accept or reject input?
o m
.c
➢ How can automata know that given string is valid or not?
g
it n
• The answer of above questions is “language”
u
p
• There are different method with which we can define language
m
• A language can be defined in following ways:
o
i. Descriptive e c
z e
ii. Recursive
w .a
iii. Regular Expressions (RE)
w w
iv. Finite Automata (FA)
v. Transition Graphs (TG)
Types of Languages in Automata
• A language can be defined in following ways:
o m
i. Descriptive g .c
ii. Recursive
u it n
iii. Regular Expressions (RE)
m p
iv. Finite Automata (FA) co
ee
v. Transition Graph (TG)
.a z
ww
w
 Descriptive definition of language
• It describe the condition imposed on its words.
o m
➢ Example:
g .c
it n
• The language L of string of even length, defined over ∑ = {c} can be written as:
u
L= {cc, cccc, cccccc,…}
m p
➢ Example:
co
e
• The language L of string that does not start with “y” defined over ∑ = {x,y,z} can be
e
written as:
.a z
L= {x, z, xz, xy, zx, zy,zzz, zzy,…}
➢ Example: ww
w
•The language L of string of length 2 ,defined over ∑ = {0,1,2} can be written as:
L= {00,01,11,12,21,02,…}
 Cont…
➢ Example:
m
Write a language L of strings ending in 0, defined over Σ ={0,1},
o
L={0,00,10,000,010,100,110,…}
g .c
➢ Example: u it n
p
Write a language EQUAL, of strings with number of a’s equal to number of b’s,
m
defined over Σ={a,b},
co
L= {Λ, ab, aabb, abab, baba, abba,…}
e e
.a z
➢ Example:
ww
Write a language EVEN-EVEN, of strings with even number of a’s and even number of
w
b’s, defined over Σ={a, b},
L= {Λ, aa, bb, aaaa, aabb, abab, abba, baab, baba, bbaa, bbbb,…}
 Cont…
➢Example:
o m
Write a language {anbn }, of strings defined over Σ={a, b}, as {anbn : n=1,2,3,…},
L= {ab, aabb, aaabbb, aaaabbbb, …} g .c
u it n
➢Example (practice tasks): m p
co
• Write a language that contain at least one ‘a’, defined over alphabet Σ=
{a,s,d} ee
.a z
• Write a language that contain at exactly two ‘cc’, defined over alphabet Σ=
{a,b,c} ww
w
• Write a language that start with ‘bb’ and end with ‘c’, defined over alphabet
Σ= {a,b,c,d}
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
uit n
Lecture-6m p
c o
Recursive definition of language
e e
.a z
w w
w
Defining Languages
• A language can be defined in following ways:
o m
i. Descriptive g .c
ii. Recursive
u it n
iii. Regular Expressions (RE)
m p
iv. Finite Automata (FA) co
ee
v. Transition Graph (TG)
.a z
ww
w
 Recursive definition of language
➢ In this method we describe the language with three steps.
i. Some basic words are specified in the language. o m
g .c
ii. Rules for constructing more words are defined in the language.
u it n
iii. No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in the
language.
m p
c o
e e
Example: Defining language of positive even numbers using recursive
definition.
.a z
Step 1: 2 is positive even number
Step 2: If x is positive w
w
even then so is , x+2
w
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in
positive EVEN.
Examples (recursive definition)
o m
➢ Defining the language L, of strings beginning and
letters , defined over Σ={a, b} g .c ending in same

t i n
L= { aa,bb, abbba,uabababa, babbaab,bbbbaaabb,…}
Step 1: a and b is in L
m p
c o
e
ealso in L, where s belongs to Σ*
.a z
Step 2: (a)s(a) and (b)s(b) are

w w
step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be
in L w
 Examples (recursive definition)

o m
➢ Defining the language L, of strings containing aa or
Σ={a, b} g .c bb , defined over

t i n
p u
L={ aa, bb , aaa, baa, babaa, bbabaab, abababb,
babbab,….}
Step 1: aa and bb are in L
o m
e c
z
Step 2: s(aa)s and s(bb)s are alsoein L, where s belongs to Σ*
.a
w
Step 3: No strings except
w those constructed in above, are allowed to be in L
w
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
it n
u
Lecture-7 p
o m (RE)
e c
Regular Expression
Part-1
z e
.a
ww
w
Defining Languages
• A language can be defined in following ways:
o m
i. Descriptive g .c
ii. Recursive
u it n
iii. Regular Expressions (RE)
m p
iv. Finite Automata (FA) co
ee
v. Transition Graphs (TG)
.a z
ww
w
Regular Expressions (RE)
• RE is one of the language defining method.
o m
• In RE, language is represented in term of strings.
g .c
{^, x, xx, xxx, xxxx, .....} u it n
• In a regular expression, x* means zero or more occurrence of x. It can generate

p
• In a regular expression, x+ means one or more occurrence of x. It can generate
m
{x, xx, xxx, xxxx, .....}
co
e e
➢ Example
.a z
ww
• Consider a alphabet Σ={a}, the language L, made from given alphabet is L={^,
a,aa,aaa,aaaa,….}. How we can write the RE of this language?
w
RE= a*
RE (Examples)

➢Consider a alphabet Σ={a}, the language L, made from o m given alphabet

is L={ a, aa, aaa, aaaa,….}. How we can write the g .cRE of this language?
t i n
RE= a pu
+

o m
e c
➢Write a RE for string that start from ‘a’ and contain any ‘b’ letter
defined over Σ={a, b}.
z e
.
According to given conditiona language must start from letter ‘a’ and
w w
contain any no. of ‘b’ letter .
w abbbbb…..}
L= {a, ab, abb, abbb,
RE= ab*
 RE (examples)

o m
• Write a RE for string that start from ‘a’ and contain at least one ‘b’
letter defined over Σ={a, b}. g .c
u it n
According to given condition language must
m p start from letter ‘a’ and
contain at least one ‘b’ letter .
co
e e
.a
L= {ab, abb, abbb, abbbbb…..}
z
w w
RE= ab + w
 RE (examples)

