Pointers for Comprehensive Exam for

Masters of Art in Nursing

BASIC SUBJECTS
1. STATISTICS IN NURSING RESEARCH

2. Statistics uses well-defined

mathematical proce-
3. dures to collect, analyze, interpret, and
present
4. data. The major purpose of these
quantitative
5. procedures is to summarize and
reduce data
6. into parts that are small enough to
interpret
7. within the context of a predetermined
theoreti-
8. cal background.
Statistics is the science of making effective use of numerical data which is related to collection, analysis, and
interpretation of data.

Statistics uses well-defined mathematical

proce-
dures to collect, analyze, interpret, and
present
data. The major purpose of these
quantitative
procedures is to summarize and reduce data
into parts that are small enough to interpret
within the context of a predetermined
theoreti-
cal background.
Branches of Statistics
A. Descriptive statistics - organize and describe the characteristics of the data in a particular
study sample. The main purpose of descriptive statistics is to provide as much detail as
possible about the characteristics of the study sample, which helps determine whether it is
appropriate to apply research findings from that study sample to populations similar to the
one that has been included in the sample.

Example:
To describe the number of primary care physicians and nurse practitioners in each town or city in
British Columbia. This could be done by counting the number of primary care physicians and nurse
practitioners in each town or city and displaying the numbers for each town or city in a graph.

B. Inferential statistics - use information or data collected about the study sample to make
inferences about a larger population. Inferential statistics allow researchers and clinicians to
make predictions about a specific population on the basis of information obtained from a sample
that is representative of that population.

Example:
To predict if people without a primary care provider were more likely to be hospitalized
after visiting the emergency room.

Sampling Methods:
 Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
 Stratified Sampling: Population divided into subgroups (strata) and random samples taken
from each subgroup.
 Cluster Sampling: Population divided into clusters, and random clusters are selected for
sampling.
 Convenience Sampling: Selecting the most readily available individuals for the sample.
Probability:
 Probability Distribution: Describes the likelihood of each possible outcome in a sample
space.
 Probability Density Function (PDF): Function that describes the likelihood of a continuous
random variable taking on a particular value.
 Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF): Function that describes the probability that a
random variable will be less than or equal to a certain value.
 Statistical Tests:
 Parametric Tests: Assume certain characteristics about the population distribution, such as
normality and homogeneity of variance (e.g., t-test, ANOVA).
 Non-parametric Tests: Do not make assumptions about the population distribution (e.g.,
Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis test).
Data Analysis Techniques:
 Regression Analysis: Examines the relationship between one or more independent variables
and a dependent variable.
 ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): Determines whether there are statistically significant
differences between the means of three or more groups.
 Chi-Square Test: Determines whether there is a significant association between two
categorical variables.
Data Visualization:
 Histograms: Displays the distribution of a continuous variable.
 Bar Charts: Displays the distribution of a categorical variable.
 Scatterplots: Displays the relationship between two continuous variables.
 Box Plots: Displays the distribution of a continuous variable and identifies outliers.
Statistical Software: Statistical analysis is often performed using software packages like R, Python
(with libraries like NumPy, Pandas, and SciPy), SPSS, SAS, or Excel.

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK IN NURSING

Theorist Description

 Developed the first theory of nursing.

FLORENCE  Focused on changing and manipulating the environment in order to
NIGHTINGALE put the patient in the best possible conditions for nature to act.

 Introduced the Interpersonal Model.

 She defined nursing as a therapeutic, interpersonal process which
HILDEGARD strives to develop a nurse-patient relationship in which the nurse
PEPLAU serves as a resource person, counselor and surrogate.

 Defined nursing as having a problem-solving approach, with key

FAYE nursing problems related to health needs of people; developed list 21
ABDELLAH nursing problem areas

 Developed the three elements – client behavior, nurse reaction and

nurse action – compose the nursing situation. She observed that the
IDA JEAN nurse provide direct assistance to meet an immediate need for help in
ORLANDO order to avoid or to alleviate distress or helplessness.

 Described the Four Conservation Principles.

1.
1. conservation of energy
2. conservation of structured integrity
3. conservation of personal integrity
MYRA LEVINE 4. conservation of social integrity

DOROTHY  Developed the Behavioral System Model.

JOHNSON 1.
 1. Patient’s behavior as a system that is a whole with
interacting parts
2. how the client adapts to illness
3. Goal of nursing is to reduce so that the client can move
more easily through recovery.

 Conceptualized the Science of Unitary Human Beings. She asserted

that human beings are more than different from the sum of their
MARTHA parts; the distinctive properties of the whole are significantly
ROGERS different from those of its parts.

