Ethics

PRELIMINARY EXAM / WEEK 1-5

INTRODUCTION mores that emanate irrespective of cultural

WHO IS A HUMAN PERSON?
 Aristotle and Aquinas - “rational animal”
 Aristotle also says that “man is by his nature
a social animal” Aquinas reiterated this
Aristotelian definition of man
 For both of them, human society is the
flowering of human nature .
THE PENDULUM:
 St. Thomas Aquinas (naturaliter, homo
homini amicus est) “by his nature, man is a
friend to man.”
 400 years after, Thomas Hobbes (1588-
1679) (homo homini lupus) “man is a wolf to
man”
ARISTOTELIAN THOMISTIC: ON HUMAN SOCIETY
 Society is the natural outgrowth of human
nature.
 Society is made up of a hierarchy of human
communities and the smallest and most
basic of these is the family.
THE MORAL AGENT: THE HUMAN PERSON
 Families, neighborhoods, villages and cities,
cities into states, states into nations.
 None of the communities above can
function smoothly unless the individuals
within it behave ethically.
 And to insure ethical behavior, each
community must have an authority
structure, laws, and sanctions.
MORALITY, NORM OF MORALITY, HUMAN ACTS
MORALITY
 Morality encompasses the standards of
thoughts, behaviors, and actions that
society deems right and acceptable.
 Rooted from the Latin word “mos” or
“mores”.
Descriptive Sense Normative Sense
The descriptive sense of Normative morality
morality pertains to the implies a universal and
personal or cultural inherent framework for
values, codes of distinguishing between
conduct, or social right and wrong,
from a society. or individual variations.
MORAL, IMMORAL, AND IMMORALITY
Moral
A moral person is someone who possesses the
awareness to distinguish between right and wrong
and consistently opts to engage in actions aligned
with what is deemed right.
Immoral
An immoral person is an individual who is cognizant
of the distinctions between right and wrong but
consistently chooses to engage in morally
objectionable behavior.
Immorality:
Wickedness and Weakness
Wickedness
It involves the deliberate commission of morally
wrong actions without remorse. (Conscious choice ito
to not do ethical norms ng walang alinlangan.)
Weakness
Pinapakita dito yung idea na may mga taong gagawa
ng masamang bagay or maling desisyon hindi dahil
choice talaga nila, but rather because they fail to
resist moral challenges or temptations.
ETHICS VS MORALITY
ETHICS
The systematic study of the rightness and
wrongness of human action.
ETHICS MORALITY
Killing is wrong "Do not kill" because it
because it violates the is wrong.
basic ethical
principles of "Respect
for persons" or "Non-
maleficence."
MORALITY
It is the application of ethical principles to guide the
moral agent in their actions.
 Example of Morality: The moral rule "Do
not kill" is derived from the broader
ethical principle that considers killing as
morally wrong.
MORALITY AND LAW
While morality and law are distinct, they are
interconnected and can influence each other.
 Example: Taking food without permission
to feed a person in desperate need may