m
➢ Write a RE for string that contains ‘a’ or ‘b’ defined over Σ={a, b}.
o
g .c
L= {a, b}
u it n
We will represent or with ‘+’ sign. L (r1 + r2) = L (r1) 𝖴 L (r2)
p
o m
RE= a + b e c
z e
w .a
w w
 RE (examples)

m
➢ Write a RE for string that contains any ‘a’ or any ‘b’ defined over Σ={a, b}.
o
L = { ^, a, b, aa, bb, aaa, bbb, ab, aab,…}
g .c
RE= (a + b)*
uit n
m p
co
e e
.a z
ww
w
 RE (examples)

m
➢Write a RE for string that contains at least one ‘a’ or at least one ‘b’ defined
o
over Σ={a, b}.
g .c
L = {a, b, aa, bb, aaa, bbb, ab, aab,…}
u it n
RE= (a + b)+
m p
co
ee
a z
➢ Write a RE for string that start
. with ‘a’ or end with ‘a’, defined over Σ={a, b}.
L= { aa, aba, abba, ababa, w
abbba, abaaaba, ….}
w w
RE= a (a + b)* a
 RE (examples)

m
➢Write the regular expression for the language accepting all the string
o
g .c
which are starting with 1 and ending with 0, over ∑ = {0, 1}.

u it n
According to given condition string will be following type:
s= 10, 100, 110,1110, 100010, 1100,… m p
co
e e
RE= 1 (0+1)* 0
.a z
ww
w
 Practice Task
➢Write the regular expression for the language starting and ending with ‘a’
o m
and having any having any combination of b's in between, over ∑ = {a, b}.
g .c
➢Write the regular expression for the language t i nL over ∑ = {0, 1} such that
u
all the string do not contain the substringp01.
o m
➢Write the regular expression for e c the language containing the string in
e
which every 0 is immediatelyzfollowed by 11.
.a
w w
➢ Write RE for the language, defined over Σ ={a, b} of words starting with ‘a’
w starting with ‘b’ and ending in ‘a’ .
and ending in ‘b’ OR
 o m
g .c
t i n
Thankmyou pu
co
e e
.a z
ww
w
 o m
g .c
uit n
m p
co
ee
.a z
ww
w
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
it n
u
Lecture-8 p
o m (RE)
e c
Regular Expression
Part-2
z e
.a
ww
w
Practice Task
➢ Write the regular expression for the language starting and ending with
m
‘a’ and having any having any combination of b's in between, over ∑ =
o
{a, b}.
g .c
t i n
p u
➢ Write the regular expression for the language
all the string do not contain the substring 01.
L over ∑ = {0, 1} such that

o m
e c
➢Write the regular expression
z e for the language containing the string in
.a
which every 0 is immediately followed by 11.

w w
➢Write RE for thewlanguage, defined over Σ ={a, b} of words starting with
‘a’ and ending in ‘b’ OR starting with ‘b’ and ending in ‘a’ .
RE (examples)
m
• Write the regular expression for the language starting and ending
o
.c
with ‘a’ and having any having any combination of b's in between,
g
over ∑ = {a, b}.
uit n
p
According to given condition string willmbe following type:
c
s= aa, aba, abba, abbba, abbbba,e….
o
z e
.a
RE= ab*a
ww
w
 RE (examples)
➢ Write the regular expression for the language L over ∑ = {0, 1} such that
all the string do not contain the substring 01. o m
g .c Note:
As we know substring is part of string

➢ The give statement means string should be u t i n

following type
L= { ^, 0, 1, 00, 11, 10, 110,….} m p
R = (1* 0*) co
e e
.a z
w w
w
RE (examples)

o m
in which every 0 is immediately followed by 11.g .c
➢Write the regular expression for the language containing the string

t i n
p u
o m
• String should be L= {011, 11011, 0111, 01111,…..}
e c
• R = (011 + 1)* z e
.a
w w
w
RE (examples)

➢Write RE for the language, defined over Σ ={a, b}cof o mwords starting
with ‘a’ and ending in ‘b’ OR starting with ‘b’g
.
and ending in ‘a’ ,
t i n
p u
o m
e c
z e
.a
w w
• then its regular expression may be a(a+b)*b + b(a+b)*a
w
 RE (examples)
• Lets have some practice to strengthen our concept about RE. Now we will
make a string from RE. o m
g .c
RE = b*
uit n
S = ^, b, bb, bbb, bbbb, …..
m p
co
RE= b+ ee
S= b, bb, bbb, bbbb, ….. .a z
ww
RE= ab* w
S= a, ab, abb, abbb, …..
RE (examples)

➢Exhibit the language L (a* · (a + b)) in set notation. c o

OR
m
convert given RE in
language form g .
t i n
L (a∗ · (a + b)) = L (a*) L (a + b) p u
o m
= (L (a) (L (a) 𝖴 L (b))c
*

e e
.
= {^, a, aa, aaa,z
a ...} {a, b}
w w
= {a, aa, aaa, ..., b, ab, aab, ...} .
w
 RE (examples)

➢ Exhibit the RE (0 + 10*) in set notation.

o m
.c
we have RE = (0 + 10*) , we may write it as [ (0) + (1).(0)* ]
g
L = { 0, 1, 10,100,1000, …}
u it n
m p
co
ee
.a z
ww
w
 o m
Lec 9 g .c
uit n
m p
co
ee
.a z
ww
w
Defining Languages
• A language can be defined in following ways:
o m
i. Descriptive g .c
ii. Recursive
u it n
iii. Regular Expressions (RE)
m p
iv. Finite Automata (FA) co
ee
.a z
ww
w
Finite Automata (FA)
m
• In FA we can represent language in form of diagram or graphically.
o
g .c
• FA are also known as:
uit n
• Finite Machine (FM)
• Finite Automatic Machine (FAM) m p
• Finite State Machine (FSM) co
e e
.a z
ww
w
FA (formal definition)
➢ A finite automaton is a 5-tuple (Q,,,q0,F), where m
.co
g
1. Q is a finite set called the states. (e.g. q0, q1,q2,q3..)
it n
u
2.  is a finite set called the alphabet. (e.g.  = {a,b})
p
om
3.  : Transition/movement c
e e
4. q0 is the start state.a
z
(initial state)
w w
5. w
F (final states).
FA Tuples definition
➢ q0 (start state or initial state)
o m
g .c
• Every finite automata always start with q0
uit n
m p
o
• In FA there will be only one initial state
c
e e
• It is represented by:
z
.a q or
ww 0

w
Cont…
➢ FA (Final state)
o m
g
number of final states can be more then 1. .c
• In FA the minimum number of final state should be 1 and maximum
it n
u
m p
• It means we may have more then 1 finial states in FA.
co
• At final state machine mayeestop or may not stop depend on our
language (input).
.a z
ww
w
It is represented by: + OR
Cont…
➢ Q (states/normal states)
o m
g .c
• These are the states other then initial and final sates.

