BM-486T Power Electronics

Course In-charge: Engr. Dr. Suhaib Masroor

Lecture # 08
DC-DC Converters

27th Nov. 2023

 Introduction
• In many industrial applications, it is required to convert a fixed-voltage DC source into a variable-
voltage DC source. A DC–DC converter converts directly from DC to DC and is simply known as a
DC converter.

• A DC converter can be considered as DC equivalent to an AC transformer with a continuously

variable turns ratio. Like a transformer, it can be used to step down or step up a DC voltage source.

• DC converters are widely used for traction motor control in electric automobiles, trolley cars, marine
hoists, forklift trucks, and mine haulers.

• DC converters can be used in regenerative braking of DC motors to return energy back into the
supply.

• DC converters are used in DC voltage regulators; and also are used in conjunction with an inductor,
to generate a DC current source, especially for the current source inverter. The DC–DC converters
are integral parts of energy conversion in the evolving area of renewable energy technology.
 Introduction Cont..
• Generally, variable DC voltages can be obtained in either three ways
1. Line Commutated Converters (Controlled Rectifiers)
2. AC Link Choppers (Inverter-Rectifier)
3. DC Choppers (DC-DC Converters)

• In AC Link choppers, the DC voltages is first converted in to AC by an Inverter, then the obtained
AC voltages are step up or down by transformer, and then rectified back to DC by a Rectifier. The
process is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: AC Link Chopper

 Introduction Cont..
• In DC choppers, a switch is used to obtain variable DC voltage from a source of constant DC
voltages.

• DC choppers is nothing but a high speed switch which connect and disconnect the load from the
source at high rate to get variable or chopped DC voltages at the output, as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: DC Chopper
 Choppers Classification
• DC choppers can be classified as

1. According to input/output voltages

a) Step Down chopper, where output voltages are less than the input voltages

b) Step Up choppers, where the output voltages are greater than the input voltages.

2. According to output voltage and current directions (Fig. 3)

a) Class A (type A) chopper

b) Class B (type B) chopper

c) Class C (type C) chopper

d) Class D (type D) chopper

e) Class E (type E) chopper

Fig. 3: Chopper Classifications

 Choppers Classification Cont..
3. According to circuit operation
a) 1-Quadrant chopper, the output voltage and current are positive (Type A)

b) 2-Quadrant chopper, the output voltage is positive, while current can be positive or negative (Class
C). Moreover, the output current is positive, and voltage can be positive or negative (Class D)

c) 4- Quadrant chopper, the output voltage and current both can be positive or negative (Class E)

4. According to commutation method

a) Voltage commutated chopper

b) Current commutated chopper

c) Load commutated chopper

d) Impulse commutated chopper

 Principle of Operation
• The principle of operation can be explained by Fig. 4. When switch SW, known as the chopper, is
closed for a time 𝑡1 , the input voltage 𝑉𝑠 appears across the load. If the switch remains OFF for a
time 𝑡2 , the voltage across the load is zero. The waveforms for the output voltage and load current
are also shown in Fig. 4b.

• The converter switch can be implemented by using a (1) power bipolar junction transistor (BJT), (2)
power metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), (3) gate-turn-off thyristor
(GTO), or (4) insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT).

• The practical devices have a finite voltage drop ranging from 0.5 to 2 V, and for the sake of
simplicity we shall neglect the voltage drops of these power semiconductor devices.

Fig. 4: Step-down converter with resistive load.

 Useful Formulas for analysis of DC Chopper’s
• Total Time i.e. 𝑇
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑂𝑁 + 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹
• Frequency i.e. 𝑓
1
𝑓=
𝑇
• Duty Cycle i.e. 𝛼
𝑇𝑂𝑁
𝛼=
𝑇
• ON time i.e. 𝑇𝑂𝑁
𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 𝛼 𝑇
• OFF time i.e. 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹
𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂𝑁
=𝑇− 𝛼𝑇
Or
𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 𝑇 1 − 𝛼
 Step Down Chopper
• Step down chopper is also called Buck Chopper.
• Step down chopper produces lower voltages at the load, as compared to the input i.e. 𝐸𝑜 < 𝐸𝑑𝑐
• A basic step down chopper is made of a switch, input DC source, circuit elements (R, L, C, etc.), &
the load, as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5: Buck chopper

• The average output voltage across the load is controlled by varying ON-OFF period (duty cycle), of
the switch.
• The FWD provide the path to load current when switch is OFF.
• Inductor filter out the ripples in the load current.
• Switch S is kept conducting for a period 𝑇𝑂𝑁 , and is blocked for period 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹
 Step Down Chopper Cont..
• The chopper output voltage and current waveforms are given in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6: Buck converter output response

• As seen in Fig. 6,
– During 𝑇𝑂𝑁 , the chopper output voltage is less than the input voltage while the load current rises.