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PRELIMINARY EXAM / WEEK 1-5
be a crime or against the law, but some
might argue that it is morally justifiable if
it is the only way to prevent someone
from experiencing severe suffering or
death.
NORM OF MORALITY
 Moral norms serve as the societal
mechanisms for self-regulation in moral
matters, enabling the determination of what
is deemed morally good, just, and desirable,
as well as what is not.
KINDS OF NORMS
A. Subjective Norm of Morality: Conscience
CONCEPT AND NATURE OF
CONSCIENCE
1. Conscience as defined by Karl
Peschke
2. Kinds of Conscience
a. Correct or true conscience
b. Eroneous or false conscience
B. Objective Norm of Morality: Intuition,
Law, and Pleasure
I. Intuition as Objective Norm of
Morality Objects of Moral
Intuition:
1. Perceptional or individual
intuitionism
2. Dogmatic Intuitionism
3. Universal Intuitionism
II. Law as Objective Norm of
Morality Law according to St.
Thomas Aquinas
a. Law is an ordinance of
reason
b. Law is directed towards
c. Law should be
promulgated
d. The promulgation of the
law should be done by the
one who has the care of
community.
III. Pleasure as Objective Norm of
Morality
Hedonism
HUMAN ACTS
 Human acts are those performed by a
person who is acting knowingly, freely, and
willfully. These actions are deliberate,
intentional, or voluntary. Human acts are
different from acts of man which are
instinctive and not under the control of free
will.
THREE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ACT
1. Knowledge
2. Freedom
3. Voluntariness/Willingness
When can an act be considered as done
knowingly, freely, and willfully?
1. An act is done knowingly when the doer
is conscious and aware of the reason
and the consequences of his actions.
Every normal person of age is presumed
to act knowingly.
2. An act is done freely when the doer acts
by his own initiative and choice without
being forced to do so by another person
or situation.
3. An act is done willfully when the doer
consents to the act, accepting it as his
own, and assumes accountability for its
consequences.
 Example of a Human Act: A person
donating a portion of his income to a
charitable organization.
KINDS OF HUMAN ACT
A. Elicited Acts - are those performed by the
will but are not bodily externalized. Some
examples of elicited acts are the
following:
1. Wish
2. Intention
3. Consent
4. Election
5. Use
6. Fruition
B. Commanded Acts - are the mental and
bodily actions performed under the
command of the will. These can either be
internal or external actions.
1. Internal Actions
2. External Actions
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MORAL DICTINCTIONS OF HUMAN ACTS It is characterized as: This term is often used
1. Moral Actions The free and voluntary in contrast to human
2. Immoral Actions acts of man, acts dined acts in philosophical
3. Amoral Actions with knowledge and and ethical discussions.
consent, acts which are
VOLUTARINESS AND RESPONSIBILITY: THE MORAL proper to man because
PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN ACTIONS HAVING TWO they are rational
EFFECTS beings.
Categories of acts of
ETHICS man
 Moral principles that govern a person's o Natural
behavior or the conducting of an activity. involuntary
VOLUNTARINESS actions
 “Voluntariness is a power of the will or of o Natural
motivation to get us to act as willed. ” - voluntary
(Thomas Pink. Self-Determination: The actions
ethics of action. vol.1)
RESPONSIBILITY SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
 The state or fact of being accountable or to HUMAN ACTS AND ACTS OF MAN
blame for something.
SIMILARITIES
RELATIONSHIP OF ETHICS, VOLUNTARINESS, AND  Involvement of the Individual
RESPONSIBILITY  Physical Manifestation
 Expression of the Will
RELATED BETWEEN VOLUTARINESS AND ETHICS DIFFERENCES
Ethics studies human acts and human acts to be  Moral Dimension
human, must be voluntary. o Human Acts: they are subject to
BETWEEN MORALITY AND VOLUNTARINESS moral evaluation as right or wrong
Morality is moral precisely because it is voluntary. based on the individual's intention
HUMAN ACT AND VOLUTARINESS and consequences.
The acts of human are free acts of man. o Acts of Man: lack a moral
RESPONSIBILITIES AND VOLUNTARINESS dimension as they may occur
If there is consent and knowledge there is without conscious choice or
responsibility, and consent means voluntariness. deliberations.
PUNISHMENT  Voluntariness
It is absurd and most cruel to punish anyone who o Human Act: characterized by
acted because of pure necessity, for doing what he voluntary choice and deliberate
could not do otherwise. Unless there is intention.
voluntariness, there can be no responsibility, and o Acts of Man: often more automatic
without responsibility, punishment is meaningless. or instinctual, happening without
conscious deliberation.
 Conscious Reflection
THE NATURE OF HUMAN ACT
o Human Acts: involves conscious
reflection, deliberation, and
Human acts Acts of Man
awareness of the choices being
These actions are done Actions that are
made.
with knowledge and naturally exhibited by
o Acts of Man: may occur without
consent willfully carried a man.
conscious thought or reflection;
out by the person. Acts
they can be more reflexive or
which are conscious
impulsive.
and under our control.
 Freedom