t i n
u start nor finish.
• These are such states from with our FApneither
o m
• These are represented by: e c
z e
.a
w
➢  : Transition/movement
w
w is represent with
• Transition or movement sign.
Types of FA

o m
• There are two main types of FA
g .c
• NFA (non deterministic finite automata)
• DFA (deterministic finite automata)
u it n
m p
co
e e
.a z
ww
w
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
u it n
Lecture-10p
o mAutomata(NFA)
e c
Non-Deterministic Finite
Part-1
z e
.a
w w
w
Types of FA
o m
• There are two main types of FA
g .c
• NFA (non deterministic finite automata)
• DFA (deterministic finite automata) u it n
m p
co
e e
.a z
ww
w
NFA
• NFA stands for non-deterministic finite automata.
o m
g .c
• The finite automata are called NFA when there t i n exist many paths for
specific input from the current state to p u next state.
the
o m
c
• In other words, the exact stateeto which the machine moves cannot
be determined. Hence, it is z
e
called Non-deterministic Automaton.
.a
w w
• In NFA empty statewtransition is also allowed
 NFA examples

o m
g .c
it n
We have two choices

q1 puq2
o m
e c
q0 z e
w .a
w w q3
 First Choice

o m
All input is consumed g .c
uit n
q1 p q2 “accept”
o m
e c
q0 z e
w .a
w w q3

68
 Second Choice

o m
g .c
uit n
q1
m p q2
co
q0 ee
.a z
ww q3
w
69
 Second Choice

o m
Input cannot be consumed g .c
u it n
q1
m p q2
co
q0 eeAutomaton Halts
.a z
ww q3 “reject”
w
70
An NFA accepts a string:
if there is a computation of the NFA
that accepts the string o m
c g .
it n
u
m p
i.e., all the input string is processed and the
automaton is in an accepting co state
e e
.a z
w w
w
71
 aa is accepted by the NFA: m
.co
it ng
“accept” u
q1 q2 m p q1 q2
co
e
ze q0
q0
q3 .a q3 “reject”
because this
w w
w
computation this computation
accepts aa is ignored
72
An NFA rejects a string:
if there is no computation of the NFA
that accepts the string.
o m
g .c
it n
u
For each computation: mp
All the input c o
is consumed and the
• e
eis in a non final state
automaton
a z
w .
w w OR
• The input cannot be consumed
73
 Rejection example

o m
g .c
uit n
q1
m p q2
co
q0 ee
.a z
ww q3
w
74
 First Choice

o m
“reject” g .c
uit n
q1
m p q2
co
q0 ee
.a z
ww q3
w
75
 Second Choice

o m
g .c
uit n
q1
m p q2
co
q0 ee
.a z
ww q3
w
76
 Second Choice

o m
g .c
uit n
q1
m p q2
co
q0 ee
.a z
ww q3 “reject”
w
77
Another Rejection example

o m
g .c
uit n
q1
m p q2
co
q0 ee
.a z
ww q3
w
78
 First Choice

o m
g .c
uit n
q1
m p q2
co
q0 ee
.a z
ww q3
w
79
 First Choice

o m
Input cannot be consumed g .c
uit n
q1 p q2 “reject”
o m
e c
q0 z e
w .a Automaton halts
w w q3

80
 Second Choice

o m
g .c
uit n
q1
m p q2
co
q0 ee
.a z
ww q3
w
81
 Second Choice

o m
Input cannot be consumed g .c
u it n
q1
m p q2
co
q0 ee Automaton halts
.a z
ww
w q3 “reject”

82
 is rejected by the NFA:
o m
g .c
n
it “reject”
pu
q1 q2
o m q1 q2
e c
ze
q0 q0
q3 .a
“reject”
ww q3

w
All possible computations lead to rejection
83
 is rejected by the NFA:
o m
g .c
“reject” uit n
q1 q2 m p q1 q2
co
e
ze q0
q0
q3 .a q3 “reject”
ww
w
All possible computations lead to rejection
84
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
u it n
Lecture-11p
o mAutomata(NFA)
e c
Non-Deterministic Finite
Part-II
z e
.a
w w
w
Language accepted: L = {aa}
o m
g .c
uit n
q1
m p q2
co
q0 ee
.a z
ww q3
w
Lambda Transitions
o m
g .c
u it n
m p
co
e e
q0
.a z
q1 q2 q3
ww
w
 o m
g .c
u it n
m p
co
ee
q0
.a z
q1 q2 q3
ww
w
 o m
g .c
u it n
m p
co
ee
q0
.a z
q1 q2 q3
ww
w
 input tape head does not move

o m
g .c
u it n
m p
co
ee
q0
.a z
q1 q2 q3
ww
w
 all input is consumed

o m
g .c
u it n
m p
o “accept”
e c
q0 z
q1e q2 q3
.a
ww
w
String aa is accepted
 Rejection Example

o m
g .c
u it n
m p
co
ee
q0
.a z
q1 q2 q3
ww
w
 o m
g .c
u it n
m p
co
ee
q0
.a z
q1 q2 q3
ww
w
 (read head doesn’t move)

o m
g .c
u it n
m p
co
ee
q0
.a z
q1 q2 q3
ww
w
Input cannot be consumed

o m
g .c
Automaton halts u it n
m p
o “reject”
e c
q0 qe1
z q2 q3
w.a
w w
String is rejected
 o m
Language accepted: L = {aa} g .c
t i n
pu
o m
e c
q0 z
q1e q2 q3
.a
ww
w
 Another NFA Example