– During 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 , the load current will flow through FWD, and as seen in Fig. 6, the current decays, but in
any case, the current flow is continuous.

• During 𝑇𝑂𝑁 , when chopper is ON, the supply is connected to the load. During 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 , chopper is OFF,
and load current flows through FWD. In this manner, a chopped DC voltages is produced at the load.
 Analysis of Step Down Chopper
• For Buck converter analysis, we will consider the buck converter given in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7: Buck Converter

• When S is closed
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑜
Or
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 → (1)
 Analysis of Step Down Chopper Cont..
• When S is open
0 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑜
Or
𝑉𝐿 = −𝑉𝑜 → (2)
• The chopper is supposed to be loss free, therefore
𝑉𝐿𝑂𝑁 𝑇𝑂𝑁 + 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 0
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝑁 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 0
𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝑁 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹
𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 + 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝑁
𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 + 𝑇𝑂𝑁
𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑇

𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝑁
𝑉𝑜 = → 3
𝑇
Since
𝑇𝑂𝑁
𝛼=
𝑇
therefore
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠 𝛼 → 4
 Analysis of Step Down Chopper Cont..
• During 𝑇𝑂𝑁 , assume that there is change in inductor current from 𝐼1 to 𝐼2 , thus
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜

𝑑𝑖
𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜
𝑑𝑡

𝐿 𝐼2 − 𝐼1 𝐿 ∆𝐼
= 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 ⟹ = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜
𝑇𝑂𝑁 𝑇𝑂𝑁

𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜
∆𝐼 = 𝑇𝑂𝑁 → (5)
𝐿
• During 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹
𝑉𝐿 = −𝑉𝑜

𝑑𝑖
𝐿 = −𝑉𝑜
𝑑𝑡

𝐿 ∆𝐼
= −𝑉𝑜
𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹

𝑉𝑜
∆𝐼 = − 𝑇 → (6)
𝐿 𝑂𝐹𝐹
 Analysis of Step Down Chopper Cont..
• For peak to peak inductor current i.e. ∆𝐼, putting in Eq. (4) into Eq. (5)

𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝑁
∆𝐼 =
𝐿

𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑠 𝛼 𝛼 𝑇
=
𝐿

𝑉𝑠 1 − 𝛼 𝛼
∆𝐼 = → (7)
𝐿𝑓

• During 𝑇𝑂𝑁
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑜
While 𝐼𝑜 ≈ 0 due to the fact that the energy is keep storing in the inductor during this interval, thus
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑜𝑟 ∆𝐼𝐿 = ∆𝐼𝐶

• In buck converter, average capacitor current flow only for interval " 𝑇 2 “, while positive part of the
ripple form the triangle. The area of triangle represents charge 𝑄 of capacitor current. The area of
1
triangle says ∆= × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡. Thus
2
1 𝑇 ∆𝐼𝐿
𝑄= × ×
2 2 2
 Analysis of Step Down Chopper Cont..
We know that 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉.
In buck chopper 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶 or we can say ∆𝑉𝑜 = ∆𝑉𝐶 , so
∆𝑄 = 𝐶 ∆𝑉𝑜
Or
∆𝑄 𝑇 ∆𝐼𝐿 ∆𝐼𝐿
∆𝑉𝑜 = = =
𝐶 8𝐶 8𝑓𝐶
𝑉𝑠 1− 𝛼 𝛼
Since ∆𝐼 = , therefore
𝐿𝑓
𝑉𝑠 1 − 𝛼 𝛼
∆𝑉𝑜 = → (8)
8 𝐿 𝐶 𝑓2

Fig. 8: Capacitor current response of buck converter

 Step Up Chopper
• Step up chopper is also called Boost Chopper.
• Step up chopper produces higher voltages at the load, as compared to the input i.e. 𝐸𝑜 > 𝐸𝑑𝑐
• Basic Step up chopper is shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9: Boost chopper

• During 𝑇𝑂𝑁 , chopper is ON, and inductor 𝐿 is connected to the supply 𝐸𝑑𝑐 and store energy.
• During 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 , chopper is OFF, inductor current is forced to flow through diode, and the load.
• When the current decreases, the polarity of e.m.f. in 𝐿 is reversed, thus as a result, total voltage
available at the load is 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝐿 . Therefore, the output voltage 𝑉0 exceed the source voltage, and
the circuit act as step up chopper, and energy stored in 𝐿 released to the load.
• During 𝑇𝑂𝑁 , current through 𝐿 will increases from 𝐼1 to 𝐼2 , and 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠
• During 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 , 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑜 = 0 or 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜
 Analysis of Step Up Chopper
• For Boost converter analysis, we will consider the boost converter given in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10: Boost Converter

