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C ,
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HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY (normal)
U
LECTURE 2. Physiology ofSthe Muscles
, L
Lyubomyr Vovkanych ch
n y
k a
Department of Anatomy & Physiology
LSUPC
v
V o
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L
 Muscle Tissue
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A primary tissue type, divided into
C ,
• Skeletal muscle
U P
• Cardiac muscle
L S
h ,
c
• Smooth muscle

n y
• Muscle tissuea(muscle cells or fibers)
Skeletal Muscle Structures

v k
V o
.
• Connective tissues

L . S
• Nerves
• Blood vessels
Skeletal Muscle Fibers
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2 0
The sarcolemma (the cell membrane of a muscle, fiber)
Muscle fiber (cell):
•

P C
U
The sarcoplasm (cytoplasm of muscle fiber)
•

L S
h ,
y c
a n
v k
V o
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Skeletal Muscle Fibers
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The sarcolemma:

C ,
P
• Transverse tubules (T tubules) - transmit action potential

U
S
through cell, allow entire muscle fiber to contract simultaneously

, L
h
• Neuromuscular (myoneural) junctions (motor end-plates) –

y c
important in the excitation-contraction coupling

a n
The sarcoplasm:

v k
o
• Organelles - multiple nuclei, mitochondria, sarcoplasmic

. V
reticulum , glycogen granules, and others

L . S
• Myofibrils - lengthwise subdivisions within muscle fiber, made
up of bundles of protein filaments (myofilaments), responsible
for muscle contraction
Skeletal Muscle Fibers
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C ,
U P
L S
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Skeletal Muscle Fibers
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Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
C ,
U P
• A membranous structure surrounding each myofibril

L S
,
• Forms chambers (terminal cisternae) attached to T tubules

y ch
• Plays an important role in the electromechanical coupling

a n
Forms the triad - formed by one T tubule and two terminal

v k
cisternae

Vo
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• Cisternae contains Ca2+ (via ion pumps) and release Ca2+ into

L . S
sarcomeres to begin muscle contraction
Skeletal Muscle Fibers
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Myofibrils are divided into Sarcomeres

P
Sarcomeres (part of myofibril between two Z lines)
C
• The contractile units of muscle

S U
,
• Structural units of myofibrils
L
y ch
n
Muscle (and myofibtils) striations

v ka
• A bands - dark bands (thick and thin filaments overlap)

Vo
• I bands - light bands (thin filaments)

. S.
• H zone - contains only thick (myosin) filaments

L • M line – at the center of the A band, at midline of sarcomere

• Z lines - the centers of the I bands, at two ends of sarcomere
The Sarcomere Structure
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C ,
U P
L S
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y c
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Thin Filament Structure
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• Four Thin Filament Proteins

C ,
P
• F-actin (Filamentous actin)
• Is two twisted rows of globular G-actin

S U
L
• The active sites on G-actin strands bind to myosin
• Nebulin

h ,
y c
• Holds F-actin strands together

a n
• Tropomyosin

v k
• Is a double strand

o
• Prevents actin–myosin interaction

V
.
• Troponin

L . S
• A globular protein
• Binds tropomyosin to G-actin
• Controlled by Ca2+
Thick Filaments Structure
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• Contain twisted myosin subunits
• Contain titin strands that recoil after stretching

PC
U
• The mysosin molecule

L
• Tail - binds to other myosin molecules
S
h ,
• Head - made of two globular protein subunits, reaches the
nearest thin filament
y c
a n
v k
• Myosin Action

Vo
• During contraction, myosin heads

.
• Interact with actin filaments, forming cross-bridges

L . S• Pivot, producing motion

The Filaments Structure
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Skeletal Muscle Contraction
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Sliding filament theory
C ,
P
• Thin filaments of sarcomere slide toward M line,
U
alongside thick filaments
The width of A zone stays the L
S
•
h , same

y c
Fiber Shortening an
Z lines move closer together
•

v k
V o
.
• As sarcomeres shorten, muscle pulls together,

L . S
producing tension
Sliding Filament Theory
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U P
L S
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Initiating of Contraction
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C ,
U P
L S
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• Ca2+ binds to receptor on troponin molecule
• Troponin–tropomyosin complex changes
• Exposes active site of F-actin
Mechanism of Filaments Sliding
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C ,
U P
L S
h ,
y c
a n
v k
o
Sliding of the filaments is produced by power strokes of myosin cross

V
.
bridges, which pull the thin filaments (actin) over the thick filaments

. S
(myosin). After the myosin head binds to actin to form a cross bridge,

L
inorganic phosphate (Pi) is released. This causes a conformational
change in the myosin head, resulting in a power stroke.
The Cross-Bridge Cycle
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The Cross-Bridge Cycle
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L S
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The Cross-Bridge Cycle
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U P
L S
h ,
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The Cross-Bridge Cycle
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h ,
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The Cross-Bridge Cycle
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C ,
U P
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h ,
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The Neuromuscular Junction
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C ,
U P
L S
h ,
y c
a n
v k
o
• Action potential (electrical signal) travels along nerve axon and ends

V
. S.
at synaptic (axon) terminal

L
• Synaptic terminal releases neurotransmitter (acetylcholine or ACh)
into the synaptic cleft (gap between synaptic terminal and motor end
plate)
The Neuromuscular Junction
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U P
L S
h ,
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 Excitation-Contraction Coupling
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C ,
• Acetylcholine, through its interaction with receptors in the muscle

P
cell membrane (sarcolemma), produces action potentials that are

U
regenerated across the sarcolemma.