o m
g .c
uit n
m p
co
a ee
q0 .a z
q1 b q2 q3
ww
w
a b m
.co
it ng
pu
o m
e c
a z
q1e b q2 q3
q0 .a
ww
w
a b m
.co
it ng
pu
o m
e c
a z
q1e b q2 q3
q0 .a
ww
w
a b m
.co
it ng
pu
o m“accept”
e c
a z
q1e b q2 q3
q0 .a
ww
w
 Another String

a b a b m
.co
it ng
pu
o m
e c
a z e b q3
q0
w .a q1 q2
w w
a b a b m
.co
it ng
pu
o m
e c
a z e b q3
q0
w .a q1 q2
w w
a b a b m
.co
it ng
pu
o m
e c
a z e b q3
q0
w .a q1 q2
w w
a b a b m
.co
it ng
pu
o m
e c
a z e b q3
q0
w .a q1 q2
w w
a b a b m
.co
it ng
pu
o m
e c
a z e b q3
q0
w .a q1 q2
w w
a b a b m
.co
it ng
pu
o m
e c
a z e b q3
q0
w .a q1 q2
w w
a b a b m
.co
it ng
pu
o m“accept”
e c
a z e b q3
q0
w .a q1 q2
w w
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
u it n
Lecture-12p
o mAutomata(NFA)
e c
Non-Deterministic Finite
Part-III
z e
.a
w w
w
NFA Examples

o m
• Draw NFA for RE = a
g .c
uit n
q0
a
q1 m p
co
e e
.a z
ww
w
NFA Examples
o m
• Draw NFA for RE = a + b
g .c
uit n
q0
a
q1 m p
b co
e e
.a z
ww
w
NFA Examples
o m
• Draw NFA for RE = ab
g .c
uit n
q0
a
q1
m pb
q2
co
ee
.a z
ww
w
 NFA Examples
m
➢ Draw NFA for string that end with ‘aa’ defined over ∑ = {a, b}.
o
• First we nee to write its RE g .c
RE= ? aa
uit n
= (a+b)*aa m p
co
a, b
e e
a .a z a
q0
ww q1 q2

w
NFA Examples

➢ Draw NFA for all strings defined over ∑ = {a} o m

• We have only one letter in given alphabet. g .c
t i n
u
• So language should be {^, a, aa,aaa,aaaa….}
p
RE = (a)*
o m
a
e c
z e
.a
q
0
w w
w
 NFA Examples
➢Draw NFA for all strings that starts with ‘a’ and end with ‘bb’, defined
m
over alphabet ∑ = {a, b}.
.co
g
• The string that will be generated according to given condition may be of
it n
following type
pu
S= a ?? bb
o m
= a [^, a, b, ab, aaa,bbb…] bb c
e
e a, b
RE = a (a+b)* bb
.a z
w w b b
q0 w a
q 1
q2 q3
NFA Examples
➢ Draw a NFA for all possible strings start and end with same letter defined
over alphabet ∑ = {a, b}.
• Given condition means if string start with ‘a’ then it alsoo m end with ‘a’ or if it
start with ‘b’ then it also end with ‘b’ g . c
• L1= { a ?? a} t i n a, b

pu a
= {a (a+b)*a}
o m q1
q 2

• L2= {b ?? b}
e c a

= {b (a+b)*b} z e q b
.a 0
b

w w q 3

RE= a(a+b)*a +wb (a+b)* b a, b

NFA Examples
➢ Draw a NFA for all possible strings start and end with different letter
defined over alphabet ∑ = {a, b}.
o
• Given condition means if string start with ‘a’ then it should
m end with ‘b’ or if
it start with ‘b’ then it should end with ‘a’ g . c
• L1= { a ?? b} t i n a, b

p u b
= {a (a+b)*b}
o m 1q q2

• L2= {b ?? a}
e c a

= {b (a+b)*a} z e q a
.a 0
b

w w q 3

RE= a(a+b)*b +wb (a+b)* a a, b

 NFA Examples
➢Draw NFA for all the strings that contains ‘aa’, defined over alphabet ∑ = {a,
b}.
o m
.c
• According to given condition in our language there should be ‘aa’ in every
g
• L= { aa, aaa, abaa, baab, aabba, bbbabaa….} u it n
string so our defined language may be be of following type

p
• AS we see in our language “aa” may be in start or in end or in between any
m
letter defined over alphabet ∑ = {a, b}.
co
ee
• RE= (a+b)* aa (a+b)*
.a z
a, b
ww a, b
w a a
q0 q1 q2
 NFA Examples
• Draw NFA for string that contain at least one ‘a’ and end with ‘b’ defined
m
over alphabet ∑ = {a, b}.
.co
it ng
• Language will be L= { ?? a ?? b } pu
• RE = { (a+b)* a (a+b)* b} o m
e c
a, b
.a ze a, b

ww
a b
q0
w q1 q2
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
uit n
Lecture-13 m p
c o
Deterministic Finite Automata(DFA)
e e
.a z
w w
w
DFA (Deterministic Finite Automata)
➢ Remember 3 points for DFA
o m
g .c
i. no empty string
u it n
p
ii. No. of transaction from each sate is equal to number of letters
m
given in alphabet.
c o
e
• For example, if ∑ = {a, b}. This alphabet
beetwo transaction. (two arrows on each state)
has two letter i.e, a and b. That means
from every state there will z
.a
iii. It may also contains
w
• Reject state is a state
w reject state.
which never allow us to reach final state
w
 DFA (Deterministic Finite Automata)