• When S is closed
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝐿 → (9)
• When S is open
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑜
Or
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 → (10)
 Analysis of Step Up Chopper Cont..
• The chopper is supposed to be loss free, therefore
𝑉𝐿𝑂𝑁 𝑇𝑂𝑁 + 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 0
𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝑁 + (𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑜 ) 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 0
𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝑁 + 𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 0
𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝑁 + 𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹
𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 + 𝑇𝑂𝑁

𝑉𝑠 𝑇
𝑉𝑜 = → 11
𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹

Or
𝑉𝑠 𝑇
𝑉𝑜 =
1−𝛼 𝑇
Or
𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑜 = → (12)
1−𝛼
 Analysis of Step Up Chopper Cont..
• During 𝑇𝑂𝑁 , 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝐼2 − 𝐼1 𝐿 ∆𝐼
= 𝑉𝑠 ⟹ = 𝑉𝑠
𝑇𝑂𝑁 𝑇𝑂𝑁

𝑉𝑠
∆𝐼 = 𝑇 → (13)
𝐿 𝑂𝑁
• During 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 , 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜
𝐿 ∆𝐼
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 =
𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜
∆𝐼 = 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 → (14)
𝐿
• For peak to peak inductor current i.e. ∆𝐼, using Eq. (13) yields

𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
∆𝐼 = 𝑇 ⟹ = 𝛼𝑇
𝐿 𝑂𝑁 𝐿

𝑉𝑠 𝛼
∆𝐼 = → (15)
𝐿𝑓
 Analysis of Step Up Chopper Cont..
• During 𝑇𝑂𝑁 , capacitor provide load current, thus
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑜

And the charge on capacitor is given as

𝑄 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝑁
We know that 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉.
In boost chopper 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶 or we can say ∆𝑉𝑜 = ∆𝑉𝐶 , so
∆𝑄 = 𝐶 ∆𝑉𝑜
Or
∆𝑄 𝐼𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝑁
∆𝑉𝑜 = =
𝐶 𝐶
Since 𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 𝛼 𝑇, therefore
𝐼𝑜 𝛼 𝑇
∆𝑉𝑜 =
𝐶
Or
𝐼𝑜 𝛼
∆𝑉𝑜 = → (16)
𝐶 𝑓
Analysis of Step Up Chopper Cont..

Fig. 11: Capacitor current response of boost converter

 Step Up-Down Chopper
• Step up-down chopper is also called Buck-Boost Chopper.

• Choppers can be used in step up and down mode by continuously varying its duty cycle.

• Basic Step up-down chopper is shown in Fig. 12.

Fig. 12: Buck-Boost chopper

• During 𝑇𝑂𝑁 , chopper is ON, and 𝐿 stores energy.

• During 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 , chopper is OFF, inductor current decreases, thus e.m.f polarity reversed (seen in Fig.
12) and inductor energy discharges into the load.

• In this chopper, the polarity of output voltage is opposite w.r.t input voltage.
 Analysis of Step Up-Down Chopper
• For Buck-Boost converter analysis, we will consider the buck-boost converter given in Fig. 13.

Fig. 13: Buck-Boost Converter

• When S is closed
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝐿 → (17)
• When S is open
0 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑜
Or
𝑉𝐿 = −𝑉𝑜 → (18)
 Analysis of Step Up-Down Chopper Cont..
• The chopper is supposed to be loss free, therefore
𝑉𝐿𝑂𝑁 𝑇𝑂𝑁 + 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 0
𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝑁 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 0
𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹

Or
𝑉𝑠 𝛼 𝑇 = 𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝛼 𝑇
𝑉𝑠 𝛼 𝑇
𝑉𝑜 =
1−𝛼 𝑇

Or
𝑉𝑠 𝛼
𝑉𝑜 = → (19)
1−𝛼
The range of "𝛼“ is 0 𝑡𝑜 1.

• Hence observing equation (19), we can conclude three things

1. if 𝛼 = 0 then 𝑉𝑜 = 0.

2. If 𝛼 = 0.5 then 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠 .

3. if 𝛼 = 1 then 𝑉𝑜 = ∞.
 Analysis of Step Up-Down Chopper Cont..
Thus, the interval 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 0.5 gives output voltage in the range of 0 ≤ 𝑉𝑜 ≤ 𝑉𝑠 i.e. buck converter.
Whereas, the interval 0.5 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 1 gives output voltage in the range of 𝑉𝑠 ≤ 𝑉𝑜 ≤ ∞ i.e. boost converter.