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o Human Acts: involve greater POSITIVE VOLUNTARINESS

degree of freedom. It is present in a human act of doing, performing. It
o Acts of Man: can be influenced by is present in an act that the agent is ought to do
instinctual or automatic and is doing it.
responses, potentially having less  Example: The bride attends a wedding on
conscious freedom involved. her scheduled time.
 Ethical Responsibility NEGATIVE VOLUNTARINESS
o Human Acts: carry ethical It is present in a human act of omitting, refraining
responsibility and individuals are from doing.
held accountable for their  Example: The traveler misses his flight.
intentional choices.
o Acts of Man: often considered THE MORAL PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN ACTIONS
outside the realm of moral HAVING TWO EFFECTS
responsibility due to their Principle of double effect is often applied in ethical
instinctive or involuntary nature. reasoning when an action has both a good and a
harmful effect. An action with a morally good
HUMAN ACTS IN RELATION TO REASON intention is permissible even if it leads to foreseeable
 Good acts but unintended negative consequences, as long as
 Evil acts certain conditions are met.
 Indifferent acts THE DETERMINANTS OF THE PRINCIPLES
MORALITY INVOLVED IN THE
THE VOLUNTARINESS OF HUMAN ACTS AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF
HOW THIS VOLUNTARINESS OF HUMAN ACTS THE ACTION
AFFECTS RESPONSIBILITY Responsibility in the Responsibility, it means
context of morality that if someone
PERFECT VOLUNTARILY involves being intentionally decides to
Perfect voluntariness is present in the human act accountable for one's do something, they're
when the agent (i. e., the doer, performer, actor) actions. Voluntariness, more likely to be held
fully knows and fully intends the act. on the other hand, accountable for it.
IMPERFECT VOLUNTARINESS emphasizes the
Imperfect voluntariness is present when there is intentional nature of
some defect in the agent's knowledge, intention, or actions.
in both. Voluntariness, on the
DIRECT VOLUNTARY ACT other hand, is all about
It is an act intended for its own sake, either as a making conscious
means or as an end. choices. When you
INDIRECT VOLUNTARY ACT actively decide to do
It is an act which is not intended for its own sake something, you're using
but which merely follows as a regrettable your ability to make
consequence of an action directly willed. moral decisions.
SIMPLE VOLUNTARINESS
Present in a person doing an act willfully regardless ROLE OF VOLUNTARINESS AND RESPONSIBILITY
of whether he likes to do it or not. Example: IN COMMUNITY
studying before an exam.  Some community members may not fully
CONDITIONAL VOLUNTARINESS recognize or accept their responsibilities
Present in a person who is forced by towards the community.
circumstances beyond his control to perform an  Communities may lack the necessary
act which he would not do under normal facilities and support techniques to
conditions. encourage volunteering and responsibility.
 Example: Doing an assignment with a Individuals who do not receive sufficient
wish of going to the beach. assistance may be less likely to volunteer or