To accept a string: o m
g .c
it n
isuscanned
all the input string p
omis accepting
and the last state
c
ee
To reject a string: .a z
all the
w winput string is scanned
w
and the last state is non-accepting
DFA Examples

o m
• Draw DFA for RE = a, defined over ∑ = {a, b}.
g .c
u
accept state
it n
q1
a
q2 m p q1
a
q2

co
e
ze b
a a,b
b OR b
.a
w w
q
3

reject state
q3

w
reject state a, b a, b
DFA Examples
➢ Draw DFA that starts with ‘b’, define over alphabet ∑ = {a, b}.
m
.co
• The RE of above statement will be: RE= b (an+gb)*
u t i
m p
c o
a, b

b e e
q0
.a z q1
accept state

w w a, b
aw
q2
reject state
DFA Examples
➢ Draw DFA for string that starts with ‘ab’, define over alphabet ∑ =
m
{a, b}.
.co
i ng
• The RE of above statement will be: RE= uabt (a + b)*
m p
c o a, b

a e e
q0
.a z q
b
1 q2 Accept state

w w a
wb q3
reject state
a, b
DFA Examples
➢ Draw DFA for string that starts with ‘aba’, define over alphabet ∑ =
{a, b}. o m
g . c
t
• The RE of above statement will be: RE= aba i n
(a + b)*
pu a, b

o m
a
e c b a
q0
z e q1 q 2 q3

.a accept state

w wb
a
b
w q4 a, b
reject state
DFA Examples
➢Draw DFA for language that has ‘b’ as second letter define over
alphabet ∑ = {a, b}. o m
.c
• The RE of above statement will be: RE= ( a+nb)gb (a + b)*
u t i
m p a, b

a,b c o
q
e e q
b
q
0

.a z 1 2

accept state

w w a
w q3
a, b
reject state
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
uit n
m
Lecture-14 p
c o
Transition Table
e e
.a z
ww
w
Transition Table
o m
g .c
• Transition table is tabular representation of transition function.

t i n
u
• Transition table can be generated fromptransition diagram.
• For example diagram of FA
o m
e c
e specific transition take place from
• Transition table shows thatzwhich
specific state. . a
w w
w
• We write all states in column and transitions in a row.
Example
1, 0 o m
g .c 0 1
q1
0
q2
q ti
n
1
pu 0 q3 q1

q0
o m q1 q1
0
1
e c q1, q2
q3
z e
.a
q2 - -
1, 0

ww q3 q3 q3, q2
w
Examples

a, b
o ma, b

g .c
q0
a
q1
a
t i n
pu q
2

o m
c
e a
z e b

w
q0
.a q0, q1 q0

qw q2 -
w 1

q2 q2 q2
Example 1, 0

1 0 1
q0 q1 q2
o m q3

.c
0 ng
1
0
u t i
q 1, 0 p
4

o m
e c
z e 1 0
q0
w.a q1 q4
q1
q2 w w q4
q3
q2
q4
q3 q3 q3
q4 q4 q4
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
uit n
m
Lecture-15 p
DFAc o
VS NFA
e e
.a z
ww
w
NFA VS DFA
m
• In NFA dead configuration is allowed, in DFA dead configuration is not
o
allowed.
g .c
➢ Example
u it n
• Draw NFA & DFA for RE = 1, defined over ∑ = {1, 0}.
p
o m
e c 1
1 z e q1 q2

q1 q.a
1,0
ww 2

0
NFA w q3
1, 0

DFA
 NFA VS DFA
• In NFA multiple transactions are allowed correspond to input while in
o m
DFA multiple transactions are not allowed correspond to input.
➢ Example g .c
u it n
• Draw NFA and DFA for RE= (a+b)*b, defined over ∑ = {a, b}.
m p
co
a, b
e e a
b

b
.a z b
q0 q1
ww q0 q1
a
NFA w
DFA q2
a, b
NFA VS DFA
m
• Empty transaction is allowed in NFA while in DFA no empty transaction
o
is allowed.
g .c
u it n
• NFA features is not associated with real computers while DFA features is
p
associated with digital computers.
o m
e c
z e
• Designing and understanding of NFA is easy and simple while designing
.a
and understanding of DFA difficult.
w
w w
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
uit n
m
Lecture-16p
co
TG
e e
.a z
ww
w
Transition Graph (TG)
➢ It is a method to define a language. m
• Properties of TG are given below: .co
I. Number of states should be finite. it ng
pu
II. There must be at least one initial state and one final state.
m
• initial and final states can be more than one
o
III. No dead end state. e c
z e
IV.
V. w .a
Multiple transitions are allowed.
Can read more than one character at a time.
VI. w w
It allows null transactions.
 TG Examples
1
• Draw transition Graph (TG) of RE= 1*(1+ 0)
oqm 1
1
g .c 0 q1

u it n 1

q0
1,0
q1
m p q2
0
q3

co
1 ee1
.a z q0 1

q0
1
q w
w q1
w
1
1

0 0
q2
q2
 TG Examples
• Draw a TG that accepts all words with aa or bb defined over ∑ = {a, b}.
RE= (a+b)* (aa + bb) (a+b)* o m
a, b
g .c a, b
a, b
a, b
u it n aa

a a m p q0 q1

q0 q1 q2
co bb

e e q2
a, b
b q3 b z
.a a, b a, b

ww aa a, b
w q0 q1
aa, bb
a, b

a, b q0 q1
bb
q0
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
u it n
m
Lecture-17p
co
Kleene’s Theorem (part 1 & 3)
e e
.a z
ww
w
 Kleene’s Theorem
➢ Kleene’s Theorem has three parts: o m
g .c
1) i n
If language can be accepted by FA (Finite tAutomata) then it can also
be accepted by TG (Transition Graph).pu
o m
2) If language can be acceptedeby
c
e TG (Transition Graph) then it can also
a z
be expressed by RE (Regular
. Expression).

w w
3) If language canwbe expressed by RE (Regular Expression) then it can be
accepted by FA (Finite Automata)
Kleene’s Theorem Proof (part 1)
• If language can be accepted by FA (Finite Automata) then it can also
be accepted by TG (Transition Graph).
o m
• Lets S= aba
g .c
u it n
m p
a b a co
q0 q1
e
q2
e q 3
aba

b.a
z q0 q1
a
b ww a, b
w
q4
reject state
a, b
Kleene’s Theorem Proof (part 3)
• If language can be expressed by RE (Regular Expression) then it can be
accepted by FA (Finite Automata) o m
g .c
• language that has ‘b’ as second letter define over alphabet ∑ = {a, b}.
RE= ( a + b) b (a + b)*
u it n
m p a, b