 Emphasizes the client’s self care needs; nursing care becomes

DOROTHEA necessary when client is unable to fulfill biological, psychological,
OREM developmental or social needs.

IMOGENE  Nursing process is defined as dynamic interpersonal

KING process between nurse, client and health care system.

 Stress reduction is a goal of system model of nursing practice.

BETTY Nursing actions are in primary, secondary or tertiary level of
NEUMAN prevention

 Presented the Adaptation Model. She viewed each person as a

unified bio-psychosocial system in constant interaction with a
SISTER changing environment. The goal of nursing is to help the person
CALLISTA adapt to changes in physiological needs, self-concept, role function
ROY and interdependent relations during health and illness.

 Introduced the notion that nursing centers around three

components: person (core), pathologic state and treatment (cure)
LYDIA HALL and body(care).

 Conceptualized the Human Caring Model. She emphasized that

nursing is the application of the art and human science through
transpersonal caring transactions to help persons achieve mind-body-
soul harmony, which generates self-knowledge, self-control, self-
JEAN WATSON care and self-healing.

 Introduced the Theory of Human Becoming. She emphasized free

choice of personal meaning in relating to value priorities, co-creating
ROSEMARIE of rhythmical patterns, in exchange with the environment and
RIZZO PARSE nontranscendent in many dimensions as possibilities unfold.

 Developed the Transcultural Nursing Model. She advocated that

nursing is a humanistic and scientific mode of helping a client
MADELEINE through specific cultural caring processes (cultural values, beliefs
LENINGER and practices) to improve or maintain a health condition

3. RESEARCH TECHNIQUES
Description
 Research is a quest for an answer to a question.
 Knowing the answer to a question requires a scientific method and not merely asking from various
persons or merely observing several situations that may out-rightly provide haphazard answers to
posed questions.
 Systematic process of collecting and analyzing information in order to increase our understanding of
the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.
 Is a careful, systematic study and investigation in some fields of knowledge undertaken to discover
or establish facts or principles.
 The scientific method of doing a research may be briefly stated in these steps:

Step 1. Identify the problem

A research originates from a problem, an unanswered question or an unsolved problem. An
inquisitive person sparks the conduct of knowing why things go wrong or unusual that in some ways
those may affect human life.

Step 2. Limit the problem

The problem may be very broad. Try to focus, know the scope, established boundaries, set the
breadth or make a demarcation line so that you will know what are included and what are excluded.
This will ultimately make your study manageable or specific.

Step 3. Formulate Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a brilliant conjecture or a tentative solution to a problem. It is testable statement of a
resolution to a verifiable question. Some studies use the term assumption to mean the expected
outcome of an investigation or inquiry.

Step 4. Collect Data

Implausible statements shall be supported by factual, unbiased, truthful, and convincing evidences
gathered through the execution of a carefully devised plan. The preponderance of needed information
will make genuine research.

Step 5. Interpret Data and Make a Conclusion

Extract meanings from tabulated, collated, sifted or organized data. Data will be meaningless if you
will not deduce meanings or generalizations from them. Statistical tools may aid you in measuring
the significance of one factor to another. The researcher may evaluate, accept, reject, decide or
conclude based on the data gathered.

Pure versus Applied Research

 Pure or basic research is a study oriented towards the development of a theory. It aims to provide
knowledge or understanding.
 Applied research is an investigation that enriches a solution to a practical problem. It seeks to
improve human condition by providing knowledge that can be used for practical application.

Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

 Qualitative Research is undertaken to answer questions about the plethora of phenomena primarily
aimed at giving attributes and understanding of nature based on the observer’s view point. It also
inquires on context and meaning, embarks on content analysis observation.
  Quantitative Research is conducted to find answers to questions about relationships among
measurable variables with purpose of explaining, controlling, and predicting phenomena. It is
knowing the outcome stated in numerical data.

COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE

RESEARCHES

FEATURE QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

 To describe and
explain
 To explain and predict  To explore and
 To confirm and validate interpret
Purpose  To test theory  To build theory

 Focused  Holistic
 Known variables  Unknown variables
 Established guidelines  Flexible guidelines
 Static design  Emergent design
 Context-free  Context-bound
Process  Detached view  Personal view

 Representative  Informative, small

 Large sample sample
 Standardized  Observations,
Data Collection instruments interviews

Data Analysis  Deductive analysis  Inductive analysis

 Numbers  Words
 Statistics, aggregated  Narratives
data  Individual quotes
 Formal voice, scientific  Personal voice
Report of findings style.  Library style.

MAJOR SUBJECTS