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PRELIMINARY EXAM / WEEK 1-5
take on tasks, reducing the community's
ability for effective collaboration and
growth.
 Cultural norms and attitudes within a
community can either encourage or
discourage voluntary and responsible
behavior.
 Individuals who make voluntary
contributions or take on obligations may not
be adequately recognized or appreciated.
 A lack of awareness about opportunities,
duties, or the significance of individual
contributions can lead to uncertainty and
disengagement.
 Economic pressures and external causes,
such as employment insecurity or financial
limits, can limit people's ability to volunteer
or take on additional obligations in their
communities.
ROLE OF VOLUNTARINESS AND RESPONSIBILITY
IN SOCIETY
 Structural inequalities within society can
limit access to opportunities for voluntary
contributions and responsibilities.
 Global environmental challenges, such as
climate change, can create a sense of
urgency for collective responsibility.
 Pandemics or widespread health crises
might have an impact on people's ability
and willingness to participate voluntarily
due to concerns about their personal safety
and well-being.
 Increased reliance on technology and digital
communication may lead to social isolation.
 Insufficient civic education may lead to a
lack of understanding of the value of
voluntariness and responsibility in society.
Individuals may not be entirely aware of
their role in shaping the society.
 Discrimination and stigma based on race,
gender, or socioeconomic status might
make it difficult for some people or groups
to volunteer or take on larger societal
responsibilities.
ROLE OF VOLUNTARINESS AND RESPONSIBILITY
IN POLITICS
 The spread of politically motivated
disinformation has the potential to affect
public opinion and contribute to a mistaken
view of political issues. This might hinder
informed decision-making and
voluntariness.
 Marginalized groups, such as ethnic
minorities or economically disadvantaged
areas, may encounter obstacles to political
participation. This underrepresentation
might result in policies that do not meet the
demands of all citizens.
 Excessive election money and the possibility
of corruption could put at risk the
voluntariness and fairness of political
processes. Wealthy individuals or interest
groups can have a disproportionate
influence in elections.
 Practices that suppress voting, such as
restrictive voter ID laws or limitations on
early voting, can hinder the voluntariness of
citizens to exercise their right to vote.
 Media manipulation and political
propaganda can influence public opinion
through providing biased or misleading
information.
 Marginalized groups, such as ethnic
minorities, LGBTQ+ communities, and
people with disabilities, may encounter
obstacles that limit their political strength.
This can reduce voluntariness by barring
these groups from active political
involvement.
FACTORS THAT LESSEN ACCOUNTABILITY
CONCUPISCENCE, FEAR AND VIOLENCE
ACCOUNTABILITY
 admitting you're wrong, reflecting on what
you learned, and making amends when
required.
CONCUPISCENCE
 Concupiscentia - "strong desire" or "lust" in
Latin
 not the same as simple sexual attraction
immoral goal is to obtain a possession they
are forbidden to have
FEAR
 warning sign of impending physical or
mental harm.
VIOLENCE
 use of physical force to cause harm to
another person.
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FACTORS THAT LESSEN ACCOUNTABILITY
IGNORANCE
Ignorance may be described as the lack of
intellectual knowledge about a certain topic.
CONCUPISCENCE
A technical word for passion. Under the influence
of concupiscence, a person’s free will does not
preclude them from acting abnormally or
imperfectly. There are two forms of concupiscence.
FEAR
A primary emotion because it elicits a strong
emotional response from individuals and shared
biological response.
VIOLENCE
In addition to personal factors like mental illness
and traumatic experiences, societal factors like
poverty, inequality and cultural norms contribute
to the complex issue of violence. Poverty causes
cynicism, depression, and a host of mental health
issues, such as PTSD and borderline personality
disorder.
CASE 1 : FEAR
Len Reyes was caught in Novaliches, Quezon City
because of a tip from a concerned citizen after
abducting a baby a couple of days before.
“I only did it because of fear of being left by my
husband because of not having a child of my
own.”
- Reyes
CONSEQUENCE
Reyes will face kidnapping charges that are non-
bailable if evidence of guilt is strong.
RELATED LAW
Article 267 of the Revised Penal Code of the
Philippines
Kidnapping refers to the act of forcible
transportation or abduction of individuals against
their will
PENALTY: Reclusion Perpetua
CASE 2 : CONCUPISCENCE
Paul Matthew Tanglao, a 21-year-old sales clerk
at a prominent supermarket chain in Sta. Ana,
Manila, was found concealing a can of corned
beef with the value of P31.50 on December 10th
around 5:40 PM due to his hunger.
CONSEQUENCE
Mr.Tanglao was detained for ten days and now
facing charges of qualified theft.
“Please, for heaven's sake, let's get this man out
of jail! I am willing to repay his employer, the
supermarket owner, a hundred times over. It was
5:45 pm; he hadn't had lunch, and he was
hungry.”
- Caloocan Bishop
Pablo Virgilio
RELATED LAW
Article 308 of the revised penal code
Theft is committed by any person who, with intent
to gain, takes personal property of another
without the latter's consent.
 No specified minimum amount
PENALTY: Arresto menor in its minimum period or
a fine of not exceeding Five thousand pesos
(P5,000), when the value of the thing stolen is not
over Five hundred pesos (P500), and the offender
shall have acted under the impulse of hunger,
poverty, or the difficulty of earning a livelihood for
the support of himself or his family.
CASE 3 : VIOLENCE
In 2017, the woman reportedly murdered her
husband when he was sleeping in their home in
Barangay Poblacion, Makato Aklan.
“She was suffering from Battered Woman
Syndrome (BWS) and it affected her mental
condition.”
- Witness
CONSEQUENCE
The judge granted the defendant P24, 000 bail.
As of 2022, the Aklan court has acquitted the
woman of parricide, citing battered woman
syndrome.
RELATED LAW
Section 26 of the Republic Act 9262
Victim-survivors who are found by the courts
to be suffering from battered woman
syndrome do not incur any criminal and civil
liability notwithstanding the absence of any of
the elements for justifying circumstances of
self-defense under the Revised Penal Code.
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