a,b c o
q0
eeq b
q2

.a z 1

ww a
w q3
a, b
reject state
Theory of Automata
o m
g .c
u it n
m
Lecture-18 p
co
Kleene’s Theorem (part 2)
e e
.a z
ww
w
 Kleene’s Theorem Proof (part 2)
➢If language can be accepted by TG (Transition Graph) then it can also be
expressed by RE (Regular Expression). o m
g .c
➢ For the proof of part 2, we need to remember following rules;
u it n
m p then introduce a new start
Rule 1: If a TG has more than one start states,
state connecting the new state to the old start states by the transitions
co
labeled by Λ and make the old start states the non-start states.
e e
b b .a z b b
q0
aa
q1
ww ^ q0
aa
q1

a
w
a
s
^ a a
q q q3
q2 3 2

bb bb
Kleene’s Theorem Proof (part 2)

m a new
Rule 2: If a TG has more than one final states, then introduce
o
.c
final state, connecting the old final states to the new final state by the
g
transitions labeled by Λ.
u it n
m p b
b b co b
^ q0 q1
e e ^ q0 q1
s
aa
.a z s
aa
^
f
a a
^ q2
a
ww
q3 ^ q2
a q3 ^
bb w bb
Kleene’s Theorem Proof (part 2)
Rule 3: If a state has two (more than one) incoming transition edges,
o m
then replace all these transition edges with a single transition
edge labeled by the sum (+) g .c
u it n
m p
a c co c+d
e e a+b
q0
b
q1
.a z q0 q1

wwd
w
 Kleene’s Theorem Proof (part 2)

m
Rule 4 (state elimination): If three states in a TG, are connected in
o
.c
sequence then eliminate the middle state and connect the first state with
g
the third by a single transition.
u it n
r m p
co
a b e
ze
q0 q1 q2 ar* b
q0 q2
.a
ww
w
TG to RE Example
• We have TG:
b a
a
o m
( (^ a* b). b*.a). a*. ^

q0
b q1
a
q2 g .cs f

b
u it n
^
a
b m
a
p a

s q0 q1
co q2 ^ f
e
eb
.a z a
s
^ a* b
ww q1
a
q2 ^ f
w
a
s
(^ a* b). b*.a ^
q2 f
Mealy Machine
• Mealy Machine is Finite Automata (FA)
o m
g .c
• A Mealy Machine is an FSM whose output depends on the present
state as well as the present input.
u it n
m p
co FA

e e
.a z
FA without FA with

ww O/P O/P

TG
w NFA DFA
Mealy Moore
Machine Machine
Tuples of Mealy Machine
➢ A Mealy Machine has 6-tuple 6-tuple (Q,,, q0, O, λ ), where
o m
1. 0, 1
g .c
Q is a finite set called the states. (e.g. q q , q ,..
2 ..)

2. t
 is a finite set called the alphabet. (input i nalphabet e.g.  = {a,b})
p u
3.  : Transition/movement: Q ×o∑m →Q
e c
4. z estate)
q is the start state (initial
0
.a
5. O is a finite set w
w
of symbols called the output alphabet
w
6. λ is the output transition function where λ: Q × ∑ → O
 How to Design Mealy Machine (Example 1)
• Design a Mealy Machine from given Transition Table
o m
g .c 0/c , 1/b

Next State
uit n 0/b

Present state Input= 0 Input= 1

m p 1/c
state output state output
co q1
q3

e
ze
q0 q1 a q2 a
q0
q1 q1 b q3 c
.a q2
0/c
q2
q3
q3
q3
c
c
ww
q2
q3
a
b
w
1/a
 Mealy Machine (Example 2)
m
• Find the output of a string “011011” by given mealy machine
o
0/c , 1/b
g .c
0/b

uit n
1/c m p
• We have given string:
q1
q3
co string= 0 1 1 0 1 1
q0 e e Output= a c b c b b
q2 .a
0/c z
ww
w
1/a
 Mealy Machine (Example 3)
• Design a Mealy Machine that produce 1’s compliment of any binary input string.
o m
g .c
t i n
Suppose we have string:
1/0
pu string= 0 1 1
binary 1’s
o m
compliment
e
q0 c
ze
1 0 0 1 1
q0 q0 q0 q0
0 1
.a 0/1
ww 1 0 0

w
Moore Machine
o m
.c
• Moore Machine is Finite Automata (FA) with output
g
u it n
m p
• A Moore Machine is an FSM whose output depends only on the
present state.
co
e e
.a z
w w
w
Tuples of Moore Machine
➢ A Moore Machine has 6-tuple (Q,,, q0, O, λ ), where
o m
1. 0, 1
g .c
Q is a finite set called the states. (e.g. q q , q ,..
2 ..)

2. t
 is a finite set called the alphabet. (input i nalphabet e.g.  = {a,b})
p u
3.  : Transition/movement: Q ×o∑m →Q
e c
4. z estate)
q is the start state (initial
0
.a
5. O is a finite set w
w
of symbols called the output alphabet
w
6. λ is the output transition function where λ: Q → O
 How to Design Moore Machine (Example 1)
• Design a Moore Machine from given Transition Table
o m
g .c
Next State
u it n 0 0
Present state
Input 0 Input 1
output
m p 1
q0 q1 q2 a
co q1 / c q3 / b
e
ze
q1 q1 q3 c q0 / a
1
q2 q2 q3 a
.a 1
q3 q3 q2
ww b
q2 / a

w
0
 Moore Machine (Example 2)
• Find the output of a string “101100” by given Moore machine
o m
.c
• We have given string:
g
0 0
u it n
string= 1 0 1 1 0 0
1
m pOutput= a a a b a a a
q1 / c
co
q3 / b

q0 / a e
1e
1

.a z
q2 / a
ww Note
w
0
• In Moore machine output of string will always be: n+1
• In Mealy machine out put of string will always be: n
• Where n in length of string
 Moore Machine (Example 3)
• Design a Moore Machine that produce 1’s compliment of any binary input string.
o m
g .c
binary 1’s
u it n 0