• Now, during 𝑇𝑂𝑁 , 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠

𝑑𝑖
𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝐿 ∆𝐼
= 𝑉𝑠
𝑇𝑂𝑁

𝑉𝑠
∆𝐼 = 𝑇 → (20)
𝐿 𝑂𝑁
• During 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 , 𝑉𝐿 = −𝑉𝑜
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 = −𝑉𝑜
𝑑𝑡
𝐿 ∆𝐼
= −𝑉𝑜
𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹

𝑉0
∆𝐼 = − 𝑇 → (21)
𝐿 𝑂𝐹𝐹
 Analysis of Step Up-Down Chopper Cont..
• For peak to peak inductor current i.e. ∆𝐼, using Eq. (20) yields

𝑉𝑠
∆𝐼 = 𝑇
𝐿 𝑂𝑁
𝑉𝑠
= 𝛼𝑇
𝐿

𝑉𝑠 𝛼
∆𝐼 = → (22)
𝐿 𝑓

• During 𝑇𝑂𝑁 , capacitor provide load current, thus

𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑜

And the charge on capacitor is given as

𝑄 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝑁
We know that 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉.
In buck-boost chopper 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐶 or we can say ∆𝑉𝑜 = ∆𝑉𝐶 , so
∆𝑄 = 𝐶 ∆𝑉𝑜
Or
∆𝑄 𝐼𝑜 𝑇𝑂𝑁
∆𝑉𝑜 = =
𝐶 𝐶
 Analysis of Step Up-Down Chopper Cont..
Since 𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 𝛼 𝑇, therefore
𝐼𝑜 𝛼 𝑇
∆𝑉𝑜 =
𝐶
Or
𝐼𝑜 𝛼
∆𝑉𝑜 = → (23)
𝐶 𝑓

Fig. 14: Capacitor current response of buck-boost converter

 DC Chopper Control Strategies
• From Eq. (4), it is evident that the average value of output voltage 𝑉𝑜 , can be controlled by periodic
opening and closing of switches.

• There are two type of control strategies for operating the switches in DC choppers

1. Time Ratio Control (TRC)

2. Current Limit Control

1. Time Ratio Control (TRC): In this method, the value of duty cycle "𝛼" is varied in two ways.
A. Constant frequency operation, also called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control.

B. Variable frequency operation, also called Frequency Modulation control.

In Constant frequency operation, 𝑇𝑂𝑁 is varied while chopping frequency 𝑓 and hence chopping period
𝑇 is kept constant. Fig. 15 illustrate the PWM concept. As seen in Fig. 15, the chopping period 𝑇 is
constant. In Fig. 15(a), 𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 1 4 𝑇, thus the duty cycle 𝛼 = 25%, similarly in Fig. 15(b), 𝑇𝑂𝑁 = 3 4 𝑇,
thus the duty cycle 𝛼 = 75%. Thus, it is concluded that the output voltage can be varied by varying the
ON time 𝑇𝑂𝑁
 DC Chopper Control Strategies Cont..

Fig. 15: PWM Control (constant frequency 𝑓)

• In Variable frequency operation, the chopping frequency 𝑓 is varied either (a) ON time 𝑇𝑂𝑁 is kept
constant, or (b) OFF time 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 is kept constant. Fig. 16 illustrate the frequency modulation concept.
It is seen in Fig. 16 (a), chopping period 𝑇 is varied but ON time 𝑇𝑂𝑁 is kept constant, while output
voltages are shown for two different duty cycle 𝛼. Similarly, it is seen in Fig. 16 (b), chopping period
𝑇 is varied but OFF time 𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 is kept constant.
DC Chopper Control Strategies Cont..

Fig. 16: Output voltage waveform for frequency modulation control

 DC Chopper Control Strategies Cont..
2. Current Limit Control: In this method, the chopper is switched ON and OFF so that the current in
the load is maintained between two limits.

• When the current exceeds upper limit, the chopper is switched OFF, and in this state, the load current
freewheels and decreases exponentially, and when it reaches the lower limit, the chopper is switched
ON.

• Current limit control is possible either with constant frequency or with constant 𝑇𝑂𝑁 .

• This method is used when the load has energy storage elements.

• The reference value are the load current or load voltage.

• Fig. 17 illustrate the current limit control concept.

• The difference between 𝐼𝑂𝑀𝑎𝑥 and 𝐼𝑂𝑀𝑖𝑛 decide the switching frequency. If the difference is
minimum, than the load current ripple will also be minimum due to increase in the chopping
frequency, thus causes increased switching losses.

Fig. 17: Current Limit Control

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