1 9

2 0
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY (normal)
P C
U
LECTURE 1. Introduction. General
L
Physiology of Excitable tissues. S
y c
Lyubomyr Vovkanych h
a n
Department of Anatomy & Physiology
LSUFC
v k
V o
L S
The Subject of Physiology
1 9
Physiology (from the Greek physis = nature; logos =
2 0
P C
study) is the study of biological function - of how the body

U
works, from cell to tissue, tissue to organ, organ to system,
S
L
and of how the organism as a whole

y c
Divisions of Physiology h
a n
k
• Cell physiology: processes within and between cells

ov
• Special physiology: functions of specific organs

V
• Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system

S
L
• Pathological physiology: effects of diseases
Homeostasis
1 9
2 0
Homeostasis - maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal

C
environment (state of dynamic constancy, in which conditions are
stabilized above and below the set point)

U P
L S
c h
• Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium (opposing forces are in balance)

ny
• Homeostasis is maintained due to the systems respond (regulation) to

a
external and internal changes (to function within a normal range)

v k
o
• The main mechanisms of regulation

S V
• Autoregulation (intrinsic) - response in a cell, tissue, or organ to
changes

L• Extrinsic regulation - responses controlled by nervous and

endocrine systems
Important Parameters of Homeostasis
1 9
2 0
C
Parameters of Normal Value Normal Unit

P
extracellular fluid Range
Oxygen 40

S U
35–45 mm Hg
Sodium ion 142

h L 138–146 mmol/L

c
Sodium ion 142 138–146 mmol/L
Glucose
ny 85 75–95 mg/dl

v ka
Body temperature 37.0 37.0 C

o
Acid-base 7.4 7.3–7.5 pH

S V
L
Mechanisms of Regulation
1 9
2 0
P C
S U
h L
y c
a n
v k
V o
L S
Negative and Positive Feedback
1 9
Negative Feedback
2 0
P
• The response of the effector negates the stimulusC
• Body is brought back into homeostasis
S U
h L
Positive Feedback
y c
a n
k
• The response of the effector increases change of the stimulus

ov
• Body is moved away from homeostasis

V
• Normal range is lost

S
L• Used to speed up processes
Negative Feedback
1 9
2 0
P C
S U
h L
y c
a n
v k
V o
L S
Excitable tissues
1 9
2 0
Excitable tissues
P C
S U
Nervous
h L
Muscular Secretory

y c
a n
v k
V o
L S
Excitable tissues
1 9
2 0
C
Stimuli

P
Excitable cell

S U
h L
c
Physiological rest Excitation Inhibition

ny
v ka Action potential

o
Nerve impulse

V
Contraction Changes in energy
exchange

S
Secretion

L
Changes in the chemical
composition
The Model Cell
1 9
2 0
P C
S U
h L
y c
a n
v k
V o
L S
Plasma Membrane
1 9
2 0
Functions of the Plasma Membrane
P C
• Physical isolation
S U
• Barrier

h L
c
• Regulates exchange with environment

ny
• Ions and nutrients enter

ka
• Wastes eliminated and cellular products released

v
• Monitors the environment

V o
• Extracellular fluid composition

S
• Chemical signals

L • Structural support
• Anchors cells and tissues
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
1 9
• Double layer of Phospholipid molecules
2 0
P C
U
• Membrane Proteins

L S
• Integral proteins (within the membrane)

y c h
• Peripheral proteins (bound to inner or outer surface of

a n
k
the membrane)

ov
• Membrane Carbohydrates

S V
L
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
1 9
2 0
P C
S U
h L
y c
a n
v k
V o
L S
Function of the Membrane Proteins
1 9
• Anchoring proteins (stabilizers)
2 0
Attach to inside or outside structures

P C
U
• Recognition proteins (identifiers)

S
Label cells as normal or abnormal
• Enzymes

h L
y c
Catalyze reactions

n
• Receptor proteins

ka
Bind and respond to ligands (ions, hormones)

v
o
• Carrier proteins (pumps)

S V
Transport specific solutes through membrane
• Channels

L Regulate water flow and solutes through membrane

Membrane Transport
1 9
2 0
C
The plasma (cell) membrane is a barrier, but
• Nutrients must get in

U P
S
• Products and wastes must get out

h L
y c
Plasma membrane is selectively permeable, restricts

a n
some materials based on
• Size
v k
V o
• Electrical charge

L S
• Molecular shape
• Lipid solubility
 Membrane Transport
1 9
Transport Passive Active
2 0
(no energy required)
C
(requiring energy and ATP)

P
U
Without • Diffusion ---
carriers (simple)
L S
h
• Osmosis

y c
Carrier-
a n
• Channel • Active transport by
mediated
v k
mediated pumps

o
diffusion • Secondary active

S V • Facilitated transport by

L
diffusion exchangers
(cotransport or
countertransport)
 Diffusion
1 9
Simple diffusion
2 0
• lipid-soluble compounds

P C
U
(alcohols, fatty acids, steroids)

S
• dissolved gases (oxygen and
carbon dioxide)

h L
y
Through transmembrane
c
a
proteins (channels)
n
v k
• water–soluble compounds

o
• ions

S V
L
Osmosis (the diffusion of water
across the cell membrane)
Diffusion
1 9
2 0
P C
S U
h L
y c
a n
v k
V o
L S
 Osmosis
1 9
Osmotic Pressure
2 0
• Is the force of a
P C
concentration gradient of
S U
water

h L
• Equals the force
y c
a n
(hydrostatic pressure)

v k
needed to block osmosis

V o
L S
Osmosis and Tonicity
1 9
0
Solutions

2
• Isotonic (iso- = same, tonos = tension) - a solution that does not

C
cause osmotic flow of water in or out of a cell

osmosis
U P
• Hypotonic (hypo- = below) - less solutes and loses water through

L S
• Hypertonic (hyper- = above) - more solutes and gains water by

h
osmosis

y c
a n
A cell in a hypotonic solution:

k
• Gains water

ov
• Ruptures (hemolysis of red blood

V
cells)

S
A cell in a hypertonic solution:

L
• Loses water
• Shrinks (crenation of red blood
cells)
 Carrier-mediated diffusion
1 9
Channel-mediated diffusion
2 0
Passage depends on: ion size, charge and

P C
interaction with the channel

S U
h L
c
Facilitated diffusion

ny
Carrier proteins transport molecules too large

ka
to fit through channel proteins (glucose, amino

v
o
acids):

V
• molecule binds to receptor site on carrier protein

L S
• protein changes shape, molecules pass through
• receptor site is specific to certain molecules
Types of channels
1 9
Passive channels (also called leak channels):
2 0
• are always open
P C
U
• permeability changes with conditions

L S
y c h
Active channels (also called gated channels):
• open and close in response to stimuli

a n
• at resting potential, most gated channels are closed

v k
V o
L S
Conditions of Gated Channels
1 9
Closed, Open
2 0
Closed,
but capable of (activated)
P Cnot capable of

U
opening opening

L S (inactivated)

y c h
a n
v k
V o
L S
Classes of Gated Channels
1 9
2 0
C
• Chemically gated channels

P
• Open in presence of specific chemicals (e.g., ACh) at a binding site
• Found on neuron cell body and dendrites

S U
• Voltage-gated channels
h L
y c
• Respond to changes in transmembrane potential

a n
• Have activation gates (opens) and inactivation gates (closes)

v k
• Characteristic of excitable membrane

o
• Found in neural axons, skeletal muscle sarcolemma, cardiac muscle

V
L S
• Mechanically gated channels
• Respond to membrane distortion
• Found in sensory receptors (touch, pressure, vibration)
 Active transport
1 9
2 0
C
Active transport proteins (pumps or

P
exchangers):
• move substrates against concentration
S U
gradient

h L
c
• require energy, such as ATP (or ion gradient)

ny
• ion pumps move ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+)

v ka
• exchangers countertransports two ions at the
same time

V o
L S
Transmembrane Potentials
1 9
2 0
C
Resting potential

U
• The transmembrane potential of resting cell
P
Graded (local) potential
L S
y c h
• Temporary, localized change in resting potential

a n
• Caused by stimulus

v k
o
Action potential

S V
• Is an electrical impulse

L
• Produced by graded potential

• Propagates along surface of axon to synapse

Transmembrane Potentials
1 9
Resting Graded (local) Action
2 0
potential potential
P C
potential

S U
h L
y c
a n
v k
V o
L S
Resting potential
1 9
2 0
• The difference in electrical
charges on either side of a
P C
cell membrane

S U
• Positive charge

h L
c
outside and a negative

y
charge inside (-70 - -90 mV)

n
ka
• Remains constant in in the

v
physiological rest state

V o
L S
 Resting potential
1 9
Mechanisms of generation:
2 0
C
• Active transport of sodium and potassium

P
ions through the membrane by the

U
Sodium-Potassium (Na+-K+) Pump

L
• large concentration gradients for Na+
S
h
(20 times) and K+ (35 times) across

y c
the resting membrane

a n
• electrogenic effect because more

v k
positive charges are pumped to

o
the outside than to the inside

V
• Leakage of potassium and sodium through

S
L
the nerve membrane by Potassium
Sodium (K+-na+) “leak” Channel (100
times more permeable to K+)
Graded (local) potential
1 9
• The small changes in electrical charges on the cell membrane

2 0
C
• Caused by small amplitude (subthreshold) stimuli

U P
• The amplitude, direction (depolarization or hyperpolarization) and

S
duration of the local potential is dependent on the amplitude, polarity

L
and duration of applied stimulus

c h
• Play an essential role in the mechanism of critical membrane

y
n
depolarization and generation of action potential.

v ka
V o
L S
 The Action Potential
1 9
• The large amplitude, fast, all-or-none
changes in electrical charges on the cell
2 0
membrane

P C
U
• Is initiated by the critical level
depolarization as the response to a

L S
h
threshold (and larger) stimulus

y c
• Is caused by the active changes in

n
membrane permeability to the ions

v ka
• The amplitude is constant regardless

o
of the magnitude of the stimulus

V
• Consists of two main stages:

S
L
depolarization followed by
repolarization
• Can spread rapidly along the plasma
membrane
 9
The Action Potential
01
Steps in the Generation of Action
2
Potential
P C
Step 1: Depolarization to threshold

S U
Step 2: Activation of Na+ channels

h L
y c
• Rapid depolarization

a n
• Na+ ions rush into cytoplasm

v k
• Inner membrane changes from

V o
negative to positive

L S
 9
The Action Potential
01
2
C
Steps in the Generation of Action
Potential
UP
S
Step 3: Inactivation of Na+ channels,
activation of K+ channels

h L
y c
• At +30 mV inactivation gates close

n
(Na+ channel inactivation)

v ka
• K+ channels open

o
• Repolarization begins

V
L S
 9
The Action Potential
01
2
Steps in the Generation of Action

C
Potentials
Step 4: Return to normal permeability

UP
• K+ channels begin to close when

L S
h
membrane reaches normal resting

c
potential (–70 mV)

ny
a
• K+ channels finish closing membrane

k
is hyperpolarized to -90 mV

ov
• transmembrane potential returns to

S V
resting level

L
• action potential is over
The Action Potential
1 9
2 0
P C
S U
h L
y c
a n
v k
V o
L S
 9
The Refractory Period
01
2
• The time period

C
• From beginning of action potential
• To return to resting state

UP
S
• During which membrane will not respond

L
normally to additional stimuli

y c
• Absolute refractory period h
a n
• Sodium channels open or inactivated

v k
• No action potential possible

V o
• Relative refractory period

L S
• Membrane potential almost normal
• Very large stimulus can initiate action
potential
The Propagation of Action Potential
1 9
Propagation
2 0
• Moves action potentials along the membrane
P C
S U
• Action potential travels in all directions away from the
stimulus

h L
y c
• The all-or-nothing principle - the depolarization process

a n
travels over the entire membrane if conditions are right, or it

v k
does not travel at all if conditions are not right.

V o
Two methods of propagating action potentials

L S
• Continuous propagation: unmyelinated axons
• Saltatory propagation: myelinated axons
Continuous Propagation
1 9
Affects one segment of axon at a time

2 0
C
Action potential travels in one direction

P
(1 m/sec)
• Step 1: Action potential in segment 1

S U
depolarizes membrane to +30 mV by

h L
c
local current

ny
• Step 2: Depolarizes second

a
segment to threshold, second

v k
segment develops action potential

V o
• Step 3: First segment enters

S
refractory period

L
• Step 4: Local current depolarizes
next segment
Cycle repeats
 9
Saltatory Propagation
01
• Action potential spreads along
2
myelinated axon
P C
• Faster and uses less energy than

S U
L
continuous propagation

c
• Myelin prevents continuous

y h
n
propagation

ka
• Local current “jumps” from node to

v
o
node

V
• Depolarization occurs only at nodes

S
L
Continuous and Saltatory Propagation
1 9
2 0
P C
S U
h L
y c
a n
v k
V o
L SContinuous Propagation Saltatory Propagation
Classification of nerve fibers
1 9
2 0
C
• Three Groups of Axons
• Type A fibers
UP
• Type B fibers
L S
y
• Type C fibers
c h
a n
These groups are
• classified by

v k
o
• Diameter

S V
• Myelination

L • Speed of action potentials

Classification of nerve fibers
1 9
Type A Type B Type C
2 0
Myelinated Myelinated
P C
Unmyelinated
Large diameter Medium diameter
S U Small diameter
High speed (140
h L
Medium speed (18 Slow speed (1 m/sec)
m/sec)

y c
m/sec)

a
Rapid information
n Intermediate signals: Slower information
to/from CNS:
v k
•
V o
position, • sensory information, • to involuntary

S
• balance, • to peripheral muscle,

L
•
•
touch,
motor impulses
effectors • gland controls
 9
Classification of nerve fibers (in humans)
0 1
2
P C
S U
h L
y c
a n
v k
V o
L S
References
1 9
2 0
C
Martini R., Nath J. Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology. Eighth

P
Edition

U
Guyton, Arthur C. Textbook of medical physiology / Arthur C. Guyton,

S
John E. Hall. - 11th ed.

h L
Sembulingam K., Sembulingam P. Essentials of Medical Physiology.

c
Sixth Edition

ny
Scanlon, Valerie C. Essentials of anatomy and physiology / Valerie C.

ka
Scanlon, Tina Sanders. — 5th ed.

v
o
Fox: Human Physiology. Eighth Edition

V
Silbernagl S., Despopoulos A. Color Atlas of Physiology. 6th edition

S
L