1
compliment
0 m p 0 q1 / 1

0 1 co q0 / 0
e 1

ze
0
1
Suppose we have string:
.a 1
string= 1 1 0
ww q2 / 0

1
w1 0
q0 q2 q2 q1

0 0 1
 Mealy to Moore Conversion
• Convert the given Mealy Machine into Moore Machine.
o m
0/c , 1/b
g .c q1/b
0/b

uit n q1/a

1/c m p
q1
q3
co
q0 e e q0 q 3 /c

q2
0/c
.a z
ww q 2 /a

Mealy Machine w q 3 /b

1/a
Moore Machine
Mealy to Moore Conversion using transition table
• Construct Moore Machine transaction table from given Mealy transition table

o m
Mealy Transition Table
g .c
Next State n state
it Present Next State
output

Present state Input= 0 Input= 1 pu Input 0 Input 1

state output state output

o m q0 q0, a q2, a a
q0 q0 a q2 a
e c q1 q1', b q30, c b
q1 q1 b q3
z e c q2 q30,c q2, a a
q2 q3 c q2
w .a a q30 q30,c q31,b c
q3 q3 c

w wq3 b
q31 q30,c q31,b b

Moore Transition Table

Mealy to Moore Conversion using transition table
• Construct Moore Machine transaction table from given Mealy transition table

o m
Mealy Transition Table
g .c
Next State n state
it Present Next State
Present state Input= 0 Input= 1 pu Input 0 Input 1
output

state output state output

o m q0 q0 q2, a
q0 q0 a q2 a
e c q1 q1 q30 b
q1
q2
q1
q3
b
c
q3
q2
.a ze c
a
q2
q30
q30
q30
q2
q31
a
c
q3 q3 c
ww
q3 b q31 q30 q31 b

w Moore Transition Table

Moore Machine to Mealy Machine Conversion
• Convert given Moore Machine into Mealy Machine
o m
g .c
0 0

uit n 0/c 0/b

q1 / c
1
q3 / b m p 1/b

co q1 q3
q0 / a
1 e q0
ze
1/b
1 1/a
q2 / a .a
ww q2

Moore Machine
0 w 0/a Mealy Machine
Moore Machine to Mealy Machine Conversion
• Design a Mealy machine from given Moore machine. m
.co
0 i/n
g
0
u t 0
q1 /1
m p q1
q0 / 0 1
co q0 1/0
1
ee 1/1
0
q2 / 0 .a z 0/0
q2

ww
Moore Machine w Mealy Machine
 Moore to Mealy Transition Table conversion
Construct a Transition table of given Moore machine and convert it into
transition table of Mealy machine.
o m
Present state .c
Next State

i n g Input 0 Input 1
output

0 u t q0 q0 q1 0

q1 /1
m p q1 q2 q0 1

q0 / 0 1 co q2 q0 q1 0

ee
0
1

.a z Next State

ww
q2 / 0 Present state
Input= 0 Input= 1

w q0
state
q0
output
0
state
q1
output
1
q1 q2 0 q0 0
q2 q0 0 q1 1
Pumping Lemma
• Pumping Lemma is used to find out whether the language is regular or not.
o m
• There are two types of language finite and infinite. g .c
u it n
• Finite language in always regular.
m p
c o
• Infinite language may be a regulare or may be non-regular
e to find language is regular or not.
• Pumping Lemma is one of thezmethod
. a
• Pumping Lemma performs
w w negative test.
w lemma test on language and language pass that test, than there
• if we apply pumping
will be no surety that language is regular or non-regular.
• If language fail pumping lemma test, then it is sure that language is non-regular
Steps for pumping Lemma Test
1. Suppose language is regular.
o m
.c
2. If language is regular then we can make its Finite Automata.
g
3. Suppose finite automata has 8 states.
u it n
m p
o
4. Take word of length greater than states
c
e e
• Make sure that length of .Xa
z
5. Divide word into 3 parts i.e; x,y,z
+ Y <= N

6. X and Z can be Nullw w

but Y can not be Null. Y>=1
w
7. Will decide language is regular or not
pumping Lemma for Regular Language (Example)
1) Suppose language is regular. ➢ Prove that language is regular for all the
2) If language is regular then we o m
strings ending with “bab” defined over
can make its Finite Automata. ∑ = {a, b}.
g .c
3) Suppose finite automata has 8 • We suppose
t i nlanguage is regular, than we can
states. u
make its
p FA. (step 1 & 2)
4) Take word of length greater than
states o m
• N=8 (step 3)

5) Divide word into 3 parts i.e; x,y,z e c• Word= aabbababab (step 4)

z e
1) Make sure that length of X + Y <= N • Length of x= 4, y=3, z=3 (step 5)

w .a
6) X and Z can be Null but Y can not • Increase power of Y (step 7)
be Null. Y>=1
w w • X= aabb ; y= aba; z= bab
7) Increase the power of Y (pump Y) • X YY Z
to decide language is regular or String belong to
not • aabbabaababab Language (L), Hence L is
RL
pumping Lemma for Non-Regular Language
(Example)
1) Suppose language is regular. ➢Prove that language is non-regular for L
2) If language is regular then we o m
is an bn over ∑ = {a, b}.
can make its Finite Automata. .c
➢Our language can be L= {ab, aabb,
g
3) Suppose finite automata has 8
states. u it n
aaabbb, aaaabbbb,…….}
• We suppose language is regular, than we can
4) Take word of length greater than
m p
make its FA. (step 1 & 2)
states
co
• N=8 (step 3)
5) Divide word into 3 parts i.e; x,y,z
e e • Word= aaaaabbbbb (step 4)

.a z
1) Make sure that length of X + Y <= N • Length of x= 1, y=4, z=5 (step 5)

be Null. Y>=1 ww
6) X and Z can be Null but Y can not • Increase power of Y (step 7)
• X= a; y= aaaa; z= bbbbb
w
7) Increase the power of Y (pump Y) • X YY Z
to decide language is regular or String does not belong to
not • a aaaaaaaabbbbb Language (L), Hence L is
non RL
 o m
g .c
uit n
m p
co
ee
.a z
ww
w
Decidability

o m
• Decidability is making decision about following:
g .c
• Is given FA/RE accept any string or not? u it n
p
• Is given FA/RE represents finite or infinite language?
m
co
• Whether two languages are equivalent or not?
e e
• The problems that solve.a z
in finite steps and their answer is Yes or No,
w w
such problems are called decidable problems.
w
Decidability
➢ Decide whether given FA/RE accept any string or not?
o m
➢ To find out that given FA/RE accept any string or not
g . c
➢ We will perform following steps on given FA, If we have
t i n
given RE then first we
construct FA from RE then we perform following steps.
p u
• Mark the initial state.
o m
• Mark the states that are connected with
e c initial states.
• Remove the edges that connectzinitial e state with other states.
• Remove the edges of next marked .a state and if next marked state edges
connected with another state
w w then also marked that state.
w
• Repeat the above process until final state is marked
• If we are unable to reach to final state, it means our FA does not accept any string
• If we reach to final state, it means our FA accept any string
Decidability (Example)
• Is given FA/RE accept any string or not?

o m• Mark the initial state.

g .c • Mark the states that are connected

uit n •
with initial states.