L S
,
• The membranes of the transverse tubules (T tubules) are continuous

h
with the sarcolemma and conduct action potentials deep into the
muscle fiber.
y c
a n
k
• Action potentials in the T tubules stimulate the release of Ca2+ from

v
the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Vo
• Ca2+ released into the sarcoplasm attaches to troponin, causing a

S.
change in its structure.

.
L
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
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C ,
U P Reuptake of the

L S calcium ions by a

,
calcium pump

y ch
a n Release of

v k calcium ions from the

o
sarcoplasmic

V
reticulum

. S.
L
Types of Muscle Contractions
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,
• Isometric contraction

C
- muscle force
(“tension”) varies, the
length of the muscle
U P
remains constant
L S
• Isotonic contraction -
h ,
the length of the
y c
n
muscle changes,

ka
muscle force remains

v
o
constant

. V
• Auxotonic

S
contraction - muscle

L .
length and force both
vary simultaneously
The Force-Length Curve
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C ,
U P
L S
h ,
y c
a n
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The total force of the isometric contraction is the sum of its active
force and its extension force (increases exponentially, generated
mainly by the titin molecules that counteract passive stretching) at rest
Muscle Force and Sarcomere Length
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C ,
U P
L S
h ,
y c
a n
v k
Vo
. S.
The active force is determined by the magnitude of all potential

L
actinmyosin interactions. It varies in accordance with the initial sarcomere
length. Skeletal muscle can develop maximum active (isometric) force
from its resting length.
 Single Contraction
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Three Phases of Single Contraction
C ,
• Latent period before contraction
U P
L S
• The action potential moves through sarcolemma

• Contraction phase h
• Causing Ca2+
,
release

y c
a n
k
• Calcium ions bind

o v
• Tension builds to peak

. V
• Relaxation phase

L . S • Ca2+ levels fall

• Active sites are covered
• Tension falls to resting levels
Three Phases of Single Contraction
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U P
L S
h ,
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The Velocity of Muscles Contraction
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 Regulation of Contraction Force
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•Gradation of Contraction Force is achieved by

Changing the action potential frequency P

Variable recruitment of motor units
•
C
•
S U
, L
ch
• Single stimulus leads to the

y
n
• Single Contraction (does not induce maximum shortening of

a
muscle fiber)

v k
• Repeated stimuli at some frequency results in tetanic

V o
contractions

. S . • Incomplete Tetanus (muscle is not allowed to end relax,

L
twitches high level of tension)
• Complete Tetanus (stimulation frequency is high, muscle never
begins to relax, and is in continuous contraction)
Incomplete and Complete Tetanus
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C ,
U P
L S
h ,
y c
a n
v k
Vo
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L
 Motor Units of Skeletal Muscle
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Motor Unit (MU)
C ,
P
• One motor neuron
(splits into

S U
L
collaterals with

,
terminal branches)
• All muscle fibers

y ch
n
(from 25 muscle

a
fibers in mimetic

v k
muscles to over

o
1000 in temporal

V
muscle) innervated

.
S
by it.

L .
 Muscle Fiber Types
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• Three Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
C ,
U P
S
• Fast fibers

, L
h
• Slow fibers

y c
n
•Intermediate fibers

v k a
V o
. S .
L
Muscle Fiber Types
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U P
L S
h ,
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a n
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 Muscle Fiber Types
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Property Slow Intermediate Fast

20
Cross-sectional
diameter
Small Intermediate

C ,
Large

Tension Low

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Intermediate
P High

S
Contraction speed Slow Fast Fast
Fatigue resistance High

, L
Intermediate Low
Myoglobin content High

y ch Low Low

n
Mitochondria Many Low Few

v ka
Glycolytic enzyme Low
Lipids,
High High

o
ATP generation Primarily Carbohydrates

V
carbohydrates, carbohydrates (anaerobic)

.
amino acids (anaerobic)

. S
(aerobic)

L
Alternative names Type I, S (slow), Type ll-A, FR (fast Type ll-B, FF (fast
red, SO (slow resistant), fast- fatigue), white,
oxidative), slow- twitch oxidative fast-twitch
twitch oxidative
Energy Supply for Muscle Contraction
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C ,
U P
L S
h ,
y c
a n
v k
Vo
.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a direct source of chemical energy for

. S
muscle contraction. Amount of ATP is limited - only enough to take a

L
sprinter some 10 to 20 m
Energy Supply for Muscle Contraction
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The three routes of ATP regeneration are:
C ,
U P
• Dephosphorylation of creatine phosphate - rapid ATP regeneration

L S
sufficient for short-term high-performance bursts of 10–20 s

h ,
c
• Anaerobic glycolysis - muscle glycogen is converted via glucose-6-

n y
a
phosphate to lactic acid, yielding 3 ATP molecules for each glucose

v k
residue. During light exercise, lactate is broken down

Vo
.
• Aerobic oxidation of glucose and fatty acids. Aerobic regeneration

L . S
of ATP from glucose (about 32 ATP per glucose residue) or fatty
acids is required for sustained exercise
Dephosphorylation of Creatine Phosphate
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C ,
U P
L S
h ,
y c
a n
v k
Vo
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Anaerobic Glycolysis
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C ,
U P
L S
h ,
y c
a n
v k
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L
Aerobic Oxidation
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C ,
U P
L S
h ,
y c
a n
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L
References
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C
Martini R., Nath J. Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology. Eighth
,
P
Edition

S U
Guyton, Arthur C. Textbook of medical physiology / Arthur C. Guyton,

L
John E. Hall. - 11th ed.

h ,
Sembulingam K., Sembulingam P. Essentials of Medical Physiology.
Sixth Edition

y c
a n
Scanlon, Valerie C. Essentials of anatomy and physiology / Valerie C.

k
Scanlon, Tina Sanders. — 5th ed.

ov
Fox: Human Physiology. Eighth Edition

. V
Silbernagl S., Despopoulos A. Color Atlas of Physiology. 6th edition

L . S