Remove the edges that connect

m p •
initial state with other states.

co Remove the edges of next marked

state and if next marked state edges

e e connected with another state then

also marked that state.

.a z • Repeat the above process until final

ww state is marked
• If we are unable to reach to

w final state, it means our FA

does not accept any string
• If we reach to final state, it
means our FA accept any string
 Cont..
• After performing the desired steps, our final automata will be in following form, as we
can see that we are unable mark the final state. o m
.c
• So we can conclude that given FA will not accept any string.
g
u it n
m p
co
e e
.a z
ww
w
Cont..
Lets suppose in our example, transaction is performed from q3 to q4.
o m
g .c
u it n
m p
co
e e
.a z
ww
w
Context Free Grammar (CFG)
• Grammar consist of set of rules to construct a sentences in a language.
o m
• CFG is used to generate all possible pattern of strings in given finite
language.
g .c
it n
• It consist of set of production rules that generates the string of language.
u
p
• CFG can be defined by four tuples. CFG = (V,T,P,S)
m
c o
e
• V= finite set of variables (non terminals)
e
• V always denoted by capitalzletters
.a
w
• T= finite set of terminals
w
(V∩T=∅)
• T always denoted by
w small letters and terminals help to generate string
• P= production rules (substitution rules)
• S= start variable
 CFG Tuples Example
• V= finite set of variables (non terminals)
o m
• V always denoted by capital letters
g .cS aS1
• T= finite set of terminals ( V ∩ T = ∅ )
• T always denoted by small letters and terminals
u it n S ε
help to generate string
m p
V= S
• P= production rules (substitution rules)
co T= a, 1, ε
• S= start variable
e e
.a z S aS1 | ε
ww
w
RE to CFG Conversion (Examples)
1) RE= a+b 2) RE= (a+b) (a+b) 4) RE= (a+b) (aa+bb) (a+b)
S AA o m
S a|b
A a|b
S ABA
g .c
or A. a|b
u it n
B. YY | ZZ
S a 3) RE= (a+b)a + ab
m p
S b
S X Y co
Y. a
or X JK ee Z. b
S X|Y J. a|b .a z
X. a K. a
ww
Y. b
Y
B
w
KB
b
CFG Derivation
• Derivation is generation of string from grammar. m
.co
• We can use CFG derivation to find out:
it ng
• Which string is produced by grammar
pu
• specific string is generated by grammar or not
o m
e c
e
• We can draw derivation tree to find out string produced by grammar
z
w .a
w w
 CFG Derivation (Example)
• Find out the string generated by given CFG
o m
g .c S

u it nX Y

m p ε
co bbX aY ε

e e
will be: .a z
string generated by given grammar bbX ε aY ε

bbbbbbaaa w
w ε
w
In general: b2n an ; n>=1
bbX
aY ε

ε ε
CFG Derivation (Example)
• Find out is “baab” valid string of given CFG?
o m
g .c
S A B n
ti A
A
S
S
a|b
a|b puB
YY|ZZ A
S o m
a|b aa|bb A
Se c a|b aa|bb a|b
z e
w .a Yes, baab is valid string for given grammar
w w
Chomsky Normal Form (CNF)
m
• A Context Free Grammar (CFG) is in Chomsky Normal Form (CNF) if:
o
g .c
i. i n
Non-Terminal variable represents exactly twotnon-terminal variables
p u
ii. m
Non-Terminal variable represents exactly
o one terminal variable

e c
z e
.a
w w
w
Push Down Automata (PDA)
• PDA is a way to implement a context-free grammar (CFG) into
m
diagrammatic form.
.co
it ng
u
• Its implementation is same as DFA, but DFA has finite memory and PDA
p
has infinite memory.
o m
e c
z e
• It use stack data structure (LIFO)
w .a
w say PDA is =
• In simple words wewcan finite state machine + Stack
PDA (General Block Diagram)

Input o m
Tape
a b c
g .c
uit n
Read
m p POP
Header
co PUSH

e e
.a z
w
Finite Control Unit
w
STACK

w
 PDA Tuples
• A PDA can be formally described as a 7-tuple (Q, ∑, S, δ, q0, Z0, F)
o m
Q is the finite number of states g .c
∑ is input alphabet u it n
q0 is the initial state (q0 ∈ Q) m p
co
F is a set of accepting states
e e
z
Z0is bottom/initial stack top symbol
.a
S is stack symbols
ww
w
δ is the transition function: Q × ∑ × S Q × S*
 Pushdown Automata (PDA) Example
• Construct a PDA for language; L= anbn where n>=1. m
.co
Input it ng
Tape
pu
o m
e c
Finite Control z e
Unit
w .a
w w
Stack
Turing Machine (TM)

o m
RE CFL
g .c
it n
TM

pu
o m
Finite
Automata
Push Down
e c
z e
Automata

w.a
w w
 TM Tuples
• A TM can be formally described as a 7-tuple (Q, ∑, τ, δ, q0, B, F)
o m
Q is the finite number of states g .c
∑ is input alphabet u it n a b
I/O Tape

q0 is the initial state (q0 ∈ Q) m p Read write

co Header
F is a final state
e e Finite Control
B is blank
.a z Unit

τ is symbols allowed on w
tape
w w
δ is the transition function: Q×τ Q x τ x (L,R)
Turing Machine Example
➢ Design a TM for an bn where n >= 1
o m
B B a
g .c a b b B B
• If n =1; then L= ab n
• If n=2; then L= aabb uY t i Y, R

m p a a, R
a a, L
B B, R
co Y Y, L
e
q0
.
a
a zeX, R q1
b Y, L
q2

ww X X, R
Y w
Y, R
B B, R

Y